现代汉语指令行为的有关问题
言语行为的表现形式
按照塞尔的理论， 言语行为可以区分出直接行为和间接行为。
Directly stating the intended goal represents a direct speech act, where the propositional meaning aligns with the illocutionary meaning of the utterance.
间接言语行为（Indirect speech act theory） 是通过实施另一种言语行为来间接地实
To comprehend the concept of "indirect speech acts," it is essential to first understand the "literal force" of a sentence This understanding allows us to infer the "indirect force," which refers to the implied meaning conveyed beyond the literal words.
布鲁拇ã库卡（Blum-Kulka）在跨文化言语行为实现项目（Cross- Cultural Speech
Act Research Project , 简称 CCSARP） 把间接言语行为分为规约性间接言语行为和非规
约性言语行为。
Conventional indirect speech acts are those indirect expressions that are commonly understood and established within a language community In these cases, there is a relatively fixed connection between the literal meaning of a statement and the speaker's implied intention By making a general inference based on the literal meaning, we can typically discern the speaker's indirect message according to established conventions.
Non-conventional indirect speech acts involve a complex and less fixed relationship between the speaker's intent and the literal meaning of their statements, varying significantly across different contexts These speech acts are more indirect compared to conventional ones, requiring listeners to rely on external factors, such as context, to infer the intended meaning.
In summary, speech act theory has provided crucial support for defining, classifying, and describing "directive" speech acts in this article.
1.1.2．指令言语行为
1.1.2.1．指令言语行为的定义
Most scholars agree that directive speech acts are verbal actions where the speaker aims to prompt the listener to transition from one behavioral state to another These directives can be presented in a polite manner, such as inviting or suggesting an action, or they can be more forceful, as in the case of insisting that someone perform a specific task.
Based on the definition of directive behavior, we identify three main criteria that distinguish directive actions from other types of behavior.
第一， 说者对听者的行为做出指令。
第二， 说者有让听者实施行为的意图。
The speaker aims to influence the state of the real world by having the listener carry out the instructed actions.
1.1.2.2．指令行为的分类
According to Searle's theory, speech acts can be categorized into two main types: direct speech acts and indirect speech acts.
将指令行为也划分为直接指令行为和间接指令行为。
Direct directive actions involve the sender clearly expressing a desire for the receiver to perform a specific action through a particular form of language The receiver's understanding of the sender's intention requires only basic knowledge of the language used, without needing to consider contextual information or relevant background knowledge related to the conversation.
According to Sel, indirect directive acts are implemented through another type of speech act, allowing for the execution of directives in a more subtle manner.
When issuing instructions, the sender often employs indirect language instead of fixed, direct phrases As a result, the recipient must rely not only on their language skills but also on contextual information and background knowledge to fully grasp the sender's true intentions.
In our discussion, we categorize directive actions into direct and indirect forms Furthermore, we differentiate directive actions based on their functionality into broad and narrow categories The broad category of directive actions encompasses questioning behaviors, which uniquely differ from other subtypes.
Listeners interpret verbal responses to specific questions as indicators of future actions Narrow directives refer to the speaker's intention to influence the listener's behavior through their spoken words This article will focus primarily on the classification of these narrow directives.
In the context of narrow directives, we categorize them into two types: emotional directives and operational directives This article primarily focuses on the study of operational directives.
从以上的分类，我们可以按指令功能排出以下的图：
图1；指令行为的分类
+ 情感性指令
+ 狭义指令行为
广义指令行为： + 实施性指令
1.1.2.3．指令言语行为的使用条件
影响指令行为策略选择的因素
The factors influencing directive behavior are multifaceted, encompassing broad contexts such as culture, values, thought processes, and social norms, as well as situational elements These situational factors include the social status, distance, gender, age, urgency, and the power dynamics between communicators This article specifically examines the social relationships within these situational factors, focusing on aspects of social power, control over the situation, and coercive elements.
（一） 社会权势
Social power, also known as related authority or roles, refers to an individual's influence within society, allowing them to oversee the actions of others This power is determined by factors such as age, gender, ability, or social status, particularly within governmental and organizational positions The speaker's authority creates varying social hierarchies in their relationships, which in turn affects the strength of directive behaviors.
