Introduction
Research Purpose
Vietnam's garment industry ranks as the second largest in the country by export value, demonstrating a strong export orientation In 2011, it was the fifth largest garment exporter globally, with exports totaling USD 13,153 million, following China, Bangladesh, India, and Turkey Renowned for its cut-make-trim (CMT) production method, Vietnam's garment sector primarily focuses on manufacturing, accounting for 73% of total exports This approach is particularly suitable for developing countries like Vietnam, leveraging its abundant labor force Effective organization and management of the production process are crucial for enhancing the competitive advantages of Vietnamese garment enterprises.
Frontline managers (FLMs) play a crucial role in Vietnam's garment manufacturing industry by directly overseeing the production process and managing large teams of workers Despite their importance, the role of FLMs is often misunderstood within Vietnamese garment enterprises, which do not provide adequate support for them to succeed These managers frequently operate under significant pressure, facing challenges from both their supervisors and subordinates As the garment industry evolves with rapid changes in fashion trends and advanced manufacturing technologies, the responsibilities of FLMs are increasing, necessitating greater effectiveness in their roles.
N T Le (2018) shows that having effective and professional FLMs directly affects the three critical efficiency elements of the garment industry: labour productivity, production costs, and delivery times The lack of development of FLMs is considered a reason that although Vietnam’s garment industry has achieved an impressive average annual growth rate of 15%, labour productivity continues to be low (Vu & Pham, 2016)
Vietnam is currently facing a significant skills shortage in its workforce, particularly in the technical and vocational education and training (TVET) sector, as highlighted by the General Statistics Office (GSO, 2014) and supported by the Asian Development Bank (2014) With only 7.8 million out of 50.35 million individuals in the labor force possessing technical training, a staggering 84.6% of workers lack the necessary qualifications This deficiency is notably impacting the garment industry, where the demand for front-line managers (FLMs) exceeds supply To address this issue, top performers in garment enterprises are being promoted to FLM positions (N T Le, 2018).
The skill shortage in Vietnam has been underscored by various agencies, including the ADB (2014), highlighting a significant skill gap within the labor force The Skills Toward Employment and Productivity (STEP) Employer Survey reveals that many employers find it challenging to recruit candidates with the necessary competencies, as graduates often lack essential vocational skills due to inadequate training This issue is particularly critical in Vietnam's garment industry, where frontline managers (FLMs) promoted from skilled workers typically possess only basic sewing abilities and lack essential management skills To succeed in their new roles, FLMs must acquire both technical and non-technical skills If the skills gap remains unaddressed, the garment sector and the broader Vietnamese economy may face serious setbacks in their industrialization and modernization efforts.
However, the literature barely touches on the topic of skill issues, including soft and hard skills, in Vietnam’s manufacturing industry (Montague, 2013; Nankervis et al.,
Despite previous studies highlighting skill deficiencies among frontline managers (FLMs) in Vietnam's garment industry, there remains a lack of focused research on how these issues hinder their job performance Concerns have been raised about the inadequate preparedness of graduating students for the workplace, yet the specifics of these skill gaps have not been thoroughly examined, leaving a significant void in the existing literature (Huynh, 2011; Montague, 2013; Nankervis et al., 2016; T T Tran, 2013b; Trung & Swierczek, 2009).
The existing literature lacks an assessment of the effectiveness of technical–vocational education and training (TVET) institutions in meeting the skill demands of Vietnam's garment industry (Montague, 2013) Effective knowledge transfer between education and industry is essential for advancing both learning and production (Montague, 2013; Nankervis et al., 2016) By integrating embedded learning and production strategies, there is significant potential to enhance the skill set of frontline managers (FLMs), who are vital to the growth of Vietnam's garment sector.
The response of educational providers, particularly TVET institutions, to the evolving skill needs of the garment industry remains unclear As market pressures increase, garment enterprises must continuously adapt to the global integration landscape Skilled front-line managers (FLMs) play a crucial role in enhancing productivity and maintaining competitive advantages within Vietnam's garment sector However, training institutions in Vietnam have yet to equip the workforce with the essential skills demanded by these enterprises To address the skill gaps in Vietnam's garment industry, it is imperative to foster a comprehensive understanding of the collaboration between education and industry in developing skills for FLMs.
Theoretical Framework
In Vietnam's garment industry, the framework for Frontline Managers' (FLMs) skills is established by identifying essential skill sets and general competencies from prior research, notably the contributions of Stasz (2001), Di Gropello, Kruse, and Tandon (2011), DuBrin (2011), and Katz (2009), as detailed in Table 1.1.
