绪论
词概论
Words are the smallest meaningful units that can be used independently in a language During the process of learning Chinese, it is common to mistakenly equate a character with a word In reality, there is a complex relationship between characters and words, as they are both interconnected and distinct.
第一， 一个汉字可以表示一个词。例如：―人‖，―我‖，―天‖
第二， 两个以上的汉字表示一个词。例如：―作家‖，―志愿者‖，―莫扎
特‖，―爱因斯坦‖
第三， 一个汉字表示不同的词。例如：
一个汉字代表两个发音相同的词：
下1： (名词) 方位词，位置在低处的，
下2 ：（动词） 作出， ―下结论‖，
（―下定义‖的―下‖）
一个汉字代表两个发音不同的词：
还1：（副词） 表示现象继续存在或动作继续进行
（―我还想听音乐‖的―还‖）
还 2 ：（动词） 返回原来的地方或恢复原来的状态
（―还家‖，―还乡‖的―还‖）
第四， 不同的字代表同一个词，这是汉语一无二的特色，
因为该种语言同时存在着繁体汉字和简体汉字。
例如：听-聽、飞-飛
1.1.2 汉语词汇的特点与构造
In ancient Chinese, monosyllabic words were predominant, whereas in modern Chinese, disyllabic words have become more prevalent Statistics show that among the 8,000 most frequently used words, disyllabic words make up a significant portion.
71%，单音节词占 26%，三，四，五等多音节词（即本上都是外来音译借
词）只占 30%。不过如果从日常口语中词的使用频率看，单音节词仍 大大高
于双音节词：单音节词的使用频率为61%，双音节词的使用频率只有37%‖ 1
Polysyllabic simple words are single-morpheme words, predominantly composed of monosyllabic morphemes While simple words can be made up of one, two, or multiple syllables, the majority are monosyllabic Disyllabic simple words often originate from ancient compound words and can be categorized into alliterative words, reduplicative words, non-alliterative reduplicative words, and transliterated foreign words Polysyllabic simple words mainly consist of transliterated terms such as "ice cream," "Olympic," and "aspirin." Broadly, polysyllabic simple words can be classified into compound words, including alliterative words (e.g., "cengci," "linglong"), reduplicative words (e.g., "yaotiao"), and transliterated words (e.g., "tank," "chocolate").
In Chinese, compound words dominate the landscape of disyllabic terms, showcasing their linguistic superiority Historically, the single-syllable words "面" (face) and "貌" (appearance) referred to the external aspects of people or objects However, the compound word "面貌" is now used more frequently than its individual components Originally, "面貌" described a person's facial features and broadly referred to the appearance of things, metaphorically representing the state or condition of various subjects Globally, there are three primary methods of forming compound words in known languages.
（一）复合（词根与词根的组合）
这一类包括 : 并列式，偏正式，动宾（支配）式，补充式，主谓（陈述） 式，
The coordinated structure, also known as the conjunctive form, is created by combining morphemes that share similar, related, or opposing meanings.
例如： 领袖，是非，开关，发展，高大，正误
偏正式：前一语素修饰，限制后一语素，以后以语素为主。
例如：粗心，红色，大战，高中，笔直，金黄
The dominant structure, also known as the verb-object construction, consists of two components: the first element represents the action or behavior, while the second element indicates the object that is influenced or affected by that action.
例如：求学，补课，打球，提水，走路，看书
补充式：后一语素补充说明前一语素，而以前语素的意义为主。
例如：提高，走高，扩大，放大，缩小，变小
In the Chinese language, a declarative structure often involves a subject followed by a statement that describes or elaborates on that subject For instance, expressions like "earthquake," "moon," "blush," "red eyes," "back pain," and "waist ache" exemplify this pattern, where the first element serves as the subject and the second element provides a descriptive statement about it.
（二）重叠（词根的重叠）
Compound words differ from simple reduplicated words in that terms like "dad" and "star" involve the repetition of morphemes, which can be separated In contrast, reduplicated words in simple forms consist of overlapping syllables that cannot be divided.
（三）派生/附加（在词根上附加词缀）
Chinese words are composed of lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemes Lexical morphemes serve as the core, conveying the main meaning, while grammatical morphemes provide additional context, appearing either before or after the core For instance, examples include "学者" (scholar), "木头" (wood), and "砖头" (brick) Additionally, in this type of Chinese, roots can be prefixed with affixes, as seen in terms like "老虎" (tiger), "老弟" (younger brother), and "桌子" (table), "馒头" (steamed bun).
固定词组概论
1.2.1 固定词组的定义
Phrases, defined as grammatical units composed of two or more words combined according to specific methods and rules, have been categorized in various ways since the publication of "Ma's Grammar." Generally, these classifications are based on external functions and internal structures, with a greater emphasis on internal structure among grammarians This paper adopts a classification method rooted in internal structure, distinguishing phrases into two main categories: fixed phrases and free phrases.
Fixed phrases refer to idiomatic expressions with a relatively stable structure These phrases exhibit rigidity in their composition, where the words and their order typically cannot be altered Additionally, fixed phrases possess a holistic meaning, as the individual components often cannot be interpreted literally The formation of these phrases is governed by semantic collocation and grammatical structure rules.
1.2.2 固定词组的分类
固定词组包含三大类：
Idiomatic expressions, including proverbs, sayings, and colloquial phrases, play a significant role in language Examples such as "you say a word, I say a word" and "a hammer in the east, a mallet in the west" illustrate their usage These expressions often function as adverbials, modifying verbs to convey the manner of actions For instance, one might say, "Everyone was speaking back and forth," or "He was walking through the snow, stepping deep and shallow."
Four-character idioms, such as "大材小用" (great talent used for minor tasks), "苦尽甘来" (after hardship comes happiness), and "千言万语" (a thousand words), exhibit diverse and flexible grammatical functions Each idiom aligns closely with a specific category of words, though it may not encompass all grammatical functions of that category According to "Research on Chinese Idioms," the grammatical structures of four-character idioms can be categorized into seven types: (1) conjunction structure, (2) modifier-qualifier structure, and (3) subject-predicate structure.
（主语 + 宾语）；（４）宾语结构（动词＋宾语）；（５）动补结构（动词
The article discusses various grammatical structures, including complement structures, verb-object-complement constructions, and the use of dual-function phrases It also highlights the significance of proper nouns, such as "Monument to the People's Heroes" and "Great Hall of the People," which serve essential noun functions within fixed expressions.
1.2.3 固定词组的结构类型
According to the classification in the "Modern Chinese Grammar Research Tutorial," the five basic structural types of fixed phrases in Chinese are subject-predicate, verb-object, attributive-modifier, complement, and conjunction.
The subject-predicate structure consists of a noun (or pronoun) and a verb (or adjective), establishing a relationship of assertion and assertion In simpler terms, the predicate answers the questions "What is the subject?" or "How is the subject?" For example, "Everyone helps" (noun + verb) and "Emotions are excited" (noun + adjective).
●动宾结构： 动+名（代）
The relationship between the two is one of dominance and subordination, where the object answers the questions "who" or "what" related to the verb For example, in the phrase "hit him" (verb + pronoun) or "identify the problem" (verb + noun), the object plays a crucial role in defining the action.
