FONDEMENT THEORIQUE
Concepts des actes de langage
Various concepts surrounding the notion of speech acts have evolved throughout the history of linguistics In the early 20th century, linguists began to recognize the pragmatic dimension of language, leading to extensive research on speech acts.
1.1 Concept des actes de langage d’Austin et de Searle
A speech act refers to the method employed by a speaker to influence their surroundings through language It encompasses various intentions such as informing, persuading, requesting, convincing, and promising.
The theory of speech acts, developed by John L Austin in his 1962 work "How to Do Things with Words," introduces a comprehensive typology of language acts that significantly transforms the field of pragmatics.
Austin distingue trois catégories d’actes de langage : L’acte locutoire, l’acte illocutoire et l’acte perlocutoire :
- L’acte locutoire : l’acte de dire quelque chose On lui attribue généralement un sens et on la met en relation avec un référent
Dans cet exemple, il y a seulement l’acte de dire
- L’acte illocutoire : l’acte qui est effectué en disant quelque chose
Ex : Je t’ordonne de me dire la vérité !
Dans cet exemple, la personne produit l’acte d’ordonner en disant
The perlocutionary act refers to the effects one aims to achieve through language, such as persuading, deceiving, influencing, convincing, inciting anger, or instilling fear These effects can vary depending on the communication context While some acts, like persuasion, are often executed through vocal expression, other acts, such as instilling fear, may be more effectively conveyed through different means.
The theory of speech acts challenges the descriptive view of language, which posits that its primary function is to describe reality According to Austin, language also serves to act upon reality From this foundational idea, Austin differentiates between two types of statements: constative and performative.
A constative statement holds a truth value, meaning it serves to describe the world For example, the statement "The moon orbits the Earth" illustrates this concept Such statements can be either true or false; for instance, a dog may indeed be in front of the house or it may not.
A performative statement is not meant to describe reality but to accomplish an action, such as "I promise to make an effort." This type of statement is neither true nor false; it is evaluated based on its success or failure It is considered successful if it is directed towards someone, the recipient understands the message, and there is a correspondence between what is said and what is done, meaning the speaker follows through and makes genuine efforts.
During his reflection, Austin discovered that there are implicit performative statements alongside explicit performative statements For instance, the statement "I will make an effort" can be interpreted as a promise, essentially meaning "I promise to make an effort." Additionally, the statement does not merely report a fact but asserts the reality of that fact.
Il est comparable alors à ô J’affirme que la lune tourne autour de la Terre ằ
In these examples, constative statements also perform speech acts, blurring the line between constative and performative utterances In other words, according to Austin, all statements possess illocutionary force.
Il propose donc une classification des valeurs illocutoires :
- Les ô verdictifs ằ : prononcer un jugement
Ex : condamner, calculer, évaluer, caractériser…
- Les ô exercitifs ằ : formuler une dộcision à l’encontre d’une suite d’actions
Ex : ordonner, commander, conseiller, proclamer…
- Les ô promissifs ằ : obliger les locuteurs à suivre une suite d’actions dộterminộe : promettre, faire le vœu de, garantir…
- Les ô expositifs ằ : Exposer des conceptions, conduire une argumentation, clarifier l’emploi des mots
Ex : affirmer, expliquer, exemplifier, paraphraser…
- Les ô comportatifs ằ : Des rộactions face aux comportements des autres et aux événements qui les concernent
Ex : remercier, féliciter, s’excuser, souhaiter, reprocher…
Building on J.L Austin's theory of speech acts, John R Searle explores the concept in his essay "Speech Acts," where he posits that speaking a language involves performing various speech acts such as making assertions, giving orders, asking questions, and making promises He emphasizes that these acts are generally made possible by specific rules governing the use of linguistic elements, and they are executed in accordance with these rules In essence, this theory highlights that an individual can communicate with the intention of accomplishing something rather than merely conveying information.
Ensuite, dans le prolongement d’Austin, Searle distingue cinq catégories générales d’actes illocutoires : les assertifs, les directifs, les promissifs, les expressifs, les déclaratifs
- Les assertifs engagent le locuteur sur la vérité de la proposition exprimée
- Les directifs correspondent à la tentative de la part du locuteur d’obtenir quelque chose de son destinataire
- Les promissifs obligent le locuteur à adopter une certaine conduite future
- Les expressifs expriment l’état psychologique du locuteur
Ex : l’acte de reproche pour exprimer le mécontentement du locuteur face à un acte ou un comportement de l’interlocuteur
- Les déclaratifs accomplissent et garantissent que leur contenus correspondent au monde
According to Searle, there are two fundamental ways to examine the relationship between statements and the world: one is to align the propositional content of certain illocutions with the world, while others aim to align the world with the statements This means that a statement can either "report the truth" about the world or "make a state of the world true." In other words, a statement must either conform to the world, or the world must conform to what is stated.