1 What are necessary skills that front line managers (FLMs) require to fulfil their job in Vietnam’s garment enterprises?
1 To identify the necessary skills set of FLMs demanded by Vietnam’s garment industry
2 To what extent are technical– vocational education and training (TVET) institutions collaborating with enterprises to improve skills requirements of FLMs in Vietnam’s garment industry?
2 To examine the extent to which TVET institutions are collaborating with enterprises to develop skills of FLMs in Vietnam’s garment industry
Skills Sets of Front Line Managers
Di Gropello, Kruse and Tandon (2011) • Generic skills
Stasz (2001) • Academic or cognitive skills
Soft skills are essential for frontline managers (FLMs), and researchers have identified three major skill sets crucial for effective management: conceptual skills, human skills, and technical skills These skill sets are categorized in various ways, but the focus remains on pinpointing the necessary competencies that managers must possess to succeed in their roles.
Skills assessments in Vietnam, as highlighted by Bodewig et al (2014) and Nankervis et al (2016), emphasize the importance of two key skill sets: conceptual and human skills In the garment industry, particularly for front-line managers (FLMs), essential technical skills are defined by the National Occupational Skills Standard (NOSS) The NOSS outlines critical responsibilities for FLMs, including workforce organization on the sewing line, technology implementation, and overall management and administration of the sewing processes.
2008) These technical skills shown in Table 1.2 will be used as a foundation to explore further necessary skills set of FLMs through data collection in this study
Predicted Necessary Skills Set of FLMs in Vietnam’s Garment Industry
• Capacity to support and develop employees
• Recognising good or bad performance
• Competency in planning and evaluating work
• Understanding different backgrounds and culture
• Organising workforce in the sewing line
To enhance the skills of Frontline Managers (FLMs) in Vietnam's garment industry, this article utilizes the situated learning theory by Brown, Collins, Duguid (1989), and Lave and Wenger (1991) to analyze the interaction between Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and garment enterprises Brown et al (1989) highlight a critical issue in the current education system: a disconnect between theoretical knowledge and practical application, emphasizing the gap between 'know what' and 'know how' in the learning process.
The education system often prioritizes abstract and de-contextualized formal concepts, neglecting the importance of real-life situations in the learning process This oversight relegates situational learning to a secondary role, reliant on knowledge transfer methods To enhance education, it is essential to integrate these situational contexts, as they can foster the co-production of knowledge through targeted activities and experiences.
Lave and Wenger (1991) emphasize the crucial role of social engagement in skill acquisition, arguing that learners cannot simply acquire abstract knowledge and later apply it in real-world settings Instead, they advocate for legitimate peripheral participation, where learners engage in actual practices alongside experts, albeit with limited responsibility This approach highlights the importance of embedding learning processes within action contexts rather than isolated structures To improve learning and teaching environments, further research is needed to explore when narrower or broader contexts and skills are optimal for effective learning (Anderson, Reder, & Simon, 1996) In light of this, the situated learning theory serves as a guiding framework for investigating the mismatch between skills provided by TVET institutions and those demanded by enterprises in Vietnam.
Figure 1.1 Theoretical framework guiding the research.
Contribution
This study aims to enhance the understanding of skills development for frontline managers (FLMs) within Vietnam’s garment industry, an area that has not been previously explored in depth The findings will highlight the specific skills required in this industry, which may differ from those identified in developed and other developing countries As the first research of its kind in Vietnam’s garment sector, it seeks to bridge the gap between industry expectations and the skills supplied by educators Additionally, the study will extend the situated learning theory into the Vietnamese labor context, addressing a significant gap in existing research predominantly focused on Western learning environments.
Skills development for Front line managers
Situated learning theorySituated learning theory
In the Vietnamese context, the development of technical and conceptual skills has been limited This study, viewed through the framework of situated learning theory, aims to enhance understanding of various learning forms that can improve skill development in Vietnam by fostering collaboration between the education and industry sectors.
Thesis Structure
The thesis is organised into eight chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 introduces the thesis by addressing the challenges of skills development for first-line managers (FLMs) in Vietnam's garment industry It highlights the critical issue of the skills mismatch between those provided by Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions and the requirements of garment enterprises Additionally, this chapter outlines two main research questions and the objectives of the thesis, followed by a discussion of the theoretical framework and the contributions of the study.