The construction of phrases using two or more words of the same part of speech can be achieved through conjunctions such as "and" or "but." For example, "workers and farmers" combines two nouns, while "discover and cultivate" pairs two verbs Additionally, the phrase "they and I" illustrates the use of conjunctions to connect similar grammatical elements.
Sometimes, we use the enumeration comma to separate compound phrases, such as "both numerous and fast, both good and economical." Without the enumeration comma, the combined structure becomes "numerous fast good economical."
Sometimes we use conjunctions to connect two adjectives, such as "beautiful and elegant" or "casual and generous." In other instances, the conjunctions may be optional, as seen in phrases like "diligent yet brave" or "both fragrant and crispy."
●偏正结构: （1）定语+名
中心词在后边，去掉前边的修饰词，词的基本含义不变。两词中间可用
―的‖―地‖表示偏正关系。名词前用―的‖；动词前用―地‖。如：
铁的纪律，美妙的时光，崇高（的）理想，高兴地叫
●补充结构：动+补充成分
Supplementary components enhance the main word, addressing the question of "how" through a structure often marked by the particle "得." For example, phrases like "happy to jump" and "frightened to cry" illustrate this grammatical pattern effectively.
We believe that categorizing based on semantic relationships provides a comprehensive understanding of the inherent differences between phrases and sentences These differences influence the syntactic functions of phrases and their roles within larger syntactic structures It is important to address the concept of "ambiguous structures," as the semantic relationship does not clarify whether "the dog that bit the hunter" represents a restrictive or accusative relationship "Ambiguous structures" arise when phrases are detached from their context; within a specific context, the internal relationships of a phrase are singular, thus having no impact on our classification based on semantic relationships.
词的意义
The original meaning of a word is the most direct reflection of its intended meaning at the time of its creation This primary meaning serves as the foundation for the word's extended meanings, which evolve in a systematic manner The relationship between a word's original meaning and its derived meanings contributes to the development of its cultural significance, playing a crucial role in communication This section will explore three key concepts: the original meaning of words, their extended meanings, and their cultural implications.
Each square Chinese character carries its own meaning When used in dialect, some retain their original meanings while others are merely phonetically borrowed The original meaning of a word refers to its initial or earlier significance, essentially its literal interpretation.
The character "年" originally referred to the ripening of millet before evolving into a unit of time measurement It's important to distinguish between a word's original meaning and its basic meaning Among the multiple meanings of polysemous words, one is often the most commonly used and significant during a specific period, known as the "basic meaning." For example, the original meaning of "走" is "to run," while its basic meaning is "to move forward with alternating steps." Similarly, "兵" originally meant "weapon," but its basic meaning is "soldier," and "取" originally referred to "cutting off an ear," whereas its modern basic meaning is "to bring close." The original and basic meanings of these words can differ significantly.
1.3.2 词的引申义
The extended meanings of words develop from their original meanings, a process known as extension When we refer to a word's meaning as an extended meaning, it is typically a polysemous word For example, the word "解" has several meanings: (1) to divide animal limbs; (2) to untie things; (3) to dissolve; (4) to mediate; (5) to eliminate; (6) to explain; (7) to understand; and (8) to relax Except for the first meaning, which is the original, all other meanings are considered extended meanings The extension of word meanings is a fundamental way in which meanings evolve, and it is a significant reason behind the emergence of polysemous words.
In both ancient and modern Chinese, polysemous words constitute the majority of the vocabulary system Therefore, it is essential to clarify the ways in which the meanings of ancient Chinese words are extended, understand the general rules of meaning extension, and address other important considerations.
1.3.2.1 词义引申的方式
In ancient Chinese, words often possess multiple extended meanings that may not directly relate to their original definitions The process of deriving an extended meaning directly from the original is called direct extension, while further derivations from these extended meanings are known as indirect extensions For example, the term "阴面" (the shady side) originally refers to the side of an object that is not exposed to sunlight, but its direct extension signifies an unseen aspect, representing a façade of kindness that conceals a sinister inner nature.
Comparing this book with others not only enhances the reader's interest but also deepens their understanding of different perspectives.
面的，即阴面的战法的五花八门。”
鲁迅《〈三闲集〉序言》
1.3.2.2 词义引申的规律
The evolution of word meanings in Chinese is a systematic process characterized by a transition from the concrete to the abstract, from the specific to the general, and from substantive words to functional words.
第一，由具体到抽象
The term "业" originally referred to a decorative wooden board used on a frame for hanging bells and drums, and it also signifies the cover boards of books In ancient times, students recorded their acquired knowledge on these boards The process of receiving knowledge from a teacher is termed "受业," while imparting knowledge to students is called "授业." Engaging in learning is referred to as "肄学习" or "练习业," and the completion of studies is known as "结业" or "毕业." Collectively, these terms relate to the concept of "学业," meaning academic pursuits.
第二，由个别到一般
The term "暮" originally refers to sunset, symbolizing the end of the day This specific time-related word can be extended to represent other late periods, such as "岁暮" for the end of the year and "暮春" for the conclusion of spring Additionally, it denotes an individual's later years, referred to as "暮年."
第三，从实词到虚词
Many conjunctions and prepositions in Classical Chinese have evolved from concrete words through a process known as semantic bleaching A significant pathway for this transformation is the extension of word meanings.
The term "和" commonly signifies "harmony," as illustrated in Laozi's reference to "sound and voice in harmony." It can also imply "mixing," as seen in Du Fu's poem "Years End," where he mentions "now permitting lead and iron to mix with bronze." Additionally, it extends to the meaning of "togetherness," as noted by Du Xunhe.
《山中寡妇》：“时挑野菜和根煮”成语有“和盘托出”，―和衣而睡‖等；由―连
带‖引申为连词―同，与‖，如岳飞《满江红》：“八千里路云和月”；再引申为
―连……都‖：秦观《阮郎归ã湘天风雨破寒初》：“衡阳犹有雁传书，郴阳和
The article highlights common patterns in the evolution of word meanings in ancient Chinese, noting exceptions where meanings shift from abstract to concrete or from general to specific, though these instances are rare and do not constitute a rule For example, the word "金" originally referred to all metals but later became specifically associated with gold Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of cognitive metaphors in the formation of new words and concepts, as metaphors are a universal phenomenon in human communication The historical origins of metaphor usage are challenging to trace, yet they serve as a fundamental means for humans to understand and interpret the world.
The development of human language began with a limited understanding of the external world, as early humans sought to comprehend their environment using the knowledge they had Despite their initial cognitive limitations, they expressed their thoughts through body language, which facilitated early communication As humans progressed in their cognitive abilities, they transitioned from concrete concepts to abstract thinking, realizing that single words could not adequately convey their increasingly complex ideas To bridge this gap in expression, they began to explore similarities between different entities, leading to the creation of metaphors This process of mapping concepts allowed for a richer and more vivid expression of thoughts, significantly expanding the vocabulary of human language Ultimately, metaphors serve as a means of conceptualization, enabling individuals to form new ideas by drawing connections between similar things, a phenomenon that is particularly evident in Chinese vocabulary related to body terms that include "face" or "surface."
1.3.3 词的文化意义
The term "culture" originated during China's Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period According to the "Book of Changes," it is associated with celestial phenomena and human civilization The concept of "humanity shaping the city" was elaborated by Kong Yingda in his "Commentary on the Book of Changes," emphasizing the significance of observing celestial patterns to understand temporal changes and studying human interactions to cultivate societal harmony.
