Introduction
Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
Nowadays, the role of English in Vietnam is becoming more and more important In order to integrate with a global market economy after Doi Moi economic reform in
Since the Vietnamese government adopted a socialist-oriented market economy in 1986, allowing for private businesses and foreign investment, fluency in English has become a crucial requirement in job descriptions This economic shift has spurred tourism development, transforming Vietnam into a popular travel destination In 2013, Hanoi ranked eighth on TripAdvisor's list of top rising travel destinations, following only Kathmandu and Sapporo Consequently, the demand for English communication skills has surged, leading to a significant increase in English learners, with English now replacing Russian as the primary foreign language taught in schools and universities across Vietnam.
The demand for native English speakers to teach in Vietnam has become increasingly urgent, leading to a significant agreement between the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) and Australia’s English Language Company (ELC) in January 2013 This initiative, part of Project 2020, aims to enhance English proficiency in the country by bringing thousands of teachers from the U.S., U.K., Canada, New Zealand, Ireland, and South Africa to K-12 schools, junior colleges, and universities In the current year alone, up to 350 teachers are expected to arrive, primarily in major cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City Research on their adaptation will be crucial for advancing human resource management and intercultural studies, particularly given the lack of existing studies on expatriate management in Vietnam, especially regarding English language teachers.
The success of expatriate English teachers in Vietnam relies not only on their qualifications but also on their ability to adjust to the local culture A failure to adapt to Vietnamese work and social norms can result in underperformance and may lead teachers to abandon their roles According to Johnston (1997), Maley (1992) described EFL/ESL teaching as a permeable career, making it easy to enter and exit For expatriate teachers, the challenge of adapting to a foreign culture can further complicate their commitment to the profession Therefore, supporting these teachers in their acculturation process is crucial, as it helps them integrate into the local culture and enhances their longevity in the teaching role.
Research questions
This study examines self-initiated expatriates, a group that has been under-researched in international management literature, which typically focuses on international assignees sent abroad by their companies Unlike these assignees, self-initiated expatriates choose to relocate independently, often across continents, with a notable trend of Europeans migrating for work both within and outside their continent Despite their growing recognition as a significant part of the global workforce, research on self-initiated expatriates remains limited Specifically, in Vietnam, there is a pressing need for empirical studies on self-initiated expatriate teachers and their cultural adjustment, prompting this research to explore how these educators perceive and adapt to Vietnamese culture.
Understanding how expatriates perceive the process of acculturation is crucial for exploring their adaptation to Vietnamese culture Their perception of adjustment significantly influences the effort and willingness they invest in adapting Tung (1998) emphasized this point, noting that there is limited knowledge regarding expatriates' views on whether international assignments positively or negatively impact their career advancement She advocated for a focus on expatriates' attitudes towards career development opportunities and cultural experiences abroad, highlighting the importance of their perceptions in successful adjustment.
This study examines the adjustment strategies employed by self-initiated expatriate English teachers in Hanoi to navigate cultural challenges in their workplaces The primary research questions will explore how these educators adapt to their new environments and the effectiveness of their strategies in overcoming cultural barriers.
1 How do self-initiated expatriate teachers of English language in Hanoi perceive about the importance of expatriate adjustment to their occupation?
2 What are the main problems that self-initiated expatriate teachers of English language encounter in the work place in Hanoi?
3 What are the adjustment strategies used by them in the face of these problems?
Significance of the study
The objectives of this empirical study are to:
(1) Explore incoming expatriate English teachers‟ adjustment to teaching and living etiquettes in Hanoi, Vietnam
(2) Help institutions and educational organizations, such as universities, schools, English training centers, develop more detailed job descriptions and training guidelines
(3) Help bridge the gap in self-initiated expatriate research in the context ò Vietnam
This study aims to strengthen the relationship between Western expatriates and Vietnamese nationals while addressing the gap in value studies related to expatriate adjustments and acculturation in Vietnam The findings will serve as a foundation for future research, contributing to a database focused on intercultural communication and human resource management.
Scope of the study
This study explores the significance of cultural adjustment for self-initiated expatriate teachers in Hanoi, Vietnam, focusing on their conflict resolution strategies and workplace challenges It examines key elements of their professional experience, including interactions with local nationals, support systems, organizational culture, and the impact of expectations and beliefs on their teaching environment.