Chapter 2—Research Context: This chapter describes the Vietnamese context, including the garment industry, the education sector and the engagement between them
Vietnam's garment industry plays a crucial role in the nation's economy, yet it faces significant challenges due to the evolving educational landscape As the country transitions, the education system struggles to keep pace with industry demands, highlighting the urgent need for collaboration between Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions and garment enterprises This partnership is essential for equipping the Vietnamese workforce with the necessary skills to thrive in a competitive market.
Chapter 3—Literature Review: This chapter reviews skills identification for
This chapter examines the engagement between education and industry in skills development for frontline managers (FLMs) in the garment sector It highlights the application of situated learning theory as a framework for effective skill development methods tailored to the needs of FLMs, drawing on current literature to support these insights.
Chapter 4—Methodology: This chapter details the qualitative research methodology employed in the study, focusing on in-depth semi-structured interviews and justifying their selection It also describes the data collection methods, analysis techniques, and triangulation processes used Additionally, key ethical considerations related to the research are addressed.
Chapter 5 examines the essential skills required by front line managers (FLMs) in Vietnam's garment industry, addressing the research question regarding their necessary competencies Through a comprehensive analysis of both secondary data from government and educational documents, as well as primary data collected from interviews and field notes, this chapter effectively identifies the critical skill sets needed for FLMs to succeed in their roles within the industry.
19 necessary skills categories in four main skills sets: technical skills, human skills, conceptual skills and psychological skills
Chapter 6 explores the collaboration between technical-vocational education and training (TVET) institutions and the garment industry in Vietnam, addressing the research question regarding the extent of this partnership in enhancing skills for front line managers (FLMs) The findings highlight four significant barriers to effective collaboration: the lack of supportive government policies, inadequate competencies among stakeholders, differing mindsets that hinder cooperation, and the ineffectiveness of collaborative efforts in facilitating internships.
Chapter 7—Discussion: This chapter interprets the research findings from
Chapters 5 and 6 It then reflects on those findings in comparison with those of previous studies to highlight the significance of this study for skills development in the garment sector in the transition process of Vietnam
Chapter 8—Conclusion: This chapter includes theoretical and practical contributions and then presents implications and research limitations of this study before suggesting further research directions.
Research Context
Introduction
This chapter explores the context of the study, focusing on the garment industry and training institutions in Vietnam, and their interactions It is divided into three sections that provide a comprehensive overview of these elements and their significance to the research.
• The first section summaries the development of Vietnam’s garment industry to highlight its development path and its low position in the industry value chain
The second section discusses the training institutions that provide skilled labor to the garment sector and emphasizes the challenges these institutions face in meeting the industry's training requirements.
The third section examines the collaboration between training institutions and Vietnam's garment industry, emphasizing the obstacles and challenges that hinder effective partnership between the entities responsible for skill development in this sector.
Vietnam’s Garment Industry
The International Labour Organization (ILO, 1994) defines the garment industry as encompassing the entrepreneurial activities involved in production, which include sourcing materials, designing and preparing samples, coordinating manufacturing with contract factories, and selling the final apparel.
The garment industry is a crucial component of the broader textiles and fashion sectors, serving as a significant employer in developing countries like Vietnam It plays a vital role in fostering export markets and enhancing value-added manufacturing activities, which are essential for transitioning economies from agriculture to industry Additionally, the growth of the garment industry creates synergies that benefit related sectors, including textiles and design.
2.2.2 Brief introduction to the garment industry
Vietnam's garment industry evolved from traditional embroidery and weaving to a significant sector, marked by the establishment of the Nam Dinh Textile Complex in 1897 The first export contract to the former Soviet Union in 1976 initiated a reliance on imported raw materials, as Vietnam sold back semi-finished garment products This success led to further contracts, boosting output but reinforcing the industry's position as a lower-end CMT production hub Consequently, the number of garment factories in Vietnam increased significantly.
As of 2014, Vietnam's textile and apparel industry boasts approximately 6,000 garment enterprises employing over 2.5 million individuals, contributing to 25% of the country's industrial output, according to the Vietnam Textile and Apparel Association For every US$1 billion in garment exports, around 150,000 to 200,000 jobs are generated, with 100,000 in the textile and garment sectors and an additional 50,000 to 100,000 in supporting industries The private sector dominates this landscape, comprising 84% of the enterprises, primarily concentrated in the south-east and the Red River Delta regions Garment enterprises represent about 70% of the entire textile, garment, and supporting sectors, with CMT (Cut, Make, Trim) being the predominant export method, accounting for 85% of exports.