1.2 Concept des actes de langage de C Kerbrat-Orecchioni
In the Austino-Searlian perspective, speech acts are analyzed in an abstract and isolated manner, detached from their contextual realization However, C Kerbrat-Orecchioni emphasizes the importance of situating these acts within a sequence of verbal interactions, highlighting the pragmatics involved She argues that speech acts are too complex to be confined to a single theoretical framework.
Since the advancements brought by interactionist pragmatics, the concept of speech acts has become more complex, yet more accurate and aligned with pragmatic reality In interactions, it is essential to continually identify, define, and redefine speech acts, as the objects of discourse have expanded and no longer serve merely to describe the world.
C.Kerbrat-Orecchioni pose donc l’idée fondamentale de la théorie des actes de langage : ô tous les ộnoncộes possốdent intrinsốquement une valeur d’acte ằ (Kerbrat- Orecchioni 2001 : 21‒22) et elle considère l’acte de langage comme l’unité minimale de la grammaire qui porte une certaine valeur illocutoire (ou force illocutionnaire).
Réalisation des actes de langage
There are several ways to perform a speech act, and a single structure can convey various illocutionary values In her work "Speech Acts in Discourse," C Kerbrat-Orecchioni offers two definitions of a speech act: the first being that "to say is to do several things at once" (Kerbrat-Orecchioni, 2001: 22), indicating that one utterance can express multiple acts The second definition states that "to say is to do one thing under the guise of another," meaning that a speech act can be expressed indirectly, masked by another act This concept is further explored through the distinction between direct and indirect realizations, which can be identified through various prosodic, lexical, syntactic markers, and codes.
L’acte de langage est formulé directement quand le locuteur énonce une phrase en voulant dire exactement et explicitement ce qu’il dit
En général, la réalisation des actes de langage directs est produite grâce à des verbes performatifs ou des formes de phrase
Ex : ô Je te promets de t’offrir un cadeau ằ ô Je te conseille de ne pas fumer ằ
In these examples, the acts of "promising" and "advising" are only realized when the speakers perform them One cannot simply say "I promise" without actually making a promise The verbs "to promise" and "to advise" are considered performative verbs A verb is not inherently performative; it only takes on this quality under specific conditions of use.
Additionally, it should be used in the first person in the present indicative, making it easy to identify the pragmatic status of the statement However, this type of direct realization is rarely employed, as noted by C Kerbrat-Orecchioni in her book "Speech Acts in Discourse."
Performative formulations are the clearest means for a speaker to specify the pragmatic status of their statement However, these formulations are not available for all speech acts and are relatively rare in usage.
Il existe d’autre manière de réaliser un acte de langage explicitement sans utiliser les verbes performatif Examinons ces exemples : ô Efface le tableau ! ằ (1) ô Veux-tu sortir avec moi ce soir ? ằ (2)
In these sentences, actions are expressed without being explicitly named Statement (1) conveys a command without using the verb "to order," while statement (2) delivers an invitation without employing the verb "to invite." In reality, a speech act can be performed using various formulations.
- L’infinitif prescriptif : ô Eteindre la lumiốre avant de partir ằ
- Les tournures elliptiques : ô Deux demi ! ằ
- Certaines tournures dộclaratives : ô Je voudrais que tu sortes ằ, ô il faut que tu sortes ằ
However, there are instances where a single statement can convey multiple meanings For example, a declarative sentence like "It's bad weather" can be interpreted as a refusal or a warning In such cases, these acts are performed indirectly.
According to C Kerbrat-Orecchioni, speech acts can serve multiple functions simultaneously, as one statement can convey various illocutionary values For instance, the phrase "The sky is gray" can imply a refusal ("I don't want to go out"), a warning ("So, bring the umbrella!"), or simply an assertion ("It's going to rain") These values can even combine, as statements like "I have things to do," "I'm not available," "The weather is bad today," and "No questions!" can be seen as equivalent in certain contexts In essence, indirect speech acts are statements that express one thing while meaning another.