Organization
This study is structured into five chapters: Chapter 1 introduces the research problems, questions, significance, and scope Chapter 2 reviews literature on expatriation and self-initiated expatriation, providing a conceptual framework and clarifying terminology Chapter 3 details the methodology, research instruments, and procedures employed Chapter 4 consists of four sections, with the first three addressing the research questions and the final section discussing the study's implications Finally, Chapter 5 concludes by summarizing the findings, reviewing limitations, and suggesting directions for future research.
Literature Review
Expatriate Adjustment at individual level
Expatriate adjustment is a crucial aspect of both expatriate and acculturation research, highlighting the process by which individuals adapt to align their personal inclinations with the demands of a new cultural environment, thereby minimizing conflict.
1991) This fit is important because it is a predictor of an expatriate„s job performance (Parker & McEvoy, 1993) and turnover (Black & Stephens, 1989).
Black et al (1991)‟s model of expatriate adjustment
Various models have been created to comprehend expatriate adjustment, with Black et al (1991) offering a notable framework that categorizes the adjustment process into three levels: degrees, facets, and modes.
Black et al (1991) highlighted that the degree of adjustment for expatriates is both a subjective and objective concept Subjectively, it reflects the comfort level an expatriate experiences in their new role and their adaptation to its requirements Objectively, it can be assessed by evaluating the individual's performance in mastering these role requirements This study focuses on adjustment as a subjective matter.
Dawis and Lofquist (1984) emphasized that the level of adjustment in a work environment is influenced by two key factors: satisfaction, which measures how well the work environment fulfills individual needs, and satisfactoriness, which assesses how the individual's abilities align with the demands of their job role.
The U-curve model of cross-cultural adjustment, developed from the work of Lysgaand (1955), Oberg (1960), and Torbiorn (1982), consists of four phases Initially, expatriates experience the "honeymoon phase," characterized by fascination with the new culture (Gullahorn & Gullahorn, 1963) This is followed by the second phase, culture shock, where the U-curve dips as expatriates face challenges in their new environment (Adler, 1986; Church, 1982) As they adapt and learn appropriate behaviors, they enter the third phase, where the curve begins to rise as adjustments take hold (Harris & Moran, 1989).
In the fourth stage of adjustment, individuals effectively manage cultural differences and perform necessary behaviors without anxiety (Oberg, 1960) Research indicates a positive correlation between the degree of adjustment and the duration of time expatriates spend in the host country (Lu, 1990; Nash, 1991).
The concept of mode originates from Berry's (1980, 2001) research on acculturation theory, particularly focusing on acculturation attitudes Berry identifies two key dimensions of acculturation: cultural maintenance, which questions the extent to which individuals desire to preserve or relinquish their cultural attributes, and contact and participation with the national or host group, which examines the degree of interaction individuals seek with those outside their own group Based on these dimensions, Black and colleagues distinguish four distinct acculturation strategies.
Assimilation (individuals do not wish to preserve their cultural norms and seek daily interaction with members of the other group);
Separation (individuals wish to preserve their cultural norms and wish to avoid interaction with members of the other group);
Integration (individuals wish to maintain original culture and interact daily with other group);
Marginalization (individuals show little interest in neither cultural maintenance nor interaction with members of the other group)
Figure 2.1 Berry (1997)‟s model of acculturation strategies
The modes of expatriate work adjustment, developed from Nicholson's (1984) and Black's (1991) studies, are based on two key dimensions: the modification of personal behaviors and attitudes, and the adaptation to changes in the working environment, including role requirements and expectations This concept is supported by various scholars, including Dawis and Lofquist (1984), Feldman and Brett (1983), and Van Maanen and Schein (1979), who emphasize the importance of these adjustment modes for expatriates.
Replication: individuals make few alterations in their identity or behaviors to fit the role and make a few alterations in the work role
Absorption: individuals change their behaviors and attitudes to fit the role and make no or very few changes in the role
Exploration: individuals change both their behaviors and attitudes and the role
Determination: individuals remain relatively unaffected but the role is altered
Table 2.1 summarizes the four modes of work adjustment
Mode of work adjustment Changing the self Changing the role
Black et al (1991) identify three key facets of adjustment: work adjustment, intercultural interaction adjustment, and general adjustment Work adjustment pertains to job responsibilities, supervision, and performance expectations, reflecting an individual's psychological comfort in the workplace Intercultural interaction adjustment focuses on the comfort level in communicating with host country nationals and adapting to their interpersonal styles General adjustment relates to overall psychological comfort with various aspects of the host culture Understanding these distinct facets is crucial, as they are interconnected and influenced by different variables While this study primarily examines work adjustment, it acknowledges that exploring this facet may also involve aspects of the other two adjustments.