Overview of Vietnam’s Textile and Garment Sectors
A large proportion of Small and Medium Enterprise SME (200 - over
500 people) Ownership of Enterprise Private (84%), FDI (15%), State (1%) Structure of Enterprise
Garment (70%), Spinning (6%), Woven/Knit (17%), Dye (4%), Supporting industry (3%)
Distribution of Enterprise North (30%), Central (8%), South
(62%) Number of employees Workers 2.5 million
Average income of employees VND 4.5 million
Number of working days/week Day 6
Number of working hours/week Hours 48
Number of shifts/day Shift 2
Value of textile and garment exports in 2013 (excluding fibre) USD 17.9 billion
Value of textile and garment imports in 2013 USD 13.5 billion
Main export markets US, EU, Japan, Korea
The main import market China, Korea, Taiwan
Major export products Jackets, shirts, pants, shirts
Delivery time (lead time) Day 90–100
Note: Adapted from A Breakthrough Opportunity (Co hoi buc pha) (p.11), by Bui Van Tot, 2014
Vietnam's garment industry has seen significant growth in exports and employment, attracting foreign investors due to its abundant low-skilled labor force Currently, over 2 million people are employed in this sector, making it the largest source of employment in the country Employment in the garment industry surged from approximately 231,948 in 2000 to over 1 million by 2016, with projections suggesting it could reach 3 million by 2020.
Vietnam's garment industry has seen significant employment growth, as highlighted in the Statistical Yearbook of Vietnam 2005 by the General Statistics Office This data underscores the industry's vital role in the country's economy and its contribution to job creation For more detailed statistics, visit the General Statistics Office of Vietnam's website.
Statistical Yearbook of Vietnam 2010, by General Statistics Office of Vietnam, 2010, retrieved from https://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabidQ5&idmid=5&ItemID974;
Statistical Yearbook of Vietnam 2017, by General Statistics Office of Vietnam, 2017, retrieved from https://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabidQ5&idmid=5&ItemID941
In 2014, Vietnam's garment sector achieved an export value of $24 billion, reflecting a 19% increase from the previous year and contributing 11.5% to the country's GDP This sector experienced an average growth rate of 19% from 2008 to 2014.
In 2013, Vietnam achieved an impressive annual growth rate of 14.5%, positioning it among the fastest-growing economies globally, with foreign investment rising significantly (Lan, 2008) The Vietnamese government aims to elevate the textile and garment industry to one of the top five exporters worldwide, targeting an export turnover of $25 billion by 2015.
2016 to 2020, the growth rate of industrial production of the garment sector is forecast to be 12% to 13% per year
The garment industry in Vietnam, a key sector employing over 1 million workers and thriving in both domestic and international markets, lacks a strategic approach to employee skills development, despite its past and anticipated growth This deficiency in skills training is concerning, as enhancing employee skills is vital for boosting labor productivity in this significant industry.
Vietnam's garment industry is recognized globally for its expertise in the cut-make-trim production model, primarily concentrating on the sewing stage, which is associated with lower value addition This strategic choice allows Vietnam to minimize risks in the manufacturing process by focusing solely on garment production, without engaging in other stages of the global value chain The garment smiling curve, adapted from Frederick's supply chain research (2010), illustrates this approach effectively.
The garment industry's smiling curve illustrates the value chain dynamics, highlighting how internal and external factors influence economic competitiveness within the textile sector This model, adapted from S E Frederick's research at North Carolina State University, emphasizes the importance of strategic positioning in enhancing value creation and competitiveness in the garment industry.
Vietnam's garment, textile, and footwear industry faces challenges with low labour productivity, recorded at only $1,741, significantly trailing behind Thailand's $8,178 and Indonesia's $4,149 (International Labour Organisation, 2016) A SWOT analysis conducted by Tot (2014) highlights that a major weakness in the Vietnamese garment sector is the lack of both technical and non-technical skills among workers.
Labour productivity varies significantly across selected Asian countries, as illustrated in Figure 2.3 This data, adapted from the International Labour Organisation's 2016 report on wages and productivity in the garment sector across Asia and the Pacific, highlights the disparities in productivity levels within the region Understanding these differences is crucial for stakeholders aiming to enhance economic performance and competitiveness in the garment industry.
Vietnam’s garment industry is positioned in the low-value segment of the global value chain, characterized by a workforce primarily engaged in manual, unskilled activities, as noted by Fernandez-Stark, Bamber, and Gereffi (2012) While enterprises can quickly train low-skilled workers through short-term programs, effective management of sewing line operations and enhanced productivity necessitate the presence of frontline managers (FLMs) equipped with essential skills.