In the teacher-student relationship, there is a distinction in their roles, leading to the same matter being addressed through different expressions.
老师可以用简单的祈使句：“把作业交给我！”。
Students should express their requests in a polite and complex manner, such as, "Please return my homework, teacher." This reflects the hierarchical relationship where the teacher holds a position of authority, capable of issuing commands like "Submit your homework to me," while the student's role is to comply with these directives This interaction exemplifies what we refer to as "command-type directive behavior."
In the classroom dynamic, students often hold a lower status compared to teachers, which leads them to use polite requests when seeking assistance or guidance This behavior is categorized as a "request" type of directive action.
（二）指令行为的强制性
The purpose of directive speech acts is to compel the listener to perform a specific action As a result, all behaviors classified as directive inherently carry an element of coercion.
Compulsory nature refers to a broad characteristic that categorizes directive behaviors into specific standards across various levels We believe that the foundation for determining directive behaviors relies on two key criteria.
使用行为的时候，说话人比听话人有权力的，有三个尺度：高，平等，低。
听话人接受行为时的权力，分为：必须实施，可以商量，可以拒绝。
不同的指令行为的强制性由两个以上的标准支配。
High-pressure behaviors involve the speaker exerting authoritative power over the listener, leaving the listener with no choice but to comply Such actions include commands, requests, and prohibitive directives, where the listener must adhere to the speaker's instructions without the option to refuse.
( 6 ) “营长！”小通讯员立住。“把帽子放下来吧！”（老舍《无名高地有了名》）
In the given example, the authority and status of the commander surpass that of the junior messenger, which justifies the command to "put the hat down!"
Low-commitment behaviors occur when the speaker holds a lower status than the listener, granting the listener the authority to either comply with or disregard the request This dynamic allows for actions such as making requests, asking for favors, negotiating, or urging someone to take action.
（7）哥，快跑呀！（莫言《丰乳肥臂》）
In the given example, the speaker holds a lower status than the listener, prompting the speaker to use an urging expression, "Run quickly!" to encourage the listener to take action.
（三）实现情况的支配
Communication situations are objectively realized, encompassing events, phenomena, and the context preceding speech acts In the realm of directive speech acts, we can categorize the emerging situations into two types: objective conditions and subjective conditions.
The objective circumstances influence the speaker's desires and the feasibility of their requests, impacting the listener's interests and the outcomes of directives Additionally, subjective conditions reflect how the speaker's thoughts and feelings are governed by these objective situations.
(8) 小孩子骂他的妈妈 他的小妹瞪目而说：“你住嘴吧！你别对妈妈无礼。”
In this scenario, the younger sister is less powerful than her older brother due to her age, which typically requires her to use requests or pleas However, in a situation where her brother is disrespectful to their mother, she is justified in issuing a command, such as telling him, "You should stop talking!"
1.1.3．指令与礼貌
Politeness is a social and cultural phenomenon intricately linked to language It not only influences the function of language but also serves as a crucial means of expressing politeness As a communication strategy, politeness helps maintain and develop relationships and is a significant factor in pragmatic constraints In language interactions, communicators seek mutual respect, prompting speakers to adapt their communication strategies to the context to demonstrate politeness and achieve optimal communication.
指令行为的语义
In verbal communication, the expressions of "directive acts" exhibit varying semantic differences, primarily reflecting the speaker's intentions and the degree of urgency in their tone.
In her 2001 work, "The Expression Forms of 'Imperative Acts' in Verbal Communication," Wang Xiurong categorizes directive speech acts into various types, including commands, threats, requests, suggestions, and invitations However, this classification is ambiguous and incomplete, as it fails to encompass all possible scenarios and lacks precision in defining each subtype These categories can be seen as points along a continuous spectrum, with their distinctions primarily based on degrees of intensity The differences arise from the varying relationships among communicators, the context of the interaction, and the modes of communication Consequently, semantic variations emerge to adapt to specific linguistic environments, highlighting the richness of language and its connection to social life.