2.2.4 ADTECEDENTS OF EXPATRIATE ADJUSTMENT AT WORK
Black et al (1991) proposed a model of adjustment that identifies two key antecedents influencing international adjustment: pre-departure factors and post-arrival factors Pre-departure factors, such as prior overseas experience, cross-cultural training, and selection processes, are crucial for determining "anticipatory adjustment," which reflects how well an expatriate is prepared before their assignment In contrast, post-arrival factors, or in-country influences, encompass the expatriate's individual skills, job-related issues like role conflict, organizational culture, socialization processes, and non-work-related aspects.
Research by Black et al (1991) highlights the significance of pre-departure factors in facilitating smoother post-arrival adjustments for expatriates Scholars such as Tung (1988), Church (1982), Mendenhall et al (1987), and Nicholson & Imaizumi (1993) have concurred that elements like prior overseas experience, cross-cultural training, and effective selection processes positively impact expatriate adaptation Church (1982) emphasized the value of prior cultural exposure for successful sojourner adjustment Notably, Black and colleagues identified language proficiency in the host country's language as a critical factor, while Nicholson and Imaizumi (1993) recognized that inadequate language skills can significantly hinder communication and perception.
These include the expatriate‟s individual skills, job factors (e.g., role conflict), organizational factors, and non-work factors, which will be outlined below
Self-efficacy, relational skills, and perceptional skills play a crucial role in the adjustment of expatriates According to Bandura (1977), self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to navigate and adapt to unfamiliar environments, even amidst uncertainty (Wright et al., 1995) This concept encompasses the expatriate's ability to exhibit new behaviors in a foreign setting, process feedback—both positive and negative—and utilize that feedback to mitigate uncertainty and enhance their adjustment (Black et al., 1991) Building on Nicholson's (1984) research, Black and colleagues emphasize the importance of these skills in facilitating successful expatriate transitions.
Research indicates that self-efficacy levels influence adjustment strategies aimed at modifying either the environment, such as work roles, or the individual themselves Low self-efficacy and dysfunctional acculturation are linked to negative psychological outcomes, suggesting that poor adjustments can lead to a further decline in self-efficacy (Fan & Mak, 1998; Pinquart, Juang, & Silbereisen, 2003; Samers).
Relational skills are a repertoire of tools and techniques that work in a similar way to reduce uncertainty in interpersonal communication and produce adjustment Black
(1988) found a positive relationship between the percentage of time spent with host nationals and general cross-cultural adjustment
In the workplace, job factors significantly influence employee adjustment, as identified by Black et al (1991) The four key factors are role clarity, which refers to a precise understanding of job requirements and policies; role discretion, allowing autonomy in work adaptation; role novelty, highlighting differences between previous and current roles; and role conflict, which involves conflicting expectations While role clarity and discretion facilitate adjustment by enabling the use of established behavior patterns, role novelty and conflict can hinder this process.
Organizational factors affecting adjustment can be divided into cultural and socialization aspects Key cultural factors include organizational culture novelty, social support, and logistical assistance Organizational culture novelty impacts work adjustment similarly to role novelty; greater novelty leads to increased uncertainty and decreased adjustment Social support from employers and colleagues enhances adjustment, while logistical support—such as housing and schooling—primarily addresses non-work issues and is more closely related to general adjustment than to work-specific adjustment (Black et al., 1991).
Organizational socialization factors, as defined by Van Maanen and Schein (1979), encompass how individuals learn the expected behaviors and values within a workplace, influencing their adaptation to new roles This concept, initially proposed by Fisher (1986) and further explored by Black et al (1991), highlights the dual aspects of socialization—tactics and content—and their impact on role innovation The extent to which expatriates are expected to implement changes in their work environment is closely linked to their adjustment strategies.
Self-initiated expatriates
Self-initiated expatriates are individuals who voluntarily choose to work in a foreign country, and they have recently gained recognition as a significant part of the global workforce (Tung).
Expatriate adjustment is crucial in human resource management, yet research on self-initiated expatriate adjustment remains limited (Bozionelos, 2009; Al-waqfi, 2012) Although the definition of expatriate adjustment applies to both self-initiated expatriates and international assignees, their perceptions and strategies can vary significantly (Tams & Arthur, 2007) This study aims to clarify the distinctions between self-initiated expatriates and those on international assignments, while also reviewing existing literature on self-initiated expatriate adjustment.