The global value chain is intricately linked to labor skills, highlighting the importance of skill development in enhancing productivity and competitiveness in developing countries According to Fernandez-Stark, Bamber, and Gereffi (2012), addressing the skills challenge is crucial for effectively upgrading within these value chains This relationship underscores the need for targeted educational and training initiatives that equip the workforce with the necessary competencies to thrive in a globalized economy.
Education Systems in Vietnam
Vietnam's education system was primarily modeled after the Soviet Union's training framework, particularly before the Doi Moi reforms in 1986, which suited a centrally planned economy This system emphasized conformity, hard work, and loyalty over skill development for the business sector From 1950 to the mid-1980s, the focus on public-sector universities aimed to support the state and collective economy Despite significant advancements following educational reforms, the influence of Soviet methodologies remains deeply embedded in Vietnam's higher education landscape.
Since the Doi Moi reforms in 1986, Vietnam has embraced market mechanisms to boost its economy, prompting a significant overhaul of its education system to meet evolving economic needs This reform introduced a diversified and democratized educational structure across the nation, leading to the establishment of various types of universities The expansion included both public and private institutions, including 'people-founded' and 'fully private' colleges, aimed at addressing the shortcomings of public education and supporting Vietnam's socio-economic development (Huong & Fry, 2004; Hayden & Van Khanh).
Higher education in Vietnam is undergoing reform, yet state control remains significant, particularly through the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), which regulates curriculum design, finances, and student admissions Only the two national universities in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City have the autonomy to determine their own curricula Consequently, most Vietnamese universities continue to rely on outdated curricula that do not align with current labor market demands.
2.3.2 Challenges in Vietnam’s education system
The higher education model in Vietnam is struggling to adapt to the demands of a market economy, as universities remain under the strict control of the central government through the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) Despite recognizing systemic deficiencies, institutions have limited autonomy, with government policies dictating aspects such as curriculum, salaries, and student admissions Consequently, the Vietnamese education system is lagging in producing skilled graduates, highlighting a pressing need for reform.
The evolution of the education system is essential for meeting the demands of economic and social progress while also tackling the growing skills gap To effectively confront these challenges, significant improvements to the education system are necessary.
Opening the higher education market to foreign institutions presents a significant advantage for developing countries However, it may require time for local institutions to adequately prepare their workforce to create and implement high-quality, relevant curricula.
The Vietnamese education system has made significant strides in reducing illiteracy by providing essential reading and writing skills However, to thrive in the competitive global labor market, the workforce must be equipped with advanced skills in science and technology There is a pressing need for an increase in skilled workers in both management and technical roles The current shortage of vocational skills, coupled with high unemployment rates among graduates, highlights a critical mismatch between workforce supply and demand.
The tertiary education sector in Vietnam faces significant challenges in skills development, which is crucial for meeting the labor demands of the economy Ignoring this issue could burden both the education system and the overall economy The garment industry, in particular, is severely impacted by the skills gap, making it essential to analyze the relationship between skill providers and garment enterprises as a core focus of this research.
Technical–vocational education and training (TVET)
The TVET sector, alongside higher education, plays a crucial role in cultivating essential skills for the economy (Bodewig et al., 2014) Despite a significant surge in tertiary education enrolments, TVET enrolments have seen a decline In Vietnam, the General Statistics Office (GSO) reported that in 2014, there were 2,363,900 students in higher education compared to only 349,700 in the TVET sector.
Figure 2.5 The number of students enrolled in the higher education and TVET sectors
Reproduced from Statistical Yearbook of Vietnam 2014, by General Statistics Office of Vietnam, 2005, retrieved from https://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabidQ5&idmid=5&ItemID197
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) reported in 2014 that Vietnam's labor market suffers from a significant deficiency in technical and vocational training, with only 7.8 million out of 50.35 million workers, or 15.4%, having received formal training This indicates that a staggering 84.6% of the workforce lacks formal tertiary qualifications Additionally, data from the General Statistics Office (GSO) in 2014 revealed a decline in the number of TVET graduates, further exacerbating the trend and highlighting a general decrease in technical skills within the country.
According to the Statistical Yearbook of Vietnam 2014, published by the General Statistics Office of Vietnam, the number of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) graduates has been documented, highlighting trends and developments in vocational education in the country This data can be accessed at the General Statistics Office of Vietnam's official website.
Garment enterprises face a significant challenge in recruiting skilled blue and white-collar workers due to a shortage of qualified candidates Despite a high number of university graduates, many remain unemployed, while there is a critical lack of technicians and professionals from Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) programs This imbalance contributes to skill shortages and production bottlenecks across various sectors, highlighting the urgent need for better alignment between education and industry requirements.