There are two types of indirect formulations: conventional and non-conventional A conventional indirect speech act is a socially recognized discourse, while a non-conventional indirect speech act relies on context for interpretation For example, the statement "Can you close the door?" is typically understood as a request, often reinforced by adding a marker like "please." This makes it a conventional expression In contrast, a non-conventional indirect speech act lacks clear indicators; for instance, the statement "It's cold" is an assertion that may imply a request under certain circumstances, depending on the situational context.
Indirect speech acts generally involve affirming or questioning the conditions for the success of the act in question For instance, the utterance "Can you close the door?" addresses the recipient's ability to fulfill the request, while "It’s cold" refers to the state of affairs at the time of the utterance In addition to various forms of realization, speech acts are influenced by multiple factors, which we will explore in the following section.
Facteurs d’influence des actes de langage
Austin and Searle's research focuses on speech acts in isolation from their context However, speech acts are inherently tied to specific communication situations, where the speaker selects and interprets particular speech acts The context plays a crucial role in guiding the choice of discussion topics, forms of address, and language level used by the speakers Additionally, it aids the listeners in interpreting, especially implicit speech acts.
Le contexte comprend trois éléments : le cadre spatio-temporel, le but et les participants
- Le cadre spatial englobe tous les caractéristiques du lieu ó a lieu l’interaction, les situations sociales et institutionnelles
- Le cadre temporel est le moment de l’interaction et joue un rôle décisif dans la réussite d’un acte de langage
In some instances, the context of a conversation is closely tied to its spatial and temporal framework, with the choice of location and timing influenced by the speakers' objectives However, there are cases where the purpose of the conversation and its spatial-temporal setting operate independently of each other.
When initiating a conversation, the speaker typically has an overarching goal in mind To achieve this objective, they must employ a series of speech acts that align with more specific, immediate aims.
Les participants jouent le rôle décisif dans la réussite des actes de langage On peut les classifier selon les critères suivants :
- Leurs caractéristiques individuelles : âge, sexe, appartenance ethnique…
- Leurs caractéristiques sociales : statut social, profession,…
- Leurs caractéristiques psychologiques : caractère, état d’âme
- Leurs relations mutuelles, y compris le degré de connaissance, type de lien (amical, familial ou professionnel) et l’affectif (sympathie ou antipathie, amitié, amour )
- Leurs nombres : 2 personnes (dialogue), 3 personnes (trilogue), plus de 3 personnes (polylogue)…
According to W Labov and D Fanshel, interaction is an action that influences the relationships between oneself and others in face-to-face communication This implies that there is always a specific type of relationship between interactants that determines how they communicate with each other In her research, Kerbrat-Orecchioni categorizes interpersonal relationships into two main axes: the horizontal axis and the vertical axis.
The horizontal axis illustrates the close or distant relationship expressed by speakers during an interaction This relational state is influenced by both external and internal characteristics of the interaction External factors include contextual data at the onset of the interaction, such as the degree of familiarity between participants, the nature of their socio-affective bond, and the formality of the communication situation Internal factors encompass verbal, paraverbal, or non-verbal cues produced during the interaction.
Interactions are primarily influenced by external factors; however, horizontal relationships can be negotiated—often explicitly or implicitly—to foster gradual closeness through internal factors known as relational markers These markers vary widely and can be categorized into different types: verbal (such as terms of address, discussion topics, and language levels), paraverbal (including articulation intensity, voice tone, and speech overlaps), and non-verbal (encompassing spatial distance, gestures, and the positioning of participants).
Horizontal relationships are generally symmetrical, but asymmetry arises when the participants have differing intentions regarding the development of their relationship This imbalance is often influenced by the existing hierarchy among the individuals involved.
The vertical relationship, also known as the hierarchical relationship, highlights the inherent inequality between the interacting parties In this dynamic, one individual occupies a superior or dominant position, while the other holds an inferior or subordinate role Unlike horizontal relationships, vertical relationships are primarily asymmetrical, as the subordinate party often seeks to resist and restore equality.
The hierarchical relationship is influenced by both external and internal characteristics External factors include contextual data such as age, gender, social status, and physical strength Internal characteristics manifest as vertical relational taxonomies, distinguishing between high and low positional taxonomies These markers can be verbal, such as terms of address, language acts, turn-taking organization, topics discussed, vocabulary used, and interpretation of interactions; para-verbal, including the tone and vocal intensity; and non-verbal, encompassing attire, physical appearance, postures, eye contact, and gestures.
