INTRODUCTION
Rationale of the study
In recent years, women's participation in the workforce has significantly expanded, with many now occupying roles that require advanced professional, analytical, and managerial skills, previously dominated by men (Rizzo, A.M & Mendez, C., 1990) However, the challenges women face in the workplace have not been thoroughly explored in academic research, despite a growing interest in this area.
Skepticism about women's capability to assume managerial roles has persisted since they entered the corporate world (Portello & Long, 1994) Researchers aim to challenge the outdated belief that women are inferior negotiators compared to men, which has hindered their advancement in management Additionally, some theorists examine whether women communicate differently than men during negotiations, influenced by cultural stereotypes and feminist theories (Korabik, Baril, & Watson, 1993).
After exploring the topic of female participation in the workplace, the researcher conducted extensive research using various sources, including books, articles, magazines, and previous studies from the University Library and online This investigation led to significant insights into the subject.
Negotiation in the workplace is a widely discussed topic among scholars, yet salary negotiation remains under-researched, receiving only limited academic attention Particularly, the roles and skills of women in workplace negotiations have not been thoroughly examined.
The relationship between achieving social networking (SN) results and the application of related strategies, including negotiation, persuasion, and politeness strategies, remains inadequately defined in existing literature.
The researcher, driven by a personal interest in the dynamics between politeness strategies (PSs) and social norms (SN), is currently employed in a diverse workplace predominantly comprised of female colleagues from Vietnamese and Anglo-Saxon backgrounds This multicultural environment, coupled with the established professional network, provides the researcher with access to a significant number of Vietnamese and Anglophone women in the field Furthermore, the lack of prior studies on this topic at the university has motivated the researcher to pursue a Master's thesis titled: “Politeness strategies employed in salary negotiation by Vietnamese and Anglophone females in a multicultural workplace in Vietnam.”
Significance of the study
This study aims to provide valuable insights for both women in multicultural workplaces and the broader workforce Additionally, it is expected to serve as a reliable reference for individuals interested in effective utilization strategies.
Scope and scale of the study
This study examines the use of politeness strategies (PSs) by Vietnamese and Anglophone women in multicultural workplaces, specifically within NGOs and foreign-aided projects in Hanoi, Vietnam The research focuses on female participants who regularly interact with individuals from diverse nationalities, reflecting the unique dynamics of their working conditions.
Objectives of the study
The research is launched in order to investigate the utilization of PSs in typical situations of
SN by Vietnamese and Anglophone females in their multi-cultural workplace in Vietnam Specifically, the study aims at finding answers to the research questions:
1 What are Vietnamese and Anglophone females‟ general understanding and common habits in SN?
2 What are the PSs employed by Vietnamese and Anglophone females in SN in Vietnam multi-cultural workplace?
3 Are there any differences in the choice of PSs in SN between Vietnamese and Anglophone females? If yes, what may be the core reasons and implications?
4 What are the recommendations for both Vietnamese and Anglophone females to better attain their expectations in SN?
To address those questions above, the following hypotheses are made before the study is conducted:
- Vietnamese females may not have sound understanding and greatly appropriate habits in
Anglophone females with overseas work experience are often better prepared to address various challenges, yet there remain certain limitations that need to be acknowledged To foster positive change, it is essential to propose actionable suggestions for improvement.
Cultural differences between Oriental and European societies lead to distinct communication styles among Vietnamese and Anglophone women in the workplace While both groups share certain characteristics, Vietnamese women often favor positive and indirect politeness strategies, whereas Anglophone women are more likely to utilize negative strategies These contrasting approaches result in varying outcomes in social negotiations, influenced by these cultural distinctions and additional related factors.
The research will be conducted in seek of the answers to the above-mentioned factors and to prove the hypotheses developed in advance
This study employs a combination of deductive and inductive methods, starting with a general concept to reach specific conclusions while also using observations to formulate general principles A theoretical framework is established through a literature review, and the inductive approach is applied to validate the pre-researched hypotheses The research utilizes both quantitative and qualitative methods, primarily through questionnaires, supplemented by notes from discussions with informants Furthermore, personal observations and insights from experienced professionals in the field significantly enhance the analysis and interpretation of the survey results.