2.3.2 SELF-INITIATED EXPATRIATES VERSUS INTERNATIONAL
Previous research on expatriates has primarily concentrated on employees engaged in international assignments, highlighting the differences between these individuals and self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) Notably, Arthur, Pringle, and Barry (1998) identified several unique characteristics that distinguish SIEs from traditional expatriates, allowing for meaningful comparisons and contrasts between the two groups.
Self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) differ from traditional expatriates as they are not employees of multinational companies Instead, SIEs independently choose to relocate abroad, seeking the challenges of living and working in a foreign environment, rather than being assigned to a position by their employer.
Many Self-Initiated Expatriates (SIEs) view their international experiences primarily as opportunities for personal development rather than as a means to achieve specific company objectives This perspective highlights that personal growth is a key motivation for individuals pursuing international work, overshadowing corporate goals.
Unlike international assignees, self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) do not receive formal training before leaving their home company; instead, their preparation stems from personal experience and initiative While international assignees benefit from comprehensive support packages that include cultural and language training, as well as logistical assistance like housing and healthcare, SIEs typically finance their own relocation through personal savings and must navigate the challenges of the foreign environment independently.
Self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) are open to relocating abroad for personal growth, unlike internationally assigned expatriates who may resist such moves SIEs often pursue non-traditional career paths, enjoying greater freedom and flexibility in exploring career development opportunities.
International assignments typically have set time frames; however, the duration for self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) in foreign countries can be ambiguous and largely depends on their individual viewpoints According to Howe-Walsh & Schyns (2010), SIEs have the flexibility to take career breaks or short vacations, allowing them to navigate their time abroad more freely.
Hereunder is an adoption of Howe-Walsh & Schyns (2010)‟s summary of the basic differences between SIEs and international assignment expatriates
Overview of differences between self-initiated expatriates and international assignees self-initiated expatriates international assignees
Predeparture preparation, training, etc Self Company
Time-Perspective No Limit Limited
Job secured prior to expatriation Yes or No Yes
Support in non-work issues No Yes
Howe-Walsh & Schyns (2010) highlight key differences between self-initiated expatriates and organizational newcomers, noting that the latter receive training and preparation for their roles before their assignments An overview of these distinctions is presented in Table 2 (Adopted from Howe-Walsh & Schyns, 2010).
Overview of differences between self-initiated expatriates and international assignees on organizational culture
An overview of studies concerning self-initiated expatriates adjustment
Job characteristics (general) Known Known
Job characteristics (country level) Unknown Known
Job characteristics (organization) Unknown Unknown
International assignees enjoy significant advantages over self-initiated expatriates, primarily due to their prior experience and understanding of job characteristics provided by their home organization While self-initiated expatriates may possess relevant job knowledge, they often lack a comprehensive view of how their position fits within the broader organizational structure.
2.4 AN OVERVIEW OF STUDIES CONCERNING SELF-INITIATED EXPATRIATES ADJUSTMENT
Despite extensive research on expatriate adjustment in international assignments, self-initiated expatriate adjustment remains under-explored This emerging phenomenon has led to primarily exploratory and descriptive studies, with a focus on comparing self-initiated expatriates and international assignees (McKenna & Richardson, 2007; Jokinen et al., 2008; Peltokorpi & ).
Froese, 2009, Cerdin & Pargneux, 2010, Biemann & Andresen, 2010, Doherty et al,
2011) Other studies focus on expatriation motivation and the antecedents of adjustments, such as genders (see Thorn, 2009; Selmer & J Lauring, 2011; Froese
This study aims to explore the individual perceptions of expatriates regarding the significance of workplace adjustment and their management strategies within a foreign environment Unlike previous research, it does not focus solely on professional expatriates or seek to establish a deductive correlation between adjustment factors The findings are expected to address challenges related to work culture, providing valuable insights for organizations employing self-initiated expatriates to enhance their human resource management strategies.
Fitzgerald and Howe-Walsh (2008) conducted a qualitative study using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) to explore the motivations and perceptions of female professionals in the Cayman Islands The findings indicate that these self-initiated expatriates held positive views regarding the impact of their overseas experiences on their career prospects.
Tharenou and Caulfield (2010) conducted a study that presented an integrated framework to understand the reasons and mechanisms behind how self-initiated professionals adapt to their host culture, focusing on the influences of host country "pull" and "push" factors, as well as home country pull.