Frontline managers (FLMs) play a vital role in garment enterprises, yet there is a lack of comprehensive training programs to equip them with essential skills To address the shortage of experienced managers, many garment companies promote technicians or engineers internally to FLM positions (N T Le, 2018) In response to the skills gap, short-term training courses for FLMs are offered by enterprises and educational institutions; however, the effectiveness of these courses in fulfilling the needs of Vietnam’s garment industry remains inconsistent.
The garment industry faces significant challenges in accurately identifying job needs and the necessary skills, particularly in developing countries like Vietnam, where educational limitations and high unemployment persist The mismatch between training institutions and industry requirements for workforce skills remains a critical issue To address these challenges, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development has outlined essential strategies for effective workforce development aimed at integrating into the global value chain.
Engagement Between Education and Industry Sectors in Vietnam
Despite significant progress in education enrolment, Vietnam faces a persistent shortage of skilled workers, as highlighted by the STEP Employer Survey, which indicates that many employers struggle to find suitably qualified candidates due to inadequate skill supplies This skills mismatch between the labour market and educational outcomes has led to a significant challenge in recruitment, with employers emphasizing that the education system must take responsibility for failing to produce graduates equipped with the necessary vocational skills If these skill gaps are not addressed, the garment industry and the broader Vietnamese economy may encounter serious obstacles in achieving their industrialisation and modernisation objectives.
The Vietnamese economy, particularly the garment industry, faces significant challenges in enhancing productivity, boosting competitive advantage, and ensuring sustainable development within a globally integrated market To address the critical issue of skill mismatch, it is essential to foster closer collaboration among employers, educational institutions, and the government By implementing effective preparation and sustainable strategies for skills development, Vietnam's garment industry can achieve remarkable outcomes, but this necessitates a unified approach to skill enhancement.
Developing workforce skills in the garment industry is essential due to rising global competition, with a focus on aligning skill supply and demand To address this challenge, Bangladesh has implemented targeted development programs for management, particularly for first-line managers (FLMs) By adequately training FLMs, they can enhance the skills of unskilled labor through on-the-job training, ultimately improving productivity within their enterprises.
To enhance the Vietnamese garment industry, it is crucial for enterprises to establish effective partnerships with training institutions, bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical skills Prioritizing skills relevant to the production process is essential, as current human resources in the sector are inadequate and lack fundamental training (Collins, 2009; Tri, 2012) The limited capacity of domestic training institutions further exacerbates these shortcomings, placing additional burdens on the industry's workforce and management (MacIntosh, 2013).
Consequently, enterprises are forced to hire and spend more to recruit talented employees from other industries or other countries.
Conclusion
Vietnam's garment industry is a vital component of the nation's economy, ranking among the top five garment exporters globally and employing a significant workforce However, it faces challenges in enhancing productivity, gaining competitive advantage, and achieving sustainable development in a competitive global market The development of high-quality human resources, particularly for frontline managers (FLMs), is essential for the industry's growth With over 75% of production relying on the cut-make-trim (CMT) model, FLMs play a crucial role in boosting productivity Unfortunately, many FLMs lack the necessary skills to fulfill their responsibilities effectively, as the current education system, particularly technical and vocational education and training (TVET), falls short of meeting the industry's training needs Furthermore, the weak collaboration between educational institutions and garment enterprises exacerbates the skills development issue Addressing this skills shortage requires stronger partnerships among employers, tertiary institutions, and the government.
With effective preparation and sustainable strategies for skill development, Vietnam's garment industry can achieve its growth and export goals The next section will focus on identifying the essential skills for frontline managers (FLMs) and explore collaborative approaches between the education sector and industry to enhance workforce capabilities.
Literature Review
Introduction
This chapter reviews the literature on the essential skills required for Frontline Managers (FLMs) in Vietnam's garment industry and explores effective methods for skill development It highlights the importance of identifying these skills within the specific context of Vietnam and emphasizes the necessity of collaboration between educational institutions and the industry to foster economic growth, particularly in the country's transitional economy The chapter is structured into four sections to comprehensively address these key issues.
This article begins by examining the roles and functions of Frontline Managers (FLMs) based on global studies, with a particular focus on the garment industry in Vietnam It then reviews the essential skills required by FLMs in general, before specifically analyzing the skills pertinent to FLMs within Vietnam's garment sector.
The second section examines the literature regarding the skills needed by businesses and those provided by training institutions This analysis highlights a critical research issue: the global mismatch between the skills offered by educational programs and those required by the industry Additionally, this skills gap is a significant challenge for Vietnamese enterprises and training institutions, as previously discussed.