The study is structured into three main sections: Introduction, Development, and Conclusions and Recommendations The Introduction outlines the rationale, significance, scope, objectives, and methodology of the research The Development section is divided into three chapters: the first chapter reviews relevant literature on speech acts theories and workplace negotiation, incorporating insights from scholars and previous studies Chapter 2 details the research methodology, including the approaches and data collection instruments used Chapter 3 presents and discusses the collected data Finally, the Conclusions and Recommendations section summarizes the key findings, offers conclusions, and provides recommendations for future research, with references and annexes, including a blank questionnaire, included at the end of the paper.
Organization of the study
The study is structured into three primary sections: Introduction, Development, and Conclusions and Recommendations The Introduction outlines the rationale, significance, scope, objectives, and methodology of the research The Development section is divided into three chapters: the first chapter reviews relevant literature on speech act theories and workplace negotiation, incorporating insights from scholars and previous studies The second chapter details the research methodology, including major approaches and data collection instruments Chapter three presents and discusses the data collected Finally, the Conclusions and Recommendations section summarizes the key findings, offers conclusions, provides recommendations, and suggests areas for further research, with references and annexes, including a blank questionnaire, included at the end of the paper.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction of speech acts: definition & classification
The philosopher J.L Austin (1911-1960) who first introduced and used the term “speech acts” claims that many utterances (things people say) are equivalent to actions When someone says:
Speech acts are utterances that create new social or psychological realities, exemplified by phrases like “I name this ship Titanic” or “I now pronounce you husband and wife.” These expressions encompass both grammatical and lexical elements while simultaneously performing actions, as articulated by J.L Austin in 1962 The study of speech acts has since gained prominence among various philosophers and linguists, including Grice, Hymes, Searle, and others, who have explored the intricate relationship between language and action.
Speech acts, as defined by Verschueren (1977), play a crucial role in daily interactions, encompassing actions such as thanking, congratulating, and requesting In everyday conversations, sentences often convey meanings beyond their literal lexical and grammatical interpretations For example, when Vietnamese people greet friends with "How are you?", it functions more as a friendly greeting than a genuine inquiry about health This highlights the importance of context in understanding communication, a point also emphasized by Richards (1985).
Speech acts are inherently actions rather than mere sentences, allowing for multiple functions within a single utterance For instance, the phrase "I'm thirsty" serves both as a statement of need and a request for a drink, illustrating the versatility of speech acts in communication.
According to Austin, every utterance involves three interconnected acts: the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, and the perlocutionary act These acts are essential for creating meaningful communication, as they illustrate the relationship where the speaker (S) conveys a message to the hearer (H), performs an action through that message, and ultimately influences H's response (Harnish, R.M., 2001).
- Locutionary acts are simply the speech acts that have taken place They are the physical acts of producing well-formed and meaningful utterances
Illocutionary acts are actions performed through utterances, where saying equates to doing, such as in betting or making promises Essentially, an illocutionary act conveys the speaker's intention or force behind their words, encompassing statements, offers, threats, and other communicative purposes known as illocutionary force.
Perlocutionary acts refer to the impact of an utterance on the listener, such as when someone accepts a bet or a marriage proposal, or when they receive a welcome or warning These acts result in changes to the listener's state of mind, knowledge, or attitude, highlighting how spoken words can influence and affect the audience's perceptions and reactions.
When we say, "It is so cold in this room," we are performing a locutionary act This statement may serve as a complaint or a request, representing the illocutionary act The intention behind this utterance could lead to a perlocutionary act, prompting someone to close the window or raise the room temperature.
One challenge arises from the variability of illocutionary forces associated with a single locution in different contexts For instance, the utterance "Don't you know that this is a non-smoking department?" can convey various illocutionary meanings depending on the situation.
- A real question: S just wants to question whether or not H notices the fact that they are in a non-smoking department;
- A complaint: S is annoyed because H is smoking in a place where smoking is not allowed;
- A request: S wants H to stop smoking in that department
Undoubtedly, context proves its crucial role in interpreting such utterances
G Yule (1996) identifies illocutionary force as the most prominent type of speech act, noting that the term "speech act" is often narrowly defined to refer specifically to this concept He provides a classification table of various speech acts, highlighting the significance of illocutionary force in understanding communication.
Speech act type Direction of fit S=Speaker; X=Situation
Declarations Words change the world S causes X
Representatives Make words fit the world S believes X
Expressives Make words fit the world S feels X
Directives Make the world fit words S wants X
Commissives Make the world fit words S intends X
Table 1: Speech acts classification proposed by Yule, G (1996)
In his 1990 work, J.R Searle expands on Yule's classification of speech acts by introducing the concept of illocutionary points, which denote the intended purpose behind an utterance Searle categorizes illocutionary acts into five distinct types: representatives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declarations, each serving a unique communicative function.