In their 2008 work, "A Logical and Semantic Analysis of Directive Speech Acts in Chinese," Liu Yunting and Gionee emphasize the significance of studying the logic behind directive speech acts They meticulously explore the logical semantics of these acts in the Chinese language by examining three key aspects: presupposition, truth value, and formal characterization.
Presuppositions are inherent in any discourse and are fundamentally linked to directive behaviors In simple terms, a presupposition acts as a prerequisite, comprising various propositions within a statement These presupposed propositions exist at a different level than the propositions related to directive actions and can hold values of true, false, or meaningless.
（9）请叫张三立即来办公室 （北大语料库）
The example illustrates that a command can only be issued and accepted when the premise "Zhang San is not in the office" is true If the premise is false (Zhang San is in the office) or meaningless (there is no such person as Zhang San), the command cannot be appropriately issued or executed.
In terms of truth values, directive speech acts are distinct from other speech acts primarily because they aim to compel the listener to take specific actions Directive statements, which include commands, invitations, suggestions, inquiries, prohibitions, and hopes, focus on expressing intentions without involving assertions As a result, the truthfulness of directive acts remains inconclusive, with their typical expression being in the form of imperative sentences.
Mr Chen Zongming has long expressed his views on the authenticity of imperative sentences, highlighting the issue of compliance versus non-compliance He suggests that the meaning of an imperative sentence is inherently linked to its adherence, stating that an imperative proposition is considered valid only when it aligns with reality The compliance of imperative sentences is fundamentally consistent with the performative aspects of speech acts.
Directive actions have three values: a directive action is true only when its illocutionary force is realized; when the directive is fulfilled, it holds significance in communication.
A directive is considered false only when its intended effect is not achieved Additionally, a directive is deemed meaningless if its effect cannot be realized due to unclear or absent preconditions The basic structure of a directive can be summarized in the following table.
语效 指令行为
不服从 假 无法服从 无意义
The article categorizes directive behaviors into six basic types: commands, prohibitions, requests, suggestions, hopes, and inquiries Additionally, it introduces the concept of "degree" to represent the urgency of these directives, indicating varying levels of responsibility imposed on the recipient to carry out the requested actions.
Degree（命令）= Degree（禁止）〉Degree ( 请求) 〉Degree ( 建议) 〉Degree (希望) 〉Degree (询问)
汉、越语指令行为表示法研究综述
1.2.1．汉语学者的研究
The method of representing directive actions is known as directive behavior representation This concept addresses the issue of semantic meaning in directive actions, involving both direct and indirect aspects According to the research conducted by various Chinese linguists, directive behavior representation is categorized into two types: direct directive behavior representation and indirect directive behavior representation.
Wang Xiurong (2001) in "The Expression Forms of Imperative Acts in Verbal Communication" categorizes the expression of "imperative acts" into direct and indirect forms based on the dependence of sentence meaning on context Direct expressions align closely with the speaker's intended meaning, while further distinctions are made between explicit and implicit expressions Explicit expressions contain a performative verb (such as command or request) that clarifies the nature of the action and can intensify, soften, or alter the speech act's force In contrast, implicit expressions lack a performative verb, resembling traditional "imperative sentences," where the intended meaning relies heavily on contextual understanding, including tone, mood, sentence-final particles, modal verbs, and shifts in attitude.
Fang Wu (1999, 2000) in "A Pragmatic Study of Modern Chinese Imperative Sentences" highlights how speakers of Chinese can achieve optimal communication through the use of imperative sentences The author identifies three key factors: the relationship between the speaker and listener, the means of expressing tone, and the use of personal pronouns to indicate the imperative object Various tonal strategies, including intonation, emphasis, verb reduplication, mood particles, and auxiliary verbs, are employed to effectively convey speech acts.