The third section addresses the skills mismatch by exploring collaborative strategies between education and industry, specifically aimed at enhancing skill development for Vietnam's garment sector.
The fourth section of the study establishes a theoretical framework based on situated learning theory This theory is chosen as it effectively addresses the existing gap in the literature regarding skills mismatch, making it highly relevant for this research.
Methodology of the Literature Search
The literature search was conducted using four key databases: EBSCOhost, ProQuest, ScienceDirect, and Taylor & Francis, focusing on articles published in English between 2008 and 2018 with full-text availability The researcher utilized specific keywords, including "front line manager*" OR "first line manager*" OR "supervisor*" combined with "skill development*" OR "skill analysis*" OR "skill training*" within the "apparel industry*" OR "garment industry*" OR "clothing industry*" in Vietnam, as well as terms like "collaboration," "engagement," or "connection" in education.
OR institution) AND (industry OR enterprise) From these key words, the researcher extended the search for new key words, which were ‘generic skills’, ‘empirical skills’,
‘competencies’; and ‘skills need’, ‘skills supply’, ‘skill gap’, ‘skills mismatch’ This approach was useful for the researcher to focus and narrow down to the research topic
From the searches, the researcher identified journals that had multiple publications and the journals that met the research objectives They include Journal of
The researcher subscribed to the Education and Training, Journal of Education and Work, and Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources to stay informed about the latest publications and enhance the literature review.
Due to the limited literature on skills development within Vietnam's garment industry, the researcher utilized grey literature to gather relevant publications from industry sources, non-governmental organizations, and government entities related to this sector.
The international sources of grey literature included reports regarding skills development from international organisations, such as the ILO, World Bank, and WTO
In addition, upcoming FTAs and the CPTPP relating to the development of Vietnam’s garment industry are covered in this chapter
The researcher utilized various Vietnamese sources, including newspapers, specialized garment magazines, and government websites in both English and Vietnamese, to gather insights on Vietnam's garment industry To stay informed about the latest developments, the researcher registered for Thu Vien Phap Luat, an online Vietnamese law library, which provided access to updated information on new policies related to education reforms, garment industry analysis, and human resource development within the sector.
To gain insights into Vietnam's garment industry, a variety of specialized sources were utilized, including academic books, scientific research conducted by students and lecturers, as well as internal reports and documents from Vietnamese garment enterprises that focused on key research topics.
Front Line or First-Line Managers
First-line managers play a crucial role in overseeing the daily activities of non-managerial employees, who are essential for producing goods and services They are found across all departments and functions within an organization, ensuring that operations run smoothly and efficiently.
3.3.2 The key position of the front line manager
A typical organization features a three-tier management structure resembling a pyramid, with top managers at the peak, middle managers in the middle, and first-line managers (FLMs) at the base Top managers prioritize strategic planning and decision-making, while FLMs are responsible for the daily operational tasks (University of Minnesota Libraries, 2016).
Figure 3.1 Levels of management Adapted from Exploring Business (p 222), by
Top managers play a crucial role in ensuring the health and performance of an organization by setting objectives and performance targets that guide all activities necessary to achieve the company's mission They actively monitor the external environment for potential opportunities and threats, adjusting company strategies as needed A significant portion of their time is dedicated to planning and making key decisions that impact the organization's direction.
Middle managers play a crucial role in the management hierarchy by bridging the gap between top management and first-line managers They are tasked with developing and executing strategies while allocating resources to meet the objectives established by senior leadership Typical job titles for middle managers include operations manager, division manager, plant manager, and branch manager.
First-line managers or front line managers
First-line managers play a crucial role in supervising employees and coordinating daily activities to ensure alignment with the plans set by top and middle management While they are less focused on strategic planning compared to higher-level managers, they are deeply involved in the day-to-day operations of the company This level of management often serves as the starting point for individuals gaining their first managerial experience, with job titles that can include department head, group leader, office manager, foreman, and supervisor.
Frontline managers (FLMs) are essential human resources within an organization, significantly influencing employee motivation and engagement through daily interactions Their performance directly impacts labor productivity and overall firm success, making effective FLM management crucial for organizational performance.
3.3.3 Roles of front line managers
According to Mintzberg (1973), managers operate at different levels and utilize diverse methods to execute their responsibilities He categorized managerial roles into three primary groups: informational, interpersonal, and decisional activities, which encompass a total of ten specific role groups.