Representatives are speech acts where a speaker asserts a proposition to be true, utilizing verbs like affirm, believe, conclude, deny, and report Essentially, these acts convey information about the state of affairs or beliefs For instance, a statement such as "I believe that he will accept our pay rise request" exemplifies how representatives communicate what the speaker perceives to be true.
- Directives: S tries to make H do something, with such words as: ask, beg, challenge, command, dare, invite, insist, request Eg.: Could you please turn down the volume a little bit?
Commissives are statements where an individual commits to a future action, using verbs such as guarantee, pledge, promise, swear, vow, undertake, and warrant For example, one might say, "I promise you a 10% salary increase at the beginning of next year if you successfully implement the three modules of the Middle Management Course in Kontum."
Expressives convey attitudes towards situations through specific verbs such as apologize, appreciate, congratulate, deplore, detest, regret, thank, and welcome For instance, while I would like to increase your salary as a form of encouragement, I regret to inform you that our budget for your position does not permit any salary increase.
Declarations are powerful statements that change the external status or condition of an object or situation simply through utterance For example, phrases like "I now pronounce you man and wife," "I sentence you to be hanged by the neck until you be dead," and "I name this ship Titanic" demonstrate how speech acts can have significant real-world implications.
Yule categorizes speech acts into five types and further distinguishes them into direct and indirect forms by integrating three structural forms—declarative, interrogative, and imperative—with three general communicative functions: statement, question, and command/request.
- In direct speech acts, S says what he/she means and there exists a direct relationship between a structure and function Eg “Please increase the temperature in this room a little bit.”
Speech acts in salary negotiation
Negotiation is a collaborative discussion between two or more parties aiming to find a solution to a shared problem This process can occur on personal, corporate, or international levels, as parties seek to create mutually beneficial outcomes or resolve disputes Recognizing their conflicting interests, negotiators prefer to influence the process to achieve a better deal rather than accept what the other side offers Ultimately, they strive for agreement instead of resorting to open conflict, capitulation, or severing ties.
Negotiation often involves a give-and-take dynamic, as parties have interlocking goals that require collaboration to achieve While they may not desire the exact same outcomes, their interdependence can lead to either win-lose or win-win scenarios The approach taken in negotiations—whether to compel compliance, seek compromise, or create mutually beneficial solutions—will significantly influence the relationship between the parties, the negotiation process, and the final results.
According to Lax and Sebenius (2006), mutual adjustment plays a crucial role in negotiation dynamics, as both parties recognize their ability to influence each other's outcomes Effective negotiators strive to comprehend how each side will adapt their positions based on the actions and expectations of the other party This interaction requires the exchange of information and a concerted effort to sway one another As negotiations progress, both parties propose adjustments to their respective positions, engaging in a necessary process of give-and-take and concessions to reach a settlement If one party's proposals are consistently rejected without counteroffers from the other, it risks terminating the negotiations Typically, parties are reluctant to make significant concessions unless they perceive a willingness to compromise from the opposing side.
Negotiation is a key method for individuals to improve unsatisfactory relationships or create new ones, as highlighted by Moore, C.W (1996) The field dedicated to this study is known as negotiation theory Professionals in this area are referred to as negotiators and may specialize in various sectors, including union negotiations, leveraged buyouts, peace processes, and hostage situations Additionally, they may hold titles such as diplomats, legislators, or brokers.
In his exploration of negotiation, Moore, C.W emphasizes that successful outcomes require negotiators to clearly identify the underlying problems and the desires of each party involved He highlights the significance of differentiating between issues, positions, interests, and potential settlement options when establishing negotiation goals to ensure mutually beneficial results.
An issue refers to a disagreement between parties, often framed as a problem that needs resolution For instance, a pertinent question might be, "How can benefit sharing be equitably divided among stakeholders involved in community forest harvesting in Tul village?" Issues can be categorized as substantive, involving aspects like money, time, or compensation; procedural, relating to the methods used to address disputes; or psychological, focusing on the emotional impact of proposed actions.
Positions represent a party's stance on how to address or resolve an issue, often proposing specific solutions A disputant chooses a position that aligns with their interests or fulfills certain needs.