关联到汉语人体词语分类的语义场
A semantic field refers to a system formed by meaning units that share common semantic features while also exhibiting distinct differences When several meaning units are interconnected, influencing and regulating one another, they collectively create a semantic field For instance, the various parts of the human body, such as the head, neck, shoulders, chest, arms, wrists, hands, legs, knees, ankles, abdomen, feet, back, waist, and hips, constitute a semantic field Furthermore, the individual components of the head, including hair, forehead, eyebrows, eyes, cheeks, ears, nose, and mouth, form a subordinate semantic field, which can be further subdivided into more specific categories like "mouth" and "eyes." Thus, terms related to body parts belong to a specific semantic field.
Human body terminology is one of the oldest and most significant aspects of language, characterized by its high frequency and active role in word formation Chinese culture places great emphasis on humanity, reflected in the richness and complexity of body-related vocabulary The holistic approach of Chinese culture highlights the interconnectedness of concepts, enhancing the systematic nature of human-related terms in the language With a long-standing cultural tradition, the cultural connotations of Chinese body terms are particularly profound, featuring approximately 1,021 idioms and 558 colloquial expressions related to body parts.
514项;惯用语有508项‖ 1 。下面是汉语人体词语数量统计表：
固定语 总数量 有人体各部分的种类
Đề tài nghiên cứu khoa học của Cầm Tú tập trung vào việc phân tích ngữ cố định tiếng Hán có liên quan đến từ chỉ bộ phận cơ thể Nghiên cứu này không chỉ làm rõ đặc điểm ngữ nghĩa và ngữ dụng của các cụm từ này mà còn đề xuất phương pháp áp dụng hiệu quả trong giảng dạy tiếng Hán cho sinh viên chuyên ngữ tại Việt Nam.
表 1：汉语人体词语数量统计表
如果把汉语民族共同语中的通用词语当作汉语人体词语 的常规形式
There are various forms of body terminology that deviate from the standard, including expressions found in dialects and colloquialisms, terms used in traditional Chinese medicine, and language specific to religions such as Buddhism and Taoism, as well as artistic interpretations.
The article explores various terms related to the human body, highlighting their use in different contexts such as slang, sports, qigong, and mystical cultures It notes that body-related vocabulary can vary significantly based on factors like age, gender, profession, social class, and cultural background Additionally, there are distinctions in language style, with informal terms like "butt" contrasted against formal expressions like "gluteus" and literary terms such as "beautiful buttocks" or "ample rear." Dialects introduce further variations, including terms like "tundong" and "ding."
In Chinese culture, expressions like "rubbing the butt," "rotten butt," "sharp butt," and "no anus" reflect various humorous and critical perspectives Proverbs such as "laughing at others is not better than being laughed at" and "when a man does a woman's work, it leads to trouble" highlight the complexities of societal roles and expectations.
The multi-layered nature of Chinese anatomical terms highlights their complexity, which can easily lead to misunderstandings As noted by Nan Huaiqin, the term "kidney" does not merely refer to the physical organs we commonly recognize In traditional Chinese medicine and Taoism, "kidney" encompasses a broader concept that includes the adrenal glands, endocrine functions, sexual nerves, and other aspects related to the lower body's capabilities He further questions the location of the "heart," explaining that when a person experiences deep thoughts or emotions, it may feel like heart pain, but this sensation actually originates from the upper part of the stomach, specifically at the Ren Mai point, where emotional disturbances can affect the pulse and create the illusion of heartache, illustrating the connection between thoughts and cardiac sensations.
Buddhism originated from India, while Confucianism is not a religion; the indigenous religion of China is Daoism In Daoist practices, the concept of the "Three Bodies" refers to the Law Body, Response Body, and Transformation Body The "Three Fields" denote the Upper Dantian (between the eyebrows), Middle Dantian (heart), and Lower Dantian (below the navel) The "Three Origins" represent the original essence, original qi, and original spirit within the human body The "Three Corpse Spirits" or "Three Peng" relate to the three spiritual entities within the body Lastly, the "Three Spirits" signify the original spirit, consciousness spirit, and true spirit.
The Chinese language's body-related terms have been influenced by foreign cultures and languages For instance, the idiom "五体投地" (wǔ tǐ tóu dì), which originated from an ancient Indian gesture of respect, refers to the act of prostrating oneself with both hands, knees, and head touching the ground simultaneously This gesture represents one of the most profound forms of homage in ancient India In the translation of the "Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra," it is noted that various body parts, including the feet, arms, and torso, play a role in this respectful act, highlighting the cultural exchange and the significance of body language in conveying reverence.
The human body is composed of various parts, including arms, hands, fingers, and facial features, all of which contribute to our physical existence A key distinction between religion and science lies in their focus: while science seeks to understand the external physical world, religion directs its attention inward, emphasizing the human experience This inward focus may explain why many people are more inclined towards religion, often maintaining a distance from scientific inquiry Among the world's religions, Buddhism and Taoism appear to place a greater emphasis on the individual and the self.
In summary, the semantic field of body-related terms delineates various aspects of an object, a feature that can be consciously utilized in both spoken and written communication It is not necessary to enumerate all parts; often, selecting relevant, representative, and expressive meanings suffices Examples from idiomatic expressions include "bright-eyed and bushy-tailed," "with downcast eyes," "youthful despite gray hair," "sweet words but a dagger in the heart," "interdependent," "caring advice," "a complete transformation," "deeply engraved in memory," "joyful gestures," "pointing fingers," "universal attention," and "collective focus."
1.5相关问题国内外研究情况
1.5.1 相关问题国外研究成果
In China, there is a wealth of diverse research on Chinese anatomical terminology Notably, Professor Gu Jingheng's book, "The Secrets of Human Body Terms," published in 2000, explores key themes such as human self-awareness through bodily terms, the relationship between the internal organs and emotions, and the cultural significance of these concepts.
—头脑的异称及影响，洞微烛幽的心灵之窗——话说眼睛类词语等内容。他
The greatest value lies in presenting human understanding and expression of the body, identifying the metaphorical implications of bodily terminology, and further analyzing the ubiquitous presence of body-related words in our surroundings.
A valuable study on body-related terminology is Zhu Xuelan's 2007 thesis, "Semantic and Pragmatic Investigations of Body Terms." This master's thesis systematically analyzes over 1,000 body terms collected from the "Modern Chinese Dictionary," revealing common semantic features among different body organs in word formation The author classifies these terms based on their internal forms and conducts a thorough analysis from a pragmatic perspective, examining quantifiers, special noun usages, and expressions of bodily actions Through this dual exploration of semantics and pragmatics, Zhu provides a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of body terms, shedding light on a linguistic phenomenon that is both familiar and often overlooked by people.
A relevant study to this article is Xie Huizhen's master's thesis titled "A Comparative Study on the Metaphorical Issues of Face-related Lexical Items in Chinese and English." This research explores the similarities and differences in metaphorical expressions related to face between Chinese and English, focusing on the metaphorical characteristics of words associated with the concept of "face." However, it does not address the structural and pragmatic features of these expressions.