A study involving 546 Australians identified culture shock as the primary factor influencing their adaptation process Additionally, Linnebery (2012) conducted qualitative research on 100 U.S expatriates to explore the connection between acculturation strategies and the level of expatriate adjustment, revealing that these strategies significantly impact the degree of adjustment experienced by expatriates.
Methodology
Selection of participants
In qualitative research, there is no definitive guideline for determining the ideal sample size Sandelowski (2000) emphasizes that the primary objective of purposeful sampling is to select information-rich cases relevant to the study's aims, and researchers must justify their sampling strategies Additionally, Polsky (1998) highlights the importance of the researcher's observational and analytical skills during interviews, underscoring their role in the quality of data collected.
Qualitative research emphasizes the importance of researchers utilizing their analytical skills to extract meaningful insights from participant responses (Patton, 2005) The ideal sample size is one that yields sufficient data for identifying emerging patterns Due to limited opportunities for contacting potential participants, snowball sampling—a non-probability technique where current subjects recruit future ones from their networks—was employed This method assumes that within the participants' networks, there are individuals who meet the eligibility criteria for inclusion in the study.
The initial phase involved reaching out to individuals within the researchers' network to invite them to join the study, complemented by advertisements in local online communities to increase participant numbers Upon expressing their willingness to participate, volunteers confirmed their eligibility by meeting specific inclusion criteria.
1) They must be currently living in Hanoi as self-initiated expatriates;
2) Their current occupation has to be English language teaching at any level of education, including kindergarten education, k-12, and tertiary education;
3) They have to have at least six months of experience working in Hanoi
Participants then delegated others as the next study subjects for the research
Table 3.1 shows the descriptions of the participants volunteered to take part in the study.
Length of teaching in Vietnam
Qualification(s)/Previous experience Type of organization/Company
Reasons to go to Vietnam
Jack M United Kingdom 27 months teaching in a lifelong learning sector and theather in home country
Language Center, self- employed being recommended to
(~84 months) TEFL, CELTA High school, Language
Center, self-employed extended holiday
TESOL, CELTA, previous experience teaching grade 11 in China and Shakespearian literature in Argentina
Language Center, Corporation training, self-employed extended holiday
Simon M Nigeria ~ 34 months a teaching 101 online course Language center chose to stay after international assignment in a different field
America 16 months TEFL Language Center, self- employed personal plan, good teaching opportunity, to explore culture and history, and find out about others‟ persective about his country,
Mary F Ukraina 9 months None Language center interested in Asian lifestyle
Data Collection Instrument
Face-to-face semi-structured interviews were selected as the research method to gather insights from expatriate English language teachers in Hanoi regarding their work experiences and adjustment processes This approach offers distinct advantages over other research instruments, allowing for in-depth exploration of participants' perspectives.
“the potential to overcome the poor response rates of a questionnaire survey”, and are “well suited to the exploration of attitudes, values, beliefs and motives (Barriball
& While, 1994, p 329) which is important in this study Barriball & While (1994) – drawing from the work of Hutchinson & Skodol-Wilson (1992), Nay-Brock (1984), Treece & Treece (1986); Gordon (1975); Austin (1981); Bailey (1987), and Smith
(1992) – also claimed out that the semi-structure design benefits the researcher to ensure reliability as it
1) allows the bringing up and clarification of interesting and relevant issues during the interview as a result of what the interviewee says;
2) Therefore allows information to be elicited completely;
3) Helps detect and clarify inconsistencies within respondents‟ accounts;
4) Helps respondents recall information for questions involving memory.
Procedures of Data Collection
A series of interview questions were developed to explore participants' perceptions of expatriate adjustment and its significance to their work in Hanoi, particularly among Vietnamese nationals These questions were initially tested in a pilot interview with a participant who had two years of teaching experience in Vietnam, allowing the researcher to refine the content and establish an effective interview protocol The findings from this pilot interview were also incorporated into the study's data.
After implementing all necessary modifications, the final version of the semi-structured interview questions was prepared for official data collection Participants were contacted several days in advance to schedule the interview times and locations.
Before each interview, participants received an information sheet outlining the study's purposes and confidentiality, along with a simple definition of "adjustment." They were encouraged to express their important points and provided with illustrative examples All questions regarding data usage were addressed before introducing the voice recorder Participants then read and signed a consent form (see APPENDIX B), confirming their understanding of their rights, risks, and benefits, and ensuring they had the opportunity to ask questions The interviews were conducted in English, the participants' native language.
After the completion of the follow-up interviews, the interview data were transcribed using the software InqScribed and data analysis began.