Politeness can be examined from two perspectives: commonly, it is viewed as a set of social behavior rules akin to decorum In contrast, pragmatics, typically confined to a linguistic viewpoint, regards politeness as a collection of conversational strategies In our research on speech acts, we focus exclusively on linguistic politeness.
La politesse linguistique est un domaine de recherche relativement récent Les linguistes commencent à étudier la politesse dans la conversation dans les années 70
H P Grice est considéré comme le pionnier dans la recherche sur les conversations linguistique avec son ô principe de coopộration ằ dans lequel il a mis l’accent sur la relation très stricte entre la contribution des interactants et la quantité, la qualité des informations, la pertinence du discours ainsi que la manière dont on transmettre nos messages Il affirme que ô nos ộchanges de paroles sont le rộsultat, jusqu’à un certain point au moins, d’efforts de coopộration ằ et nous pourrons alors ô formuler en première approximation un principe général qu’on s’attendra à voir respecté par tous les participants : que votre contribution conversationnelle corresponde à ce qui est exigé de vous, au stade atteint par celle-ci, par le but ou la direction acceptés de l’ộchange parlộ dans lequel vous ờtes engagộ ằ (H P GRICE, 1979 : 60-61) En suivant ce principe de Grice, R Lakoff a introduit la notion de ô politesse ằ Pour elle, la communication humaine a deux fonctions majeures : transmettre les informations et établir, maintenir la relation interpersonnelle La deuxième fonction dépend fortement de la politesse: “Politeness is a system of interpersonal relations designed to facilitate interaction by minimizing the potential for conflict and confrontation inherent in all human interchange” (R Lakoff, 1990 : 34) Ainsi, la politesse a pour fonction de minimiser le risque de conflit et de confrontation inhérente à tous les échanges humains pour faciliter l’interaction Après Lakoff, plusieurs linguistes ont cherché à cultiver sur ce nouveau champ Parmi eux, les réalisations les plus remarquables sont venues d’E Goffman, P Brown et Levinson et C Kerbrat-Orecchioni qui, au fil du temps, ont créé de nouvelles notions afin de clarifier le concept de politesse linguistique
3.3.1 E Goffman, la face, le territoire du moi et les figurations
According to Goffman, social interactions resemble a stage performance where participants act to protect and enhance their social persona He defines "face" as the positive social value individuals claim through their actions during interactions This concept highlights that a person's social face is often their most valuable asset and a source of comfort, emphasizing the importance of self-presentation in social contexts.
13) Chaque individu a donc toujours besoin de valoriser ses points forts, cacher ses points faibles et construire une image de lui-même telle que les autres attendent de lui
Opposing the concept of "face," Goffman introduced the idea of "territory of the self," which refers to an individual's properties and their bodily, material, spatial, and emotional extensions In his work "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Volume II: Relations in Public" (1973), the sociolinguist identified eight categories of "territory."
L’espace personnel dộsigne l’espace autour d’un individu, son propre rộgion ô ú toute pộnộtration est ressentie comme un empiốtement ằ
La place est l’espace dộlimitộ auquel on peut avoir droit et qui ô fixe et articule les revendications spatiales ằ
L’espace utile ou l’espace relatif aux besoins matériels évidents
Le tour signifie l’ordre dans lequel une personne a droit à un bien
L’enveloppe indique la peau ou les vêtements qui recouvrent notre corps
Le territoire de la possession représente l’ensemble d’objet identifiables à nous et disposés autour de notre corps
Les réserves d’information englobent les faits qui nous concernent et que nous voulons garder le contrôle
Les domaines réservés de la conversation montre le droit de l’individu de contrôler sur qui peut lui adresser la parole et quand
Each individual has their own face and territory that they wish to preserve In conversations, it is essential for participants to master certain rituals that facilitate connection while minimizing risks to their own face and that of their interlocutor As Goffman stated, the combined effect of the rules of self-esteem and consideration is that during interactions, individuals strive to maintain both their own face and that of others Therefore, various strategies, referred to by Goffman as face work, must be employed, adhering to two sets of face management principles: the rules of self-esteem, which emphasize self-love, and the rules of consideration, which stress respect for the interlocutor These strategies help prevent face-threatening situations, avoid risks through tactful behavior, or repair inevitable incidents.