1.5.2 相关问题国内研究成果
汉语中含 “ 脸 / 面 ” 字的词语研究
在语义方面
2.1.1.1 从词典意义看待汉语中含 “ 面 ” 字的词义
―面‖是象形字，共 9 笔划。甲骨文字形，里面是―目‖字，外面表示面
In ancient times, the term "面" (face) referred to the entire facial area, while "脸" (cheek) emerged during the Wei and Jin dynasties, specifically denoting the upper part of the cheeks It wasn't until the Tang and Song dynasties that "脸" began to be used interchangeably with "面." According to the "Shuowen," "面" signifies the front of the face.
―面‖是汉语 2500 常用词之一。本论文所研究的―面‖并不是―粮食磨成的粉‖
The article analyzes the various forms of the word "面," identifying approximately 706 related terms, including 300 distinct words and around 406 idiomatic expressions and fixed phrases.
种类 双音节词
成语与 其他惯用语 总共
表 2：汉语含“面”词语数量统计表
The word "面" has a rich array of meanings and can function as a noun, verb, adjective, or directional term when combined with other words We will categorize the meanings of phrases containing "面" according to their parts of speech, as detailed below.
充当名词的―面‖所具有的义项如下：
第一， 头的前部，与― 脸‖同义。
例如： 况且她又这样地终日汗流满面，短发都粘在脑额上。
带有该义项的含―面‖词语有：
颜面 脸面 面部 满面 第二， 脸色。指面部表情，如：铁面无私；冷面杀手。
第三， 容颜；相貌,如：桃花面，柳叶眉。
第四， 面子；情面，如：不看僧面看佛面。
第五， 正面。和―背‖相对，如：面对。
第六， 物体的外表，例如：
微澜动水面。
韩愈《南山诗》
带有该义项的含―面‖词语有：
面从(表面顺从。指非出于由衷之愿) 面友(非以真诚相交的朋友)
The concept of "面交" refers to friendships that lack sincerity, while "面朋" denotes acquaintances who have not established genuine connections Additionally, the term emphasizes the outer layer of objects or the front side of textiles, highlighting the importance of appearances in relationships and interactions.
第八， 遮盖物遮盖另一物的东西
For example, "面" can refer to various contexts such as the surface of a book, the fabric of a garment, or the upper part of a shoe In geometry, "面" denotes a shape formed by the movement of a line, characterized by having length and width, but no thickness.
带有该义项的含―面‖词语有：
舍体 取面 平面 面积
第十， ―面‖可以用来指部位或方面。
例如： 四面竹树环合。
柳宗元《至小丘西小石潭记》
带有该义项的含―面‖词语有：
The upper surface of the sphere represents the bright side, surrounded by enemies on all four sides, emphasizing a comprehensive approach from every angle The bright side contrasts with the dark side, showcasing the ability to stand alone and face challenges independently.
第十一， ―面‖被列为中国人百姓之中，所以我们可以把它看为一种专
充当动词的―面‖所具有的义项如下：
第一， 朝向， 面对， 面向
例如： 北山愚公者，年且九十，面山而居。
《列子ã汤问》 开窗面场圃，把酒话桑麻。
孟浩然《过故人庄》
带有该义项的含―面‖词语有：
面壁(佛家语，指面对墙壁，端坐静修)
面面相窥(你看我，我看你，互相对看)
面墙而立(人如不学，就象面向墙壁而立，毫无所见)
面面(面对面)
例如： 许久不面，请到宫少坐一时，何如?
吴承恩《西游记》
带有该义项的含―面‖词语有―面圣‖（旧时称朝见皇帝为面圣）。 第三， 勉励
例如： 天迪从子保，面稽天若。
例如： 马童面之。
《史记。项羽本纪》 面而封之。
《汉书。张欧传》
例如： 青草面着这么柔软的寝床，杨柳张着那么轻轻的罗帐。
郭沫若《孤竹君之二子》：
The term "面" as an adjective signifies "face-to-face" or "in front of." For instance, it can be used in the context of "即面署第一," indicating direct engagement or confrontation.
《方苞左忠毅公逸事》
Words related to the concept of "face" include: "面欺" (to deceive someone to their face), "面是背非" (to appear agreeable while being contrary at heart), "面陈" (to present something face-to-face), "面违" (to openly oppose someone’s wishes), and "面交" (to conduct transactions in person).
面授 面商 面谈 面议 面试
In Northern dialects, the adjective "面" has been adopted into Mandarin, signifying weakness or incompetence For instance, it conveys a sense of being subpar or inadequate.
那自行车驾驶员太面，挣扎了几下，终于连人带车倒了。
（庄羽.圈里圈外）
Additionally, "面" can also function as a measure word, commonly used for flat objects such as a mirror, flag, or gong It can also indicate the number of times one has met someone, as in "met once."
―面‖可以当方位词，如：―上面‖、―前面‖、―后面‖等。
When discussing semantics, emotional connotation plays a crucial role Emotional connotation refers to the emotional tendencies, attitudes, and evaluations that the subject reflects towards an objective entity Beyond the traditional classifications of positive and negative connotations, it also encompasses emotions such as fear, joy, pain, and melancholy A person's subjective feelings towards objects or others can be positive, negative, or neutral Statistical analysis reveals significant insights into these emotional responses.
含有褒义的带―面‖字词有大约 50 个如―面貌‖，―面容‖。含有贬义的带
―面‖字词有大约 20 个如―假面‖等。除了这些感情色彩较为明显的词
语，其他的感情色彩大部分是中性的，尤其是指处所的词如―上面‖、
含有褒义的带―面‖字成语有大约 14 条，含有贬义的带―面‖字成语有
大约 21 条。比如清李宝嘉在他《官场现形记》的第五十七回曰：“这位单道台办事一向是面面俱到，不肯落一点褒贬的。” 这里的“面面俱到”，指说话，或写文章时各方面都照顾到，没有遗漏，引申义为做事时各方面都能照顾到，确实是褒义成语。而―面无人色‖却是一条含贬义的成语。这条成语出自西汉ã司马迁的《史记ã李将军列传》：“会日
暮，吏士皆无人色”，形容面容没有血色，非常惊惧而脸色发白，也形
The visible weakness caused by hunger and illness highlights the clear emotional connotation of the idiom, while the lively emotional tone of the words adds depth to its meaning.
2.1.1.2 从隐喻角度看待汉语中含 “ 面 ” 字 的词义
人体器官本身就是客观具体的事物，在隐喻的过程中，由于脸的形
The concept of "face" effectively reflects the external physiological characteristics of the human body, often serving as a metaphor for both concrete and abstract representations This connection is established through semantic associations, where intangible and abstract imagery is linked to the concept of the face, enhancing its metaphorical function In the phenomenon of metaphorization in both English and Chinese, the application of these concepts enriches the pragmatic usage of vocabulary related to "face," making it more vibrant and diverse It is important to note that the meanings of words containing "face" are defined in dictionaries.
2.1.1.1 中所涉及的词典意义而形成的。
第一，汉语中含“面”词语的容器化隐喻
The metaphor of containers reflects how people project their experiences with physical containers onto other domains, including the human body, which is perceived as having an internal and external distinction The face, as a crucial organ, is often viewed as a container that embodies abstract concepts, serving a storage function for emotions and expressions Terms related to the condition of containers, such as "full face," are used to describe facial expressions, exemplified by phrases like "full of smiles" in Chinese Here, the face is likened to a container capable of holding various emotional states.