Procedures of Data Analysis
All interviews will be recorded and transcribed for content analysis, with data coded for clarity A codebook will categorize established literature and themes identified during interviews, highlighting participants' key viewpoints Important concepts will be clustered, revealing connections that will be analyzed and discussed Categories will emerge from these concepts, and the research process will prioritize data collection over initial hypotheses to effectively address research questions.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
The self-initiated expatriate teachers of English‟s perception of the
Self-initiated expatriates perceive cultural adjustment at work as crucial, which is evident in their proactive preparations for life and work in the host country and their approaches to overcoming challenges Research indicates that individual perceptions and interpretations of experiences shape their understanding of their unique roles within a new culture (Padilla & Perez, 2003) and significantly influence their acculturation processes (Jones & Davis, 1965) Additionally, as members of a minority group, their perceptions of acculturation can affect how they are accepted or rejected by the majority group, or host nationals (Van Oudenhoven, Prins, & Buunk, 1998; Zagefka & Brown, 2002).
Participants in this study demonstrated insufficient pre-arrival preparation and a lack of initiative in adjusting after arriving in Vietnam, reflecting negative attitudes towards the adjustment process and a diminished understanding of the significance of cultural adaptation.
4.1.1 LACK OF PRE-ARRIVAL PREPARATION
Most interviewees arrived in Vietnam by chance, often on extended vacations or through recommendations, with only one having a specific purpose for their visit Before their trip, they primarily focused on acquiring the necessary qualifications and skills for their roles, such as obtaining CELTA, TESOL, TEFL certifications, and completing online teaching courses Notably, one participant, Mary (a pseudonym), had no prior teaching experience before her time in Vietnam Generally, participants prepared only for the cultural aspects of their new environment, without delving into the specifics of the work culture, often relying on online resources or forgoing preparation altogether.
Actual classroom teaching I have like no experience with and I didn't really know what the working conditions were going to be like here (Jack)
I'd be perfectly honest, I'm a pretty flexible person generally, so I did nothing to prepare [ ] it's a complete surprise to me that I wanted to stay, so (Frank)
I, uh was online, I was bored in my hotel room in Nha Trang I was just looking at some job opportunities and I saw an English center and I applied And I was surprised that I got an interview and then I got equally surprised that
I got accepted for the position (Tim)
Andrew arrived in Vietnam with a strong motivation, viewing the country as an ideal fit for his personal goals and a valuable teaching opportunity He expressed a keen interest in Vietnamese food and history, further highlighting his enthusiasm for immersing himself in the local culture.
I chose to come to Vietnam for three main reasons: first, the excellent teaching opportunities available; second, my love for Pho, which is my favorite food from the US; and third, my interest in the historical context of the Vietnam War.
Andrew made a modest effort to prepare for his experience by engaging in conversations with some Vietnamese individuals in the US Despite feeling that his preparation was limited, he genuinely sought to understand their culture and perspectives.
While teaching in Vietnam, he engaged his students in discussions about various aspects of Vietnamese culture, including relationships, the Tet holiday, history, communication, professionalism, and family values Despite this immersive experience, he faced significant challenges and conflicts in the workplace, ultimately leading him to distance himself from the Vietnamese work culture After a prolonged period of adhering to a replication mode at work—where he neither adapted to his role nor changed the role itself—he decided to leave his position at a Vietnamese-run language center to work at an American-run institution, focusing instead on private classes.
4.1.2 LACK OF INITIATIVE TO ADJUST TO THE CULTURE
During their experience in Vietnam, interviewees observed significant cultural differences between their home countries and Vietnam, prompting them to continue their work However, they often waited for conflicts to arise rather than proactively engaging with the local work culture Conflicts were perceived as challenges rather than opportunities, and the process of adjustment was seen more as a coping mechanism than as a chance for learning and growth.
Upon their arrival in Vietnam, participants faced immediate conflicts and unpreparedness, leading to negative psychological impacts Jack described his initial months as "very difficult," particularly after discovering that the job he had secured online was given to another teacher Andrew encountered a serious setback when he broke his leg within two weeks, complicating his ability to navigate class locations Tim, despite having housing support and teaching assistants, struggled to manage four classes with a total of 72 students Additionally, the absence of Vietnamese language skills created a significant barrier for all participants from the outset.