Ces notions du sociolinguiste américain ont donné l’inspiration à Brown et Levinson qui, dans les années qui suivent, a continué à développer la théorie de politesse
3.3.2 Modèle de politesse de Brown et Levinson
Building on Goffman's concept of face, Brown and Levinson (1987: 65-67) expanded the theory of politeness by introducing new ideas of positive and negative face, face-threatening acts (FTAs), and the desire for face.
L’acte de reproche
The term "reproach" originates from the transitive verb "to reproach," which, according to http://www.lerobert.com/, means to express disapproval to someone regarding a condemnable or unfortunate action for which they are held accountable A reproach is defined as a blame directed at an individual, a negative judgment on a specific point, intended to evoke feelings of shame or regret, and to encourage correction or improvement.
A reproach is a statement made to someone to express dissatisfaction or disapproval regarding their behavior or actions.
According to an online dictionary, the term "reproach" is a masculine noun that signifies a severe blame or criticism directed at someone, intended to invoke shame and encourage self-correction.
Reproaches typically involve unfavorable judgments directed at an individual or object, often focusing on specific responsibilities of the interlocutor The primary aim of a reproach is to evoke feelings of shame and regret, encouraging the recipient to amend their behavior Additionally, reproaches serve as a means for the speaker to articulate their dissatisfaction.
4.2.1 Le reproche dans les classifications des chercheurs
According to Austin, the act of reproach is an illocutionary act with a behavioral value, meaning it expresses reactions to the actions of others Therefore, reproach serves as a reactive act by the speaker that responds to specific actions or behaviors of the interlocutor.
According to Searle's classification of the five categories of illocutionary acts, a reproach falls under the category of "expressives," which are used to convey the speaker's psychological state In this context, a reproach reflects the speaker's dissatisfaction or discontent.
In his book "Speech Acts," Vanderveken develops illocutionary trees to categorize and distinguish illocutionary verbs Each branch of the tree places one verb after another based on whether the illocutionary force it represents can be derived from the previous one through the addition of new components or an increase in intensity Notably, the verb "to reproach" is absent from his classifications, while its synonym "to blame" is included in the illocutionary tree of assertive-type verbs.
In the realm of assertive verbs, terms such as "criticize," "blame," "accuse," "denounce," and "reprimand" share a close semantic relationship "Blame" is defined as the act of criticizing someone by asserting their responsibility or guilt for a particular issue (Daniel Vanderveken, Les actes de discours, p 173) The key distinction between "blame" and "criticize" lies in their focus: criticism can target an object, while blame is directed specifically at a person Furthermore, the difference between "blame" and "accuse" is that an accusation is typically made in a public context, whereas blame can be expressed privately.
A Doctor of Philosophy from the Catholic University of Louvain, who co-founded the logic of silent acts with John Searle, highlights the distinction between reprimanding and blaming Reprimanding involves invoking a position of authority, setting it apart from mere criticism.
The focus of criticism often revolves around the interests of the participants involved In some instances, an individual may criticize another primarily for personal gain, aiming to enhance their own image Conversely, there are situations where the intention behind the criticism serves the interests of the listener Additionally, there are cases where criticism is directed towards the collective benefit of all parties engaged in the interaction.
When the speaker negatively evaluates the words, actions, or attitudes of the listener, they elevate themselves above the listener If the listener acknowledges their mistake and apologizes, it reinforces the speaker's position This not only enhances the speaker's positive face but also protects their negative face if the listener's actions threaten the speaker's personal boundaries.
For the listener, acknowledging a valid criticism allows them to recognize their mistake and make necessary corrections, ultimately helping them avoid repeating the same error in the future In other words, this self-awareness can prevent future reproaches Although the speaker's criticism may seem threatening to the listener's self-image in the moment, it plays a crucial role in safeguarding their reputation in the long run.
Le reproche n’est pas un acte initiatif mais un acte réactif à un certain acte de l’allocutaire Ce dernier peut être une action, une attitude ou une parole défavorable
In general, one person blames another for failing to perform an action or for performing it poorly This blame can stem from two main categories of unfulfilled actions: explicit conventions that have not been respected, such as promises made but not kept or violations of contracts, and implicit conventions that have not been adhered to, which involve social norms that are overlooked Similarly, poorly executed actions can be categorized into two subgroups: actions that are either poorly aligned or not aligned with the conventions agreed upon by the individuals involved, and actions that do not conform to social norms.