在结构方面
The thesis titled "A Comparative Study of Metaphorical Issues in Face-Related Lexical Items in Chinese and English" by Xie Huizhen from Central China Normal University explores the metaphorical concepts associated with face-related vocabulary in both languages This research highlights the cultural nuances and linguistic differences that shape the understanding of face in Chinese and English contexts The study aims to provide insights into the implications of these metaphors for intercultural communication and understanding.
In addition to the monosyllabic word "面," there is a rich variety of disyllabic words that include the character "面." This paper categorizes these disyllabic terms containing "面" into several distinct groups.
第一，动宾式
The verb-object construction, also known as the governing structure, features a verb that governs the following morpheme There are approximately 45 bisyllabic verb-object compound words that include the morpheme "面," such as:
露面 迎面 劈面 扑面 相面 会面
见面 晤面 当面 觌面 出面 当面
封面 假面 截面 谋面 碰面 修面
以―面‖为语素的三音节的动宾式词大约有15多个，如：
The concept of "face" in social interactions encompasses various behaviors such as showing off, maintaining appearances, and valuing reputation Expressions like "putting on a front" and "giving face" highlight the importance placed on social status and respect People often engage in actions to uphold their dignity, seek approval, or avoid embarrassment, demonstrating how integral the idea of "face" is in cultural contexts Whether it's through extravagant displays or the desire to avoid losing face, these dynamics play a crucial role in interpersonal relationships and societal expectations.
以―面‖为语素的动宾式成语大约有18多条：
洗心革面 反面无情 掩面失色 出头露面 抛头露面
别开心面 千里犹面 独当一面 阴阳两面
第二，偏正式
以―面‖为词素的双音节偏正式词大约有79多个:
The偏正结构 consists of two components that establish a modifier-modified relationship The modifying part is referred to as the modifier, while the part that is supplemented and modified is known as the headword There are two types of偏正结构.
A defining structure consists of modifiers known as attributives, which describe the central word, referred to as the headword The headword can function as either the subject or the object within a sentence.
版面 背面 表面 舱面 侧面 额面
场面 地面 店面 断面 对面 文面
反面 正面 海面 画面 界面 饰面
局面 冷面 楼面 路面 满面 皮面
片面 平面 铺面 阴面 暗面 叶面
桥面 情面 全面 生面 世面 斜面
市面 手面 书面 水面 鞋面 屋面
四面 台面 体面 字面 席面 桌面
面前 面纹 面色 面膜 面具 面庞
面皮 面型 面才 面部 面前
Another type is the adverbial structure, where the central term denotes an action or state of being, while the adverbial element serves to limit or describe the central term.
面陈 面斥 面享 面授 面试 面谈
面谢 面访 面叙 面议 面晤
以―面‖为词素的三音节偏正式词组大约有15多个：
The article explores various terms that describe contrasting perspectives and dimensions, such as "the leeward side" and "the opposite side." It highlights multi-faceted concepts, including "the working face" and "greeting gifts." Additionally, it delves into specific items like "spherical mirrors" and expressions like "three-faced person," as well as the nuances of formal language The discussion also touches on the idea of a "smiling tiger," representing hidden dangers, and examines the "dark side" and "true nature" of individuals, alongside phrases like "rough face" and "old acquaintance."
以―面‖为词素的偏正式成语大约有15多条：
The article explores various expressions and idioms related to faces and appearances in Chinese culture It highlights concepts such as the true self versus a facade, the contrast between scholarly and authoritative figures, and the significance of facial expressions in social interactions The phrases reflect themes of identity, societal roles, and the complexities of human emotion, showcasing how faces can convey deeper meanings and cultural narratives.
第三，联合式
以―面‖为词素的三音节联合式词大约有10多个:
面目 头面 面门 面孔 面容 面貌
颜面 面相 面向 面临
第四，主谓式
以―面‖为词素的词只有不到10条:
面熟 面生 面弱 面嫩 面善
以―面‖为词素的成语大约有50多条:
The expressions "面不改色" (to remain calm), "面红耳赤" (to be flushed with embarrassment), and "面黄肌瘦" (to appear pale and emaciated) reflect various emotional states and physical conditions Additionally, phrases like "面面俱到" (to cover all aspects) and "面面相觑" (to look at each other in confusion) illustrate the complexities of communication The terms "面目可憎" (to have an unpleasant appearance) and "面目全非" (to be unrecognizable) highlight drastic changes in appearance or character Conversely, "面目一新" (to have a fresh look) signifies renewal, while "面无人色" (to be ashen-faced) and "面有菜色" (to look pale) indicate distress or sickness Lastly, "面北眉南" (to have conflicting expressions) suggests a lack of harmony in one's demeanor.
The phrases reflect a complex interplay of appearances and realities, highlighting the duality of human nature Expressions like "面是心非" (the face differs from the heart) and "八面玲珑" (versatile and charming) illustrate the contrast between outward charm and inner intentions "四面楚歌" (surrounded by enemies) and "四面受敌" (attacked from all sides) convey vulnerability in the face of adversity, while "铁面无私" (impartial and stern) emphasizes integrity Meanwhile, "青面獠牙" (green face and sharp teeth) and "两面三刀" (two-faced and treacherous) suggest deceitfulness Ultimately, these phrases encapsulate the complexities of social interactions and the masks people wear in various situations.
人面兽心 耳提面命 心恶面善 面壁功深 人心如面 眼泪洗面
八面见光 青面獠牙 北面称臣 北山面水 面誉背毁 面折廷争
第五，附加式
The term "含―面‖" encompasses approximately 30 words that utilize an additive word formation method, primarily including locative words.
面子 面儿 扇面儿 阳面儿 官面儿 白面儿
北面 南面 上面 下面 前面 后面
外面 里面 左面 右面 西面 东面
In summary, this article analyzes the structural characteristics of 259 words containing the character "面." The findings clearly indicate that attributive words are predominant, followed by verb-object combinations, while compound forms represent the smallest proportion The specific results are presented in the statistical table of Chinese words containing "面" below.
种类 动宾式 联合式 主谓式 偏正式 附加式 总共
表3：汉语含“面”词语的结构统计表
在语用方面
2.1.3.1 带有 “ 面 ” 字的词语所反映的中国人认知
From a cognitive perspective, words containing the character "面" exhibit significant metaphorical expression capabilities Human cognitive ability is a physiological trait shared by all, and language is a product of diverse cultures creatively utilizing thought This establishes a close relationship between language and cognition, where language serves as an external manifestation of thought Variations in language reflect the distinct cognitive characteristics of different ethnic groups, leading to diverse ways of thinking about the world This diversity also highlights the cultural psychology and cognitive structures unique to each group German psychologist Wilhelm von Humboldt noted that a nation's vocabulary and grammar reflect its collective psyche, particularly its cognitive habits, which influence various aspects of life Thus, a nation's language embodies its unique way of thinking.
《汉语人体词汇研究》，冯凌宇，中国广播电视出版社， 年
China and Western countries have inherited their respective traditional customs, leading to the development of distinct thinking systems Chinese thought emphasizes holistic integration and experiential knowledge, while Western thinking prioritizes factual reasoning and logical analysis These cultural differences are reflected in language and metaphorical expressions A key characteristic of Chinese thinking is its focus on wholeness and balance, which is evident in the structured and parallel nature of Chinese sentence construction This attention to symmetry not only enhances comprehension but also conveys the beauty of the language, prominently showcased in the unique idioms of Chinese.