1.2.2 越南语学者的研究
关于越南语指令行为的表示手段，传统语言学与现代语言学都提到了。
Nguyễn Kim Thản (1980) trong tác phẩm "Ngữ pháp tiếng Việt" đã chỉ ra rằng câu khiến thể hiện ý chí và yêu cầu của người nói, nhằm mục đích khuyến khích người nghe thực hiện hành động, đồng thời phân loại các phương tiện thực hiện hành động khiến thành năm loại: câu khiến, động từ thực hiện, ngữ điệu, từ ngữ khí, và động từ tình thái Đỗ Thị Kim Liên (1999) đã tổng hợp các hình thức thực hiện hành động chỉ thị từ những nghiên cứu trước đó và bổ sung liên từ "mà" để thể hiện mệnh lệnh Diệp Quang Ban (2005) đưa ra cách phân loại mới cho câu khiến, chia thành hai loại: loại sử dụng từ chuyên dụng và loại cần có điều kiện để hình thành câu khiến Đào Thanh Lan (2010) tiếp tục nghiên cứu ngữ nghĩa của lời cầu khiến trong tiếng Việt.
The article "Grammar and Semantics of Imperative Sentences in Vietnamese" published by the Social Sciences Press presents the author's specific insights on the means of expressing both direct and indirect commands.
Vietnamese scholars agree that there are several means of expressing directive actions, including modal verbs, mood particles, imperative sentences, intonation, and performative verbs.
In summary, researchers in Chinese and Vietnamese grammar have conducted extensive studies on the representation of directive speech acts, leading to diverse perspectives This research aims to thoroughly examine and deepen the understanding of the varied expressions of directive speech acts in Chinese, providing valuable reference materials for Vietnamese learners of Chinese.
从探讨前人研究基础上，本文侧重于以下的几类：
直接指令行为表示法：施为动词与施为句和祈使句
间接指令行为表示法：带情态动词的句子、动词重叠及语气助词
Additionally, intonation and context serve as key indicators of directive behavior While intonation necessitates experimentation, context demands thorough investigation Therefore, we will continue to explore the roles of intonation and context in our future research endeavors.
Directive speech acts are a category of verbal communication where the speaker aims to influence the listener to transition from one state of action to another, aligning with the speaker's intentions.
Directive speech acts are essentially "face-threatening acts," prompting speakers to adopt strategies that transform these inherently impolite actions into polite ones to achieve their communicative goals Consequently, the use of directive speech acts is widespread, categorized into two types: direct and indirect directives, with indirect directives being notably more frequent.
Linguists explore the representation of directive speech acts from various perspectives, revealing the true nature of directive speech acts in Chinese Notably, there is a significant gap in comparative studies of directive speech acts between Chinese and Vietnamese This article advocates for an examination of modern Chinese directive speech acts, focusing on performative verbs, performative sentences, and imperative sentences.
This study conducts a comprehensive analysis using five linguistic features: modal verbs, verb reduplication, and discourse markers It also compares these elements with the directive speech acts in Vietnamese.
The expression of directive actions in Chinese is diverse, resulting in a rich array of meanings These meanings primarily encompass various directives such as commands, prohibitions, requests, proposals, urgings, and persuading against certain actions.
现代汉语指令行为表示法考察
To obtain reliable evidence regarding the representation of directive speech acts in modern Chinese, I focused on analyzing a total of 945 example sentences The findings indicate that the frequency of direct representation is low, while the use of indirect representation is significantly higher, as detailed in the accompanying table.
表2：现代汉语指令行为表示法调查
指令行为实施的手段 例句数量 比例（%）
直接表示法
施为动词与施为句 62 6,56%
间接表示法 带有情态动词的句子 211 22,34%
下面我们再详细介绍两种指令行为表示法:
直接表示法
2.1.1．施为动词与施为句
The scope of performative verbs expressing directive speech acts is a topic of discussion Liu Dawei (1991) suggests that performative verbs should encompass psychological verbs However, in our analysis of performative verbs that convey directive speech acts, we argue that psychological verbs should be excluded for two reasons.
The primary reason is that directive speech acts are used by the speaker to request the listener to perform a specific action.
"Since unexpressed psychological activities do not influence the behavior of the recipient, they cannot serve as directives in communication."
One reason is that sentences containing psychological verbs can sometimes be used to influence the behavior of the recipient.
The sentences in question are perceived by the recipient as directives from the sender; however, we argue that these sentences do not directly execute commands Instead, the recipient requires a degree of inference during the understanding process, which places them outside the scope of the types being discussed here.