- Attitude : Habituellement, les attitudes appartiennent à ceux qui enfreignent la morale ou les normes sociales
- Parole : le contenu de la parole d’une personne peut menacer les faces de son allocutaire Les paroles reprochées peuvent être produites consciemment ou inconsciemment
Nous distinguons trois types de reproche : reproche explicite, reproche implicite et reproche mixte :
- Reproche explicite : le locuteur exprime son mécontentement, désigne la faute de son allocutaire, lui reproche explicitement L’allocutaire peut reconnaợtre le reproche facilement
Implicit reproach refers to the idea of criticism concealed within other forms of communication, such as questions, commands, shouts, or calls In some instances, this reproach becomes subtler and more challenging to identify.
Mixed reproach occurs in trilogues or polylogues involving at least three participants, where the criticism can be explicit for one interlocutor while remaining implicit for another.
4.2.2.4 Reproche et les relations interpersonnelles
Préliminaire
1.1 Choix de la méthode de collecte des données
For our research, we chose to utilize a pre-existing corpus derived from the works of well-known French literary authors Acknowledging the significance of authentic verbal interactions in the study of speech acts, we deliberated extensively before ultimately deciding to select this literary corpus.
Initially, we considered recording interactions to ensure their authenticity However, covert recording is impractical, as we cannot predict when participants will express grievances, and capturing entire conversations is unfeasible Moreover, informing participants about the recording undermines authenticity, particularly during conflicts where grievances typically arise Participants may avoid sharing complaints or refuse to allow recording altogether Additionally, this method requires significant time for transcription, making our efforts less efficient and productive.
Research on television broadcasts raises concerns about data effectiveness and authenticity Typically, when in front of an audience, individuals strive to minimize any threatening behavior towards others Moreover, the authenticity of conversations is compromised, as the content of these shows is heavily managed, preventing guests from expressing their true thoughts freely.
Compiling dialogues from television films may initially seem straightforward due to the abundance of French films available online However, the transcription of these dialogues can prove to be quite challenging.
Nous avons choisi enfin le corpus littéraire pour les raisons suivantes :
As C Kerbrat-Orecchioni noted, a literary corpus is readily available and nearly inexhaustible (C Kerbrat-Orecchioni 1990:72-73) We can access French works from university libraries, which not only broadens our resources but also saves us time, as we do not need to transcribe dialogues ourselves.
- Quand nous avons collecté des nouvelles, la recherche des actes de reproche est tout à fait faisable
C Kerbrat-Orecchioni emphasized the legitimacy of using literary corpus in conversational analysis, suggesting that literature acts as a magnifying mirror for ordinary conversation, allowing for a clearer understanding of relevant facts This perspective highlights that conversational analysis can benefit from the simplicity and intelligibility found in literary texts, providing rich material for reflection Furthermore, V Traverso noted that literature serves as a reproduction or simulation of authentic dialogue, ensuring the authenticity of literary dialogues Consequently, numerous accepted studies have been conducted using literary corpus, reinforcing its value in research.
Pourtant, le corpus littéraire possède aussi des points limites :
We may not always identify units of criticism at the level of sequence, but sometimes we can find them at the level of interaction or exchange This largely depends on the literary intent and style of the author.
Examples found are not always typical, as a statement can serve as both a reproach and an order or request Additionally, the notion of reproach is not always clear-cut.
Our research is based on a corpus of 140 instances of reproaches identified within the sequences of dialogues in contemporary French short stories, spanning a broad time frame from 1910 to 2012.
- 6 nouvelles dans le recueil Les rustiques – Nouvelles villageoises (1921) de Louis Pergaud : o La chute o Joséphine est enceinte o L’évation de Kinkin o Le retour o Un sauvetage o Un renseilgnement précis
Didier Daeninckx's 1994 collection "Main courante et Autres lieux" features six compelling short stories: "Le jeu-mystère," "Le reflet," "Confidences," "La carte imaginaire," "Le partage des tâches," and "Ce sont nos ennemis qui marchent à notre tête." Each narrative explores profound themes and offers unique insights into human experiences, making this collection a significant contribution to contemporary literature.