Chinese people perceive the human body as a holistic entity, viewing its organs as interconnected components that can be expressed metaphorically Phrases such as "frowning" and "ear to the ground" illustrate this connection Additionally, the principle of symmetry is evident in expressions related to the face, including idioms like "red-faced," "kind-hearted," "pale and thin," "shameless," and "overwhelming."
In ancient Chinese philosophy, the concept of the unity between heaven and humanity, alongside the Bagua theory from the I Ching, profoundly reflects the holistic thinking pattern of the Chinese people Both traditions assert a correspondence between natural phenomena and human organs, emphasizing the interconnectedness of the human body and nature as a unified whole This fundamental way of thinking is epitomized by Confucius's assertion that "where there are people, there is heaven; where there is heaven, there is heaven," highlighting the intrinsic oneness of heaven and humanity This belief is also evident in terms such as "ground surface," "lake surface," "water surface," and "sea surface," all of which incorporate the notion of "surface."
The renowned Chinese medical classic, the Huangdi Neijing, emphasizes the interconnectedness of humans with the universe and the changing seasons, reflecting the concept of harmony between man and nature Similarly, the I Ching's hexagrams correlate with human organs, illustrating the idea of unity between heaven and humanity This holistic perspective, deeply rooted in Chinese philosophy, is largely absent in Western thought.
2.1.3.2 带有 “ 面 ” 字的词语所反映的中国人交际文化
The concept of "face" holds significant importance in Chinese communication culture, reflecting a shared social psychology and values developed over time In China, "face" represents the positive image one cultivates in the eyes of others, essential for gaining respect and psychological fulfillment in social interactions While the importance of "face" is recognized across various cultures, its interpretation and significance vary widely For the Chinese, "face" is a crucial aspect of social behavior, providing psychological satisfaction and balance, as it embodies one's reputation and the respect received in social contexts Furthermore, the notion of "face" extends beyond the individual to consider others, leading to terms like "saving face" and "competing for face."
―要面子‖、―给面子‖、―讲面子‖ 、―讲情面‖、―顾脸面‖、―保全面子‖、―挽回
In Chinese culture, the concept of "face" is crucial in social interactions, often represented by phrases such as "losing face" when one's dignity is compromised Similarly, when interpersonal relationships deteriorate, expressions like "breaking emotional ties" emerge, highlighting the significance of maintaining face in everyday Chinese life.
The concept of "face" holds significant depth and richness in Chinese culture, contrasting sharply with the more simplistic understanding of face in Western societies While both cultures recognize the social communication functions of face, the Eastern perspective encompasses a broader range of meanings and implications, rooted in differing value systems.
In Chinese culture, the concepts of "face" and "saving face" are deeply rooted in collectivist values, emphasizing the importance of interpersonal relationships and social harmony Unlike Western notions of face, which often focus on individual status, the Chinese perspective prioritizes the collective well-being, making the act of preserving face a significant social function This cultural framework highlights that one's "face" serves as a symbol of identity and status, leading individuals to seek ways to maintain or enhance their own and others' dignity in social interactions Consequently, Chinese people, influenced by collectivism, strive to foster harmonious relationships by being mindful of preserving face for one another in daily communication.
In Chinese culture, the concept of "face" (体面) reflects an individual's value in the eyes of others It signifies a person's dignity or status, as seen in phrases like "losing face" (有失体面) Additionally, "face" also connotes honor and prestige, often describing the nature of certain actions, such as in the context of enjoying a meal (好吃).
懒做是不体面的。‖；最后，―体面‖还指人的外表，意思是好看，美丽，如：
―他这个人长得很体面。‖
2.1.3.3 带有 “ 面 ” 字的词语在文学著作的出现
The presence of words containing the character "面" is prevalent in Chinese literary works This article focuses on two renowned collections, "Bajin's Essays" and "Selected Works of Lu Xun," as the basis for research Statistical analysis reveals that there are 54 instances of words and fixed phrases with "面" in "Selected Works of Lu Xun."
《巴金散文集》中找到112项带有―面‖字的词语。
In Lu Xun's works, he often favors idiomatic expressions or fixed four-character phrases that feature the character "面," such as "青面獠牙," "满面笑容," "面面相觑" (from "A Madman's Diary"), and "面黄肌瘦."
In "The Solitary One," the protagonist is described with a face resembling the color of earth, embodying a beastly nature (as seen in "Morning Blossoms Plucked at Dusk: A Chang and the Classic of Mountains and Seas") Additionally, the author frequently employs the grammatical structure of "on one hand on the other hand " to convey contrasting ideas.
使人不耐的倒是他的有些来客，大抵是读过《沉沦》的罢，时常自命为
“不幸的青年”或是“零余者”，螃蟹一般懒散而骄傲地堆在大椅子上，一面唉
声叹气，一面皱着眉头吸烟。
他一面点灯，一面冷静地说， “你的和我交往，我想，还正因为那时的 哭哩。
但当我哀悼隐鼠，一面给它复仇的时候，一面又在渴慕着绘图的《山海
In Ba Jin's selected works, idioms or fixed phrases containing the character "面" are relatively rare, with the most frequently occurring terms being those that refer to "parts or aspects" related to "面."
Some may spend their days gazing out the window at the blooming trees in the garden, channeling the youthful desires reflected in their eyes through the vibrant red flowers and lush greenery.
汉语中含“脸” 字的词语研究
2.2.1 在语义方面
2.2.1.1 从词典意义看待汉语中含 “ 脸 ” 字的词义
According to our statistical analysis, there are approximately 144 words formed with the character "脸," including around 85 individual words and about 59 idiomatic expressions and fixed phrases.
种类 双音节词
成语与其他 惯用语 总共
表4：汉语含“脸”词语数量统计表
―脸‖是形声字，拼音为 liǎn，从肉，佥(qiān)声，共 11 笔划。―脸‖基本
In ancient Chinese, the term for "face" encompasses the entire facial region, highlighting its significance as a key aspect of human anatomy The face not only serves as a vital organ but also plays an essential role in expressing emotions and identity Understanding the cultural and historical context of how the face is perceived can deepen our appreciation of its importance in communication and social interaction.
―面‖。―脸‖字在魏晋时期才出现，只表示两颊的上部，到了唐宋时期，口语
The term "face" in Chinese refers to the entire facial area, with its original meaning denoting the upper parts of the cheeks This word can be easily found in ancient Chinese poetry, illustrating its historical significance and usage.
满面黄沙满鬓风，眉销残黛脸销红。
白居易《昭君怨》 头圆筋骨紧，两脸明且光。
杜牧《冬至日寄小侄阿宜》 你看你的脸…尽是血，我都不认识你了。
曹禺《雷雨》 另外《现代汉语词典第五版》还把―脸‖这单词的其他义项解释为：
第一， 某些物体的前部
东西房全是敞脸的，是存车的所在。
老舍《骆驼祥子》
带有该义项的含―脸‖词语有：
鞋脸 城门脸 脸戏儿(鞋面子)
In dialect, "脸壳子" refers to a superficial facade that signifies hypocrisy, while "门脸儿" describes the area near a city gate or the front of a shop Additionally, the concepts of "情面" and "面子" highlight the importance of social connections and maintaining one's reputation in interpersonal relationships.