Not all sentences containing performative verbs are intended to execute performative actions, as these verbs can also convey other meanings beyond their directive function.
词本身应有以下限制：
第一， 动词应在主句中做主要的谓语动词
第二， 不应受否定副词“不”或“没有”的限制
第三， 不应受表达过去或将来的时间名词、副词及动词的限制
第四， 不应带有“了”，“着”，“过 ”这些表达动态的助词
第五， 不应带有表示被动的“被”、“叫”的介词
第六， 动词的主语必须为第一人称单数
第七， 施为动词的指令对象的宾语必须为第二人称
Based on the aforementioned criteria, we conclude that the following sentences cannot perform direct directive actions in Chinese, meaning they do not fulfill their performative function.
* 我来这里是为了命令你明天去医院看病。
* 我没/不命令你去医院看病。
* 我昨天/曾经命令你去医院看病。
* 我命令了你去医院看病。
* 我被命令明天去医院看病。
* 他命令你去医院看病。
* 我命令他去医院看病。
表达指令语力的施为动词应是可以进入如下框架的非心理动词：
SP1 + 施为动词 + SP2 + 命题内容
* 注释： SP1 表示说话人、 SP2 表示听话人
根据以上的标准，我们对《现代汉语词典（第五版）》和〈 汉语动词用法词典〉中
An investigation was conducted to analyze and summarize words that possess directive power, resulting in the collection of several performative verbs that exhibit this characteristic.
The article discusses various forms of communication and requests, including commands, prohibitions, demands, proposals, initiatives, suggestions, permissions, and pleas It highlights the nuances between these terms, such as the differences between asking for permission and making a request, as well as the emotional weight behind terms like begging and pleading Each word conveys a distinct level of urgency and formality, reflecting the complexity of human interaction and the importance of context in communication.
The most significant characteristic of performative verbs expressing directive modalities is their inherent directive semantics This means that they encompass the speaker's intentions and requests regarding a particular action, which can vary based on the listener's response In other words, the semantics of these performative verbs can convey different directive modalities, including commands, prohibitions, requests, suggestions, permissions, pleas, and invitations The following analysis will explore the directive semantics of these performative verbs.
“命令” : 提出指令
“禁止”：不许可其他人做某种行为
“要求”：提出具体愿望或条件，希望得到满足或实现
“提议”：商讨问题时提出主张来请大家讨论。“倡议”、“建议”的语义与“提议”相似。
"Allow" means to provide others with the objective conditions to do something The terms "approval," "permission," "authorization," and "consent" share similar meanings with "allow."
The term "request" refers to the act of expressing a desire or hope for something to be fulfilled It shares similar meanings with words such as "ask," "plead," "beg," "seek," "implore," and "entreat."
“请”：用于希望对方做某事
“拜托”：多用于托人办事
The verbs used in communication often express the speaker's desires and intentions, indicating a wish for the listener to perform a specific action Consequently, these verbs can convey directive behaviors effectively.
下面，我们进行具体分析这些施为动词的特点：
2.1.1.1 施为动词的特点
以上的施为动词都带有施为动词的特点：
Verbs represent actions performed by individuals, indicating that all the aforementioned action verbs relate to human behavior.
Secondly, the meanings conveyed by these action verbs are expressed by the speaker The actions are performed through spoken language.
( 10 ) 司马粮哭着说：“爹，求求你，带上我吧……。”（莫言《丰乳肥臂》）
上述例子中，司马粮想要他的爸爸带上他一起所以他说“求求你”。
* 第三，这些施为动词在句子中往往用于现在时。例如：
间接表示法
2.2.1 带情态动词的句子：
Mood reflects the speaker's attitude or perspective towards a proposition, and it can be categorized into three types: epistemic mood, which pertains to knowledge and belief; deontic mood, which relates to obligation and permission; and dynamic mood, which focuses on the ability or capacity of the subject.
In Chinese, modal verbs are typically used to express moral modality According to Ma Qingzhu's classification (1988), verbs that indicate moral modality are generally categorized as necessity verbs and possibility verbs, which can be employed to carry out all directive actions.