- 2 nouvelles dans le recueil Je voudrais que quelqu’un m’attendre quelque part
- 2 nouvelles dans le recueil Des petites vies (2012) de Mathilde Levallois-Perret o Comme dans la vraie vie o En-vie
- 6 nouvelles collectées dans 2 recueils La chambre éclairée et Gigi de Sidonie- Gabrielle Colette o En baie de somme o Fantômes o Bel-Gazou et le cinéma o Le ô maợtre ằ o Plomberie et gaz o Gigi
- 1 nouvelle de Maurice Leblanc o Le cabauchon d’émeraude (1930)
- 2 nouvelles dans le recueil L’enfant prodigue d’André Gide o La réprimande du père o La rộprimande du frốre aợnộ
- 6 nouvelles dans le recueil Les portes de l’enfer (1910) de Maurice Level o Soleil o Le coq chanta o Un piquet ? o Le coupable o Confrontation
The collection "Histoires d’enfance," published in 1994 by the association Sol En Si (Solidarité Enfant Sida), features four short stories by various French authors These include "La boîte à bisous" by Pascal Bruckner, "La nuit où Zoé retint son souffle" by Yann Queffélec, "La déesse dans l’arbre" by Christian Jacq, and "Armel et Styx" by Michel des Castillo.
- 2 nouvelles du recueil Petit éloge des faits divers (2008) de Didier Deaninckx : o Douche France… o Profession de foi
- 3 nouvelles du recueil Passer l’hiver (2004) d’Olivier Adam o De retour o En douce o Pialat est mort
- 1 nouvelle du recueil Les linottes (1912) o Les linottes I
We select works from well-known contemporary French authors such as Didier Daeninckx, who won the Prix Goncourt for short stories in 2012; Anna Gavalda, awarded the Grand Prix RTL-Lire in 2000; Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette, the second woman elected to the Académie Goncourt in 1945; André Gide, Nobel Prize winner in Literature in 1947; and Louis Émile Vincent Pergaud, recipient of the Prix Goncourt in 1910 Additionally, to ensure data representativeness, we also examine short stories from several other French authors.
The selected works are contemporary and explore various aspects of human life We focus on short stories rich in verbal interactions Additionally, to streamline our data collection on the act of reproach, we prioritize stories featuring multiple conflict situations among characters, as these often highlight instances of reproach.
The characters in the selected short stories represent a diverse range of ages and social classes Their relationships vary widely, encompassing friendships, romantic connections, professional interactions, and familial ties, such as parent-child dynamics This diversity allows for an exploration of various ways to express reproach, utilizing different politeness strategies.
In this study, we will describe and analyze the expression of politeness strategies within statements of reproach Based on our analyses, we will provide a synthesis of the findings Finally, we will compare the results with the proposed hypothesis.
Nous suivrons donc la démarche : catégorisation, statistique, description, analyse et synthèse
Dans notre recherche, nous analyserons les facteurs Pouvoir (P), Distance (D) et Légitimité (L) en relation avec la présence ou l’absence des Procédés de politesse (PP)
Manifestation de la politesse verbale dans la formulation du reproche,
3 Cette partie de la recherche est consacrée à l’analyse les procédés utilisés pour exprimer la politesse dans les reproches et les réactions des interlocuteurs face aux reproches avec et sans procédé de politesse
The concept of reproach is fundamentally about expressing dissatisfaction and instilling feelings of shame or regret in the listener, prompting them to amend their behavior This act is seen as a face-threatening act (FTA) for both parties involved in the interaction To mitigate the impact of such FTAs, negative politeness strategies are employed to soften the delivery of reproach Therefore, we will explore the "softeners," including substitutive and accompanying strategies, to effectively convey the message while maintaining respect in communication.
3.1 Procédés substitutifs a Le ô vous ằ de politesse :
The use of the polite "you" is one of the most common strategies in expressions of reproach An example can be found in Pascal Bruckner's short story "La boite à bisous."
Contexte : L’homme (L2), (encore une fois) grimpe sur un arbre dans un parc Un agent de police (L1) l’aperỗoit
E1 L1 Encore vous ! [ ] Hier vous jouiez à l’exhibitionniste, aujourd’hui vous faites le singe dans les parcs Vous allez me payer ỗa ! E2 L2
In this story, the police officer and the man are strangers The officer adheres to the fundamental norm of French society by addressing the man formally, even while reprimanding him The use of the pronoun "on" highlights the social dynamics at play.