Participants identified significant differences in expectations, work ethics, and teaching principles between themselves and their company, bosses, co-workers, students, and sometimes students' parents To navigate these cultural conflicts, they acknowledged the need to address these differences to continue performing their jobs effectively However, they did not aim to fully adopt Vietnamese cultural norms and values for better job performance Notably, five out of six participants employed specific adjustment strategies to manage these challenges.
Ethnocentrism can lead individuals to resist changing their beliefs and behaviors to adapt to different cultures For instance, participant Andrew expressed that he gave Vietnamese people "the benefit of the doubt," implying a superficial acceptance of their actions without understanding the cultural values that inform those behaviors This approach ultimately resulted in disappointment and a disconnect from Vietnamese-run businesses Similarly, participant Mary shared her experiences, highlighting the challenges of navigating cultural differences.
In order to foster acceptance and progress, she emphasizes the importance of empathy by "putting herself in people's shoes." However, in the workplace, rather than embracing conflicting ideas, she opted to maintain her established methods and adapted her role accordingly.
Another example is coping with the language challenge, two of the participants, Tim and Simon, gave evidence of failure in learning
I know I can learn Vietnamese, I'm sure, in under six months Literally I just have no time I haven't figured out the time to do that (Tim)
Tim demonstrated a strong sense of self-efficacy, believing in his ability to succeed despite challenges, yet he attributed his lack of progress to external factors like time constraints, suggesting he does not see learning as essential In contrast, Simon expressed a willingness to learn but failed to take any real action towards it.
Learning Vietnamese has been a significant challenge for me, and I genuinely wish to improve my skills I admit that I haven't dedicated enough time to it due to my own laziness, and the language itself is quite difficult I often find myself wishing for a miracle that would allow me to speak Vietnamese fluently.
The problems faced by self-initiated expatriate teachers of English at work
This section explores the problems faced by self-initiated expatriate teachers of English and their solutions to these problems using adjustment strategies
Black et al (1991) categorized the factors influencing expatriate adjustment into two main groups: pre-arrival and post-arrival factors This study aims to address the second question regarding the primary challenges faced by self-initiated expatriate teachers.
In the context of English language encounters in the workplace in Hanoi, it is essential to consider both pre-arrival and post-arrival factors, as they are interconnected While common logic may suggest focusing solely on post-arrival issues, pre-arrival challenges can significantly impact adjustment strategies for self-initiated expatriates in their host country Understanding this relationship is crucial for effectively addressing the adjustment process.
In their 1991 study, Black and colleagues identified three key in-country factors that impact expatriate employees' workplace adaptation They categorized various problems based on this framework and analyzed their frequency of occurrence Notably, all identified issues were found to align with one of the three categories, as illustrated in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 highlights that organizational factors were the most frequently mentioned issues, appearing 17 times, followed by job-related factors with 10 mentions Additionally, a singular problem concerning individual skills, specifically language barriers, was noted 6 times.
In response to the problems, the reactions taken by participants indicated their modes of work adjustment, summarized in table 4.1
Modes of work adjustment adopted by participants
Participant Changes made to self
Changes made to the role Mode of work adjustment
List of job related and organization-related problems
Job-related - Lack of role clarity
- Expectation conflict with students and parents
- Sudden change of work arrangement (time)
- Sudden change of work arrangement (place)
- Lack of social (emotional) support
Table 4.1 reveals that the predominant mode of work adjustment among self-initiated expatriates is Replication, characterized by minimal changes in both personal behaviors and job roles This finding aligns with their adjustment attitudes, as they tend not to alter their behaviors significantly However, it is surprising that participants also made few modifications to their job responsibilities while continuing to work, despite facing numerous challenges.
Participants exhibited both positive and negative reactions to conflict, with Andrew quitting his job being the most extreme response, while Tim transitioned to private online classes Aside from arguing in Andrew's case, no other significant negative reactions were reported However, a detailed analysis revealed a variety of negative emotions during conflicts, with anger and annoyance being the most frequently expressed feelings among all participants Table 4.4 summarizes the types of negative emotions recorded during the interviews based on participants' comments regarding their reactions to conflicts and challenges.
Frequency of negative emotions recorded from interviews
Anger and annoyance 10 the word “angry”, “bug”, “anger”, “argue”,
4 the word “ignore”, the phrase “nothing I can do about it”, the praise “I don‟t care” “do nothing”
3 the word “demotivated”, “disconcerting”, questions indication personal doubt Disintergration 2 the word “quit”, the structure “used to , now” Extremism 1 “if you want you can get another teacher”
Participants exhibited a range of reactions, with many expressing positive sentiments despite ultimately disappointing outcomes The most frequent response was engaging in direct personal conversations with the responsible individuals, indicating that participants retained a sense of self-efficacy and effectively employed their relational skills to address challenges in a foreign environment (Black et al., 1991).