Based on the "Modern Chinese Dictionary (Fifth Edition)" and the scope of this paper, we identify the following modal verbs: affirmative forms include should, ought to, must, have to, and need to.
否定式：不应该、不应当、不应、不该、不要、不用、不得
这些情态动词只成为转达祈使情态的手段，它们满足了以下两个条件：
第一， 句子的主语是第二人称（或第二人称复数），有时主语可以省略。 例如：
（56）“走？”钱先生细细的看了看瑞全。“好！你应当走，可以走！”
（老舍《四世同堂》） 上面的例子，句子的主语是第二人称“你”
（57）怎样？老程剔着牙上的一个芝麻。 “该走了！”祥子看着地上的铺盖卷。
（老舍《骆驼祥子》）
例子（57）中主语是“老程”被省略了。
Modal verbs are followed by components that can be verbs or adjectives, serving the function of conveying imperative content.
（58）二强子喝醉，有了主意：“你要真心疼你的兄弟，你就有法儿挣钱养活他们！”。
（老舍《骆驼祥子》）
After catching his breath, Captain He pleaded, "Instructor, please draw me a flat sketch of 'Old Bald Mountain'; my hands are clumsy!" The instructor replied, "You should get some sleep too!"
上面的例子，（58）中补语由形容词“真心”充当，（59）中补语由动词“睡”充当。
2.2.1.1 情态动词的分类
The potential of sentence structures and their role in conveying modal instructions is determined by the modal meanings of specific verbs According to the "Modern Chinese Dictionary (5th Edition)" and the semantics of the aforementioned modal verbs, we categorize these verbs into three groups.
第一小组, 包括：应该、应当，应、该
第二小组，包括：要
第三小组，包括：必须、必得、须得，得
下面，我们把这些情态动词进行分析：
* 第一小组, 具有 “应该”、“应当”，“应”、“该”
Modal verbs such as "should," "ought to," and "must" imply the speaker's persuasion for the listener to engage in beneficial actions These verbs carry an imperative nuance that can also advantage the speaker The speaker's communicative authority is either higher than or equal to that of the listener Typically, these modal verbs are used in contexts involving closely related parties.
The commander gently said, "Take it! You should write a letter to your family, assuring them that you are safe with us."
In the given example, the speaker, a superior officer, persuades the listener, a soldier, to write a letter to his family, which ultimately benefits the listener.
"The team leader, feeling fatigued, expressed urgency, stating, 'That shouldn't be your concern! You should be commanding from the command post! There's no need for you to personally handle breaking into bunkers or cutting through barbed wire.'"
In Example (61), the speaker, who holds the rank of "Commander," is in a superior position to the listener, referred to as "General." The Commander advises the General, stating, "You should command from the command post! There's no need for you to personally engage in breaking through bunkers or cutting through barbed wire." This guidance is beneficial for the General.
（62）她说：“我看你该试着吃羊奶。”（莫言〈丰乳肥臂〉）
（63）你应该看过她的诗（钱钟书《围城》）
In examples (62) and (63), the speaker encourages the listener to "try goat's milk" and "read her poetry," suggesting that these actions would be beneficial for the listener This interaction highlights a relationship based on equality between the speaker and the listener.
The phrases "不应该," "不应当," "不应," and "不该" are negative forms of modal verbs that indicate actions that should not be taken These expressions serve to persuade the listener against engaging in certain behaviors, highlighting the importance of adhering to social norms and expectations.
（64）“你不应退失菩提心，应更勇猛精进，上求佛道。”（北大语料库）
（65）她的父亲听到后转身给了她一巴掌，厉声喝道：“女孩不应当哭”。
（北大语料库）
（66）舍利弗说：“既然是讲台，那么你就不应该叫我下去。”（北大语料库）
（67）逾70岁的老奶奶，望着长长的灵车对，捶胸顿足：“孩子们，你们不该走
哇！” （北大语料库）
* 第二小组，具有情态动词“ 要”
情态动词“要”有以下两个意义：
The term "must" indicates a necessary action that the listener must take, as failing to do so could result in harm to them.
Additionally, the listener must promptly address the matter at hand, as any delay in their response could lead to negative consequences for them.