Nous trouvons un exemple dans la nouvelle Un piquet de Maurice Level dans lequel on utilise le pronom ô on ằ comme procộdộ de politesse :
Contexte : Ranaille est condamné à mort (L1) Dans la prison, il joue aux cartes avec son gardien (L2) Un jour, il perd
E1 L1 On ne doit pas compter comme ỗa ! Ce n’est pas loyal !
In this story, Ranaille is a death row inmate grappling with immense stress due to his impending execution He struggles to accept his defeat and indirectly accuses his guard of cheating by using a personal pronoun Instead of directly confronting the guard with accusations, he opts for a more polite approach, possibly out of respect for the guard's authority or an understanding that the guard is not actually cheating This indirect expression of reproach serves as a means for Ranaille to release his pent-up stress.
Indirect formulation, such as the use of polite address, is commonly found in statements of reproach where the speaker aims to maintain politeness This is illustrated in Yann Queffélec's novel "La nuit," where the character Zoé holds her breath, reflecting the nuanced communication style.
Contexte : Le mari (L1) utilise le langage vulgaire pour parler aux enfants La femme (L2) n’est pas contente
My recent projects were rejected by our American partners, not because I've lost my touch, but rather my faith—faith in humanity that exploits, mechanizes, alienates, and poisons It deceives the vulnerable and seems to lead only to war, hospitals, banks, and waste.
E3 L1 Pardon les enfants, je voulais dire : aux toilettes…
In this scenario, the parents are in front of their children, and the father has just used vulgar language while addressing them The mother aims to address his behavior without making serious accusations, as she wants to preserve her husband's positive image Instead of a harsh reprimand, she simply calls his name to subtly indicate that he has made a mistake, using a gentle nudge rather than a direct reproach.
Alors, comme procédés substitutifs, nous apercevons 3 procédés :
- Le pronom ô on ằ : 2 fois/70 ộnoncộs de reproche
- Le ô vous ằ de politesse : 31 fois/ 70 ộnoncộs de reproche
The indirect formulation of reproach is the most commonly used method, appearing in 50 out of 70 reproach statements Following this, polite expressions are also frequently utilized, while the pronoun "one" is significantly less common.
3.2 Procédés accompagnateurs : a La formule ô s’il te/vous plaợt ằ :
The phrase "ô s’il te/vous plaît" serves as a polite expression in a statement of reproach, allowing the speaker to convey criticism while making a request or giving an order This can be illustrated through an example from the novel "La nuit" by Yann Queffélec, where the use of this formula highlights the complexity of communication in tense situations.
Contexte : Le fils (Ll) demande à la mère (L2) quand elle est en train de parler à son mari
E2 L2 Zoé ! Ton père me parle…
E4 L2 Ne discute pas s’il te plaợt
In statement E2, the mother seeks to soften the threat directed at her son by using indirect phrasing instead of directly saying, "Oh, you are bothering me!" Following this, the son attempts to persuade his mother and continues the conversation, which prompts another complaint from her She employs the phrase "please" to mitigate the criticism that impacts her son's positive self-image Furthermore, by asking him to stop talking, she indirectly reproaches him for not obeying her This results in an indirect criticism presented as a request Additionally, the phrase "I beg you" is also utilized in this context.
The phrase "I beg you" serves as a subtle reproach aimed at softening the impact of a threat on the listener, functioning as a gentle request for acknowledgment and correction of a mistake This expression is illustrated in the dialogue from Yann Queffélec's story "The Night Zoe Held Her Breath."
Contexte : Le mari (L2) n’aime pas ses enfants et les considère comme des fardeaux
La femme (L1), n’est pas d’accord avec lui
E1 L1 : Je t’en prie, Rob, tu es odieux
E2 L2 : Pourtant le docteur a bien dit…
The woman seeks to maintain her partner's respect by using the phrase "oh, I beg you" alongside her criticism This approach serves to soften the impact of her message, gently urging her husband to correct his behavior by refraining from speaking negatively about their children.
In a statement, the disarmer is often positioned before the reproach to prepare the listener for the unpleasant content that follows This approach helps the listener brace themselves emotionally to avoid shock, while the speaker can slightly mitigate the threat posed by the reproach An example of this can be found in Louis Pergaud's short story "The Escape of Kinkin."
Kinkin, involved in illegal activities such as smuggling and poaching, traveled to the small Swiss border village of Les Brenets to acquire a load of tobacco However, he was apprehended by two customs officers during this operation While being transported to the cantonal headquarters, Kinkin attempted to escape.