Interests are the essential needs, conditions, or benefits that must be fulfilled in an agreement for it to be deemed satisfactory These interests can pertain to the content of the agreement, specific procedural aspects, or even psychological requirements.
• Settlement Options are possible solutions which address one or more party's interests The presence of options implies that there is more than one way to satisfy interests
Negotiation encompasses three fundamental elements: process, behavior, and substance The process involves the context, participants, tactics, and stages of the negotiation Behavior pertains to the relationships, communication styles, and interactions among the parties involved Lastly, substance focuses on the core issues being negotiated, including the agenda, interests, options, and the final agreements reached.
In negotiation, selecting an effective approach is crucial, with the two primary methods being Positional Bargaining and Interest-based Bargaining These strategies are thoroughly explored in the influential book “Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In” by Fisher, Ury, and Patton (1991), which highlights their classification and specific details.
Positional Bargaining is a negotiation strategy where a negotiator selects and presents a series of ordered positions or alternative solutions that align with specific interests or needs The initial position reflects the maximum gain anticipated in the negotiation, while each following position requires less from the opponent, leading to diminished benefits for the advocate A successful agreement occurs when both negotiators' positions align within an acceptable settlement range.
Positional Bargaining occurs when resources are limited, such as time or money, and a party aims to maximize their share of a fixed payoff This approach is typically employed when the interests of the negotiating parties are contradictory or mutually exclusive, and when immediate gains take precedence over the potential for future relationships The main steps of Positional Bargaining involve strategic negotiation tactics focused on these priorities.
1 Set your target point solution that would meet all your interests and result in complete success for you
2 Make target point into opening position
3 Set your bottom line or resistance point - the solution that is the least you are willing to accept and still reach agreement
4 Consider possible targets and bottom lines of other negotiators
5 Consider a range of positions between your target point and bottom line which are:
- Fallback position (yellow light that indicates you are close to bottom line)
6 Decide if any of your positions meets the interests or needs of the other negotiators
7 Decide when you will move from one position to another
8 Order the issues to be negotiated into a logical and beneficial sequence
9 Open with an easy issue
10 Open with a position close to your target point
11 Allow other side to explain their opening position
12 If appropriate, move to other positions that offer other negotiator(s) more benefits
13 Look for a settlement or bargaining range spectrum of possible settlement alternatives any one of which is preferable to impasse or no settlement
14 Compromise on benefits and losses where appropriate
15 Look for how positions can be modified to meet all negotiators' interests
Interest-based bargaining is a collaborative negotiation approach where parties work together to meet each other's needs and satisfy mutual interests Instead of simply exchanging counter positions, negotiators focus on identifying their own interests and those of others before crafting specific solutions Interests can be categorized into three types: substantive interests, which pertain to tangible needs such as money or resources; procedural interests, which involve preferences for how processes are conducted; and relational interests, which emphasize the importance of maintaining positive relationships during negotiations.
Interest-Based Bargaining focuses on the psychological and relational needs of negotiators, emphasizing how individuals feel and are treated within ongoing relationships Instead of arguing over fixed positions, negotiators collaboratively explore various settlement options that can satisfy all parties involved This cooperative approach, known as integrated bargaining, aims to expand the range of solutions, ultimately leading to wiser decisions that benefit everyone It is particularly effective when the interests of negotiators are interdependent, when the nature of the issue is uncertain, when maintaining future relationships is crucial, and when a tailored solution to specific needs is desired The process encourages cooperative problem-solving over competitive tactics and is ideal when compromising on principles is not an option.
1 Clearly identify the substantive, procedural and relationship interest/needs that you expect to be satisfied as a result of negotiations
2 Speculate on the substantive, procedural and relationship interests that might be important to the other negotiators
3 Begin negotiations by educating each other about your respective interests, make sure all interests are understood
4 Frame the problem in a way that it is solvable by a win/win solution
5 Identify general criteria that must be present in an acceptable settlement
6 Generate multiple options for settlement; make sure that more than two options are on the table at any given time
7 Utilize integrative option generating techniques
8 Separate the option generation process from the evaluation process
9 Work towards agreement: -Start with a problem solving rather than competitive approach; Provide benefits above and beyond the call of duty; Listen and convey to other negotiators that they have been heard and understood; Listen and restate content to demonstrate understanding; Listen and restate feelings to demonstrate acceptance (not necessarily agreement) and understanding of intensity
10 Identify areas of agreement, restate them, and write them down