带有该义项的含―脸‖词语有：
没脸见人 不要脸 丢尽了脸 脸皮 脸软
第三， 脸上的表情
谁知你转背儿著他人也，又另是一样脸。
清ã吴骞《扶风传信录》
带有该义项的含―脸‖词语有：
急赤白脸(心里着急，脸色难看) 哭丧着脸 涎着脸 绷脸
在感情色彩方面，我们已经统计出来：
含有褒义的带―脸‖字词语大约有 30 个，含贬义的大约有 35 个。比如，
―得脸‖却含褒义的，因为他的意义是―得宠，受宠爱‖的，而―头脸‖，如果说
―头脸人物‖，一般说来这个词组具有贬义的感情色彩。
含有褒义的带―脸‖字成固定词组有 5 条，含有贬义的带―脸‖字固定词组有
大约 10 条。其中，―急赤白脸‖、―哭丧着脸‖等成语是贬义的，而―一脸笑容‖ 是褒义的。
2.2.1.2 从隐喻角度看待汉语中含 “ 脸 ” 字的词义
第一，汉语中含“脸”词语的容器化隐喻
Similar to the concept of "face" as a container, the term "expression" can also be interpreted in this way, as seen in phrases like "a face full of sorrow" or "a face covered in freckles." This idea is echoed in Qian Zhongshu's work, "Fortress Besieged."
Her seemingly modest expression concealed a triumphant smile As she lifted her gaze toward me, her face radiated with admiration and longing Suddenly, her smile vanished, leaving behind an empty visage, reminiscent of a curtain before the start of a film.
The face is often seen as a container for various emotions such as joy, anger, and sadness, with a limited capacity When emotions overflow, they can spill out, while an absence of feelings leaves the face empty Qian Zhongshu's creative term "empty face" vividly illustrates this metaphor of the face as a container.
第二，汉语中含“脸”词语的工具化隐喻
Facial expressions are essential for conveying a range of emotions, making the face a vital tool for interpersonal relationships and emotional communication Just as tools serve various functions, the face can express different feelings, leading to a metaphorical connection between the two Terms related to tool usage, such as "put down," "raise," "flip," and "break," have been adapted to describe facial expressions, resulting in phrases like "put down one's face," "elongate one's face," and "turn one's face."
“凤姐登时放下脸来，喝命带出去”
(曹雪芹。《红楼梦》)
“即使订了合同，也可以翻脸不算的。”
(鲁迅。《书信集致孟十还》)
The term "翻脸" (turning one's face) describes a rapid shift in emotions, often illustrated by a sudden change in facial expression from cheerful to sullen Commonly expressed as "翻脸比翻书还快" (turning one's face is faster than flipping a book), it highlights the quickness of emotional transitions in individuals Additionally, "翻脸不认人" (turning one's face and not recognizing others) signifies a lack of loyalty or emotional ties, emphasizing how facial expressions serve as tools for communication Through this concept, one can convey significant changes in feelings without words, showcasing the face as an essential instrument in interpersonal interactions.
第三，汉语中含“脸” 词语的处所化隐喻
Within a certain scope, words containing "face" exhibit localized metaphorical characteristics similar to those containing "surface." However, terms with "face," such as "door face," "shoe face," and "face play," are relatively scarce compared to the more abundant "surface" terms that indicate location This distinction highlights the differences between words associated with "face" and those associated with "surface."
第四，汉语中含“脸” 词语喻指情绪，态度，性格的特点
Facial expressions serve as a window into the diverse emotions people experience For instance, in Chinese culture, when someone feels happy, they might say their "face is warm," while feelings of shyness are often expressed as "blushing." In moments of anger, individuals may describe their expression as having a "stiff face" or "tense."
Facial expressions are closely linked to our emotions; for instance, we describe sadness with the phrase "a mournful face," while anger is often depicted as "a face turning blue." In moments of fear, one might say "a face turns pale." These variations in facial expressions consistently reflect the changes in our emotional states.
Everyone has their own personality, and individuals with different traits approach situations with varying mindsets A person's character and essence are reflected through their inner feelings and facial expressions, establishing a connection between one's appearance and personality traits This relationship has led to the metaphorical use of facial expressions to represent character, as seen in Chinese opera, where different facial colors symbolize distinct personality types For instance, a "white face" represents treachery, a "red face" signifies loyalty and bravery, while a "black face" denotes integrity These exaggerated artistic representations highlight how people with different personalities exhibit unique emotional expressions Consequently, the concept of "face" has evolved into a metaphor for character, with expressions like "thin-skinned" indicating sensitivity in social interactions, while "thick-skinned" refers to someone who can endure criticism without feeling shame This nuanced understanding of facial expressions and their metaphorical implications enriches our perception of personality in social contexts.
躁或不耐烦时，表现在脸上就是脸急。一个人讲情面，好说话就是―面软‖、
―面弱‖等等。例如：
“那是个有名的烈货，脸酸心硬，一时恼了，不认人的。”
(曹雪芹。红楼梦)
第五，汉语中含“脸” 词语喻指社会关系的特点
人们人际交往的目的是为了实现自我价值,在社会中获得一定的荣
誉和尊重。映射到含―脸‖词语的隐喻中，如果彼此之间的关系出现恶化
或者破裂，交往便难以继续，于是就有：―抓破脸‖ 、―撕破脸‖、―伤脸
面‖等表达方法。有的人在交往过程中能够获得他人的尊重,于是就有―给
脸‖、―赏脸‖、―顾脸‖、―要脸‖、―有脸‖；反之有的人在交往中无法得到
他人尊重，失去尊严就有：―丢脸‖、―扫脸‖、―没脸‖、―无脸‖、―舍脸‖、
―破脸‖、―不要脸‖等词语。
2.2.2 在结构方面
In comparison to "面" (face), the word "脸" (face) demonstrates a weaker morphological capability, as evidenced by the fewer words that utilize "脸" as a morpheme Statistical analysis reveals approximately 706 words containing "面," while only 144 words incorporate "脸."
第一，动宾式
以―脸‖为词素的双音节词和三音节动宾式词组有大约50个，如：
绷脸 变脸 抛脸 打脸 得脸 丢脸
翻脸 勾脸 刮脸 绞脸 开脸 扫脸
露脸 卖脸 没脸 抹脸 劈脸 破脸
赏脸 上脸 舍脸 要脸 匀脸 做脸
红脸 洗脸 变脸 没脸 给脸
做鬼脸 唱白脸 扑脸儿 拉下脸争 脸转脸 不要脸
撕破脸 抓破脸 丢尽脸
第二，偏正式
以―脸‖为语素的偏正式词语有大约45个，如：
The article explores various facial expressions and types, including "ghost face," "good face," "red face," "thick face," and "flower face." It also mentions "crying face," "old face," "donkey face," and "door face," highlighting the diversity of facial appearances such as "skin face," "hot face," "head face," and "mouth face." Additional terms include "smiling face," "white face," "apple face," and "face basin," as well as "face color," "little flower face," and "accompanying smiling face." The list continues with "little white face," "back face," "thick-skinned face," "melon seed face," "big flower face," and "goose egg face." Expressions like "making a ghost face," "face egg," "face plate," "crying face," and "wearing a head to recognize face" further illustrate the richness of facial terminology.