Frequency of positive reactions recorded from interviews
Positive reactions Frequency Indicators/Action taken
Talk 13 the word “say to”, “tell”, “communicate” and the phrase, sentences with equal meaning
Negotiate 2 report saying “please, can you ” and agreeing to work assignment, finding common ground in communication
Acceptance of criticism 1 the phrase “criticism is good”
Acceptance of a situation involves using terms like "fine," "okay," and "accept" to foster a mindset of moving on By becoming observant, we can learn from the mistakes of others, enhancing our understanding and growth Embracing positive thinking is essential; it includes giving compliments and reframing conflicts as opportunities for learning and improvement.
“good” or “interesting experience”, “it could have been worse”, the word “hopefully”, “try”, avoid putting the blame on the majority
Integration 2 the phrases “show my face”, “put yourself in their shoes”
In hindsight, five out of six participants exhibited a positive outlook on the challenges they encountered, although the frequency of this positivity varied among individuals This observation may seem contradictory to the earlier assertion in section 4.1, which noted that self-initiated expatriates occasionally harbored negative attitudes toward adjustment However, it is important to clarify that this positive thinking pertains specifically to their reflections on conflicts rather than their overall adjustment process.
The following sections will explore the challenges faced by self-initiated expatriate teachers and the strategies they employed to address these issues, in accordance with Black et al (1991) classification.
All participants acknowledged communication challenges, primarily stemming from language barriers related to the host culture Surprisingly, most did not emphasize these difficulties significantly.
The question of whether English suffices for international business has been explored in various studies over the past decade Research by Groose (2004) revealed that 89% of Thunderbird alumni believe cultural knowledge provides a competitive edge, while 82% value foreign language proficiency, with 53% asserting significant advantages from their language skills Additionally, Nicholson & Imaizumi (1993) highlight that inadequate language skills are a well-known obstacle to effective communication and perception in global business contexts.
Self-initiated expatriates often faced language challenges upon their arrival, as they did not prepare for the language barrier and received no training to address these issues Many participants struggled with communication at work, frequently relying on colleagues for information Despite these difficulties, they did not identify language as a significant obstacle to performing their jobs effectively, with explicit references to language issues mentioned in only three instances.
I‟m trying to be patient to prove my points, but it's hard because of the language barrier you know (Mary)
Many individuals face challenges when trying to communicate in English, especially in environments where the local language predominates Simon expresses frustration with the limited English proficiency of those around him, making interactions difficult Similarly, Andrew shares his struggles, feeling lost without the ability to speak Vietnamese and finding it hard to seek help or express his needs in English.
Mary sought to establish a mutual understanding with teachers who had limited English proficiency Meanwhile, Andrew benefited from the support of Vietnamese staff at his American-run center, who were trained to assist him effectively In contrast, Simon admitted to delaying his language learning due to both his lack of motivation and the challenges posed by the language itself.
Summary
This study reveals that self-initiated expatriates exhibit a passive attitude, characterized by insufficient preparation and a lack of initiative for effective adjustment, as indicated by participant reports and existing literature.
The study revealed that self-initiated expatriate teachers primarily adjust to their work environment through replication, often remaining inactive without making personal or job-related changes Issues predominantly stem from the job and organizational context, with participants employing ethnocentric strategies that resulted in adverse psychological effects.
Claims made by participants supported the proposition that Cross cultural training, clear job guidelines, and perceived organizational support can facilitate the process of cultural adjustment of self-initiated expatriates.
Implications and applications
This research offers valuable insights for researchers, HR practitioners, academic institutions, training organizations, and policymakers by exploring the perspectives of self-initiated expatriate English teachers on adapting to Vietnamese workplace culture It highlights the common challenges these teachers face in Vietnam and their reactions, paving the way for further in-depth studies.
This study aims to enhance the understanding between Vietnamese and foreign teachers regarding each other's work ethics, ultimately bridging the existing gap between them.
These teachers‟ needs of support from the employers could be useful for human resource managers in identifying appropriate support plan to accelerate their
56 adjustment so that they excel in their job and provide their students the quality education they deserve
The findings of this study hold significant implications for policymakers, particularly those engaged with Project2020, as they address the increasing demand for qualified foreign teachers from diverse cultural backgrounds.