第三，联合式
以―脸‖为语素的联合式成语有25个，如：
讪皮讪脸 神头鬼脸 嘻皮涎脸 愁眉苦脸 平头正脸 挨肩擦脸
涎皮赖脸 死皮赖脸 有头有脸 桃腮粉脸 满脸春风 脸红筋涨
脸青鼻肿 杏脸桃腮 急赤白脸 劈头盖脸 嬉皮笑脸
第四，附加式
以―脸‖为语素的附加式词有不到8个，如：―脸儿‖、―脸子‖等。
第五，主谓式
以―脸‖为语素的主谓式词有大约 16个，如：―脸薄‖、―脸大‖、―脸红‖、
从汉语词汇系统的特征综观“脸/面”构成的词语
2.3.1 在语义特征方面
In our previous discussion, we explored the meanings of the terms "面" (miàn) and "脸" (liǎn), highlighting their characteristics as morphemes Semantically, both words are polysemous, serving as versatile morphemes that can create a diverse array of vocabulary.
The words "脸" (face) and "面" (surface) share meanings related to the front part of the head, from the forehead to the chin, as well as facial expressions, making them synonyms However, their differences emerge when combined with other terms For instance, while "脸子" (face) and "面子" (face/reputation) are polysemous and share several meanings, "脸子" also refers to "mask" and "unpleasant facial expression." An example can be seen in the phrase, "还整天看我这位婆婆的脸子," where "脸子" clearly conveys the meaning of an "unpleasant facial expression."
汉语中―脸面‖ 这一词却含不是只有有―头的前部‖这义项。―脸面‖具有
―面孔‖和―面子，情面‖等义项，是个多义词的。（用法细节请看附录）
In Chinese, certain terms such as "面子" (miànzi), "脸子" (liǎnzi), and "脸面" (liǎnmiàn) may seem synonymous with "面貌" (miànmào), but they are not interchangeable "面貌" is a polysemous word that carries multiple meanings beyond the others.
The term "facial shape" and "appearance" refer to the features of the face, indicating its physical attributes Additionally, "facial expression" differs from these terms as it can metaphorically describe the overall presentation or aspect of various things, reflecting their outward appearance or condition.
态，如： ―中国人民已经战胜了自己的敌人，改变了中国的面貌。‖ （选自
《中国人民大团结万岁》。毛泽东）
Similar heterogeneous compound words like "脸红" (liǎn hóng) and "红脸" (hóng liǎn) share the same morphemes but differ in structure and meaning Semantically, "脸红" refers to a reddened face, typically used to describe feelings of shyness or embarrassment In contrast, "红脸" not only denotes a rosy complexion often associated with beautiful women but also signifies anger or a fierce demeanor Additionally, in traditional Chinese opera, the term "红脸" is used to describe characters known for their boldness and straightforwardness.
In addition to words and idioms, the Chinese language features many fixed phrases containing the character "面" (face), which exhibit flexible structures and rich rhetorical qualities These expressions utilize metaphors and other rhetorical techniques to convey deeper meanings, playing a significant role in communication They reflect the aesthetic and moral values of the Han people, as well as the unique linguistic style and rhetorical artistry of Chinese culture It can be said that these phrases are imbued with profound cultural significance, encompassing proverbs and colloquialisms related to "面."
120条，而我们并非深入地探讨研究，只列出一些典型的例子：
正面人物 全面分析 防毒面具 当面批评 面向群众
面对现实 反面人物 正面教育 久未露面 片面理解
侧面观擦 面临考验 面如土色 初次会面 约期晤面
In life, appearances can be deceiving, as one may smile outwardly while harboring different feelings within Genuine connections are often better established through face-to-face interactions, as meeting in person can convey warmth and sincerity that mere words cannot The saying "a smile is like a gentle breeze" reminds us that a friendly demeanor can brighten someone's day, emphasizing the importance of authentic relationships.
老人问题面面观 面不改色心不跳
面朝黄土背朝天 打当面罗，不敲后背鼓
无面目见江东父老 不见庐山真面目
千部一腔，千人一面 知人知面不知心
劈面一记耳光矮子面前不说短 白酒红人面，黄金黑人心
脸丑怪不着镜子 脸红脖子粗 脸上挂不住
脸上贴金 脸皮比城墙厚 春风后母脸
脸上带笑，袖子藏刀 脸皮薄吃不着，脸皮厚吃不够
2.3.2 在结构特征方面
The words "face" and "surface" can both serve as morphemes in compound words or fixed phrases Approximately 90 terms are formed with "face," while around 150 terms derive from "surface," indicating that "surface" has a stronger word formation capability Currently, commonly used expressions that include "surface" include "facade projects," "facade students," and "facade tickets," which have evolved from the meanings of "decent" and "pride."
Both "face" and "surface" exhibit strong word formation capabilities, despite their differing quantities They encompass a wide variety of types, including verb-object constructions such as "meet" and "see," as well as compound forms like "shameless."
―面目‖、―面容‖、―平头正脸‖、―挨肩擦脸‖），偏正式（如―全面‖、―生面‖，
―鬼脸‖、―好脸‖），附加式（如―脸儿‖、―面儿‖、―脸子‖、―面子‖ ），主谓式
The term "面" (miàn) is more versatile than "脸" (liǎn) in the Chinese language, as it forms a wider range of compound words While "脸" primarily contributes to a few variations like "脸子" (liǎnzi) and "脸儿" (liǎnr), "面" encompasses numerous directional terms such as "北面" (north), "下面" (below), "前面" (front), "上面" (above), "外面" (outside), "里面" (inside), "后面" (behind), "南面" (south), "左面" (left), "西面" (west), "东面" (east), and "右面" (right), showcasing its linguistic richness and utility.
此外，―面‖可以充当动词，而―脸‖却不能。因此，有―面对‖、―面临‖、
The term "facing" is preferred over phrases like "face to" or "face towards." Similarly, when people feel remorse for their actions, they express it as "unable to face" rather than using variations like "unable to face to."
2.3.3 在语用特征方面
Words composed of "face" or "surface" in Chinese, including multisyllabic words, compound words, and phrases, reflect the cultural values of the language Respecting one's status or power is associated with the concept of "giving face," while disrespect is referred to as "not giving face." Actions that uphold one's face are described as "supporting face," and challenging someone's status is known as "refuting face." If a strong reaction occurs after refuting someone's face, a public apology is required.
―还面子‖，失去体面叫―丢面子‖上面的词即可以是书面语，又可以是口语。
The term "face" is commonly found in phrases like "lose face," "put on a long face," "shameless," and "can't show my face," which are often used in spoken language In contrast, the usage of "mien" is broader and more versatile than that of "face."
In Chinese, the terms "脸" (face) and "面子" (face in terms of social standing) both convey the idea of dignity, but they are not interchangeable in most contexts While phrases like "丢脸/丢面子" (lose face) and "要脸/要面子" (value face) may allow for some overlap, "面子" is more commonly used when referring to someone's reputation or social status For instance, expressions such as "面子大" (big face), "有面子" (have face), and "讲面子" (value face) highlight the importance of social standing, whereas the term "脸子" is rarely used in these contexts.
总而言之，汉语由―脸／面‖构成的合成词如―脸子‖、―面子‖、―脸面‖、
Although "appearance" and similar terms are synonyms and share structural similarities, their meanings intersect in complex ways Therefore, it is essential to analyze their definitions, structures, and pragmatic features individually rather than relying on assumptions.