3.1 The research being cited is not new, but Mintzberg’s findings remain central to the understanding and analysis of management
Interpersonal Figurehead Symbolic head; obliged to perform a number of routine duties of legal or social nature
Leader Responsible for the motivation and activation of subordinates, for staffing, training, and associated duties
Liaison Maintains a self-developed network of outside contacts informers who provide favours and information
Informational Monitor Seeks and receives a wide variety of information and emerges as the nerve centre of internal and external information of the organisation
Disseminator Transmits information received from outsiders or from other subordinates to the members of the organisation
Spokesperson Transmits information to outsiders on the organisation’s plans, policies, actions, and results …; serves as an expert on the organisation’s industry
Decisional Entrepreneur Searches organisation and its environment for opportunities and initiates improvement projects to bring about change and supervise the design of projects
Responsible for corrective actions when the organisation faces important, unexpected disturbances
Responsible for the allocation of organisational resources or approve of all significant organisation decisions
Negotiator Responsible for representing the organisation at major negotiations
Note: Adapted from The nature of managerial work (p 92), by Henry Mintzberg, 1973, Englewood Cliffs,
3.3.4 Front line managers in the garment industry
To determine the necessary skills required by FLMs, it is necessary to clarify the position and duties of FLMs in terms of the present-day garment industry
First-line managers (FLMs) in the garment sector play a crucial role as shopfloor managers, overseeing the sewing line and serving as the vital link between workers and middle management Their position is essential for effective communication and operational efficiency within garment enterprises.
Figure 3.2 The position of the front line manager in garment enterprise Adapted from Designing the Sewing Line in Garment Industry, by N T Le, 2018
In garment manufacturing, new employees can quickly develop their skills through hands-on experience, ultimately qualifying for roles such as Floor Line Manager (FLM) With dedication and continuous learning, these FLMs have the potential to advance further in their careers, progressing to positions like foreman, production manager, or even director within the organization.
Frontline managers (FLMs) occupy a crucial position within garment enterprises, acting as a bridge between middle managers and shopfloor workers This intermediary role places FLMs under significant pressure, as they must navigate the complexities of workplace relationships and emerging challenges Without the essential skills to effectively manage these dynamics, FLMs risk being perceived as less competent by their superiors and ineffective in their roles.
Th e m ost skil led w ork ers
Frontline managers (FLMs) play a crucial role in empowering skilled workers by acting as facilitators rather than doing the work themselves They serve as a bridge, enabling collaboration and problem-solving among team members To enhance effectiveness, FLMs should connect with their peers to share insights and management strategies within the garment enterprise system This collaborative approach helps prevent repeated mistakes and fosters the replication of innovative ideas across internal departments, ultimately benefiting the production process (N T Le, 2018).
In garment enterprises, Frontline Managers (FLMs) play a crucial role in overseeing production through effective planning, organization, and administration They meticulously plan production orders and allocate resources, including workers and equipment, to ensure a smooth manufacturing process During production, FLMs manage facilities and materials, closely monitoring the progress of established production plans To meet production goals, they motivate and guide workers, ensuring quality assurance and timely delivery Additionally, FLMs are responsible for controlling various elements of the assembly line, maintaining continuous operations while optimizing production quality and minimizing costs.
Frontline managers (FLMs) primarily focus on employee management, product planning, and overseeing production processes and quality Their responsibilities include monitoring productivity and ensuring the effectiveness of working processes, positioning them as essential low-level managers in the organization.
FLMs also have the manager’s functions: management of equipment, semi-finished products, finished products, employees and the manufacturing process (N T Le, 2018)
3.3.5 Skills of front line managers
Di Gropello et al (2011) identify three essential areas of functional skills for employee employability and enhancing firm competitiveness: generic, technical, and academic skills In a similar vein, Katz (2009) categorizes managerial skills into three groups: technical, human, and conceptual skills.
Stasz (2001) classified skills into four broad areas: academic or cognitive, generic, technical and soft skills Differently, DuBrin (2011) classified skills into five groups: conceptual, interpersonal, technical, diagnostic, and political skills
Di Gropello, Kruse and Tandon (2011) • Generic skills
Stasz (2001) • Academic or cognitive skills
Political skills are essential for managers, as highlighted by George and Jones (2017), who emphasize that the skill requirements vary based on the manager's level and responsibilities Senior managers necessitate advanced conceptual skills for understanding and organizing, while first-line managers (FLMs) focus more on technical skills related to processing tasks.
Figure 3.3 Skills needed by three levels of management Adapted from Essentials of Contemporary Management, by J George and G Jones, 2017, McGraw-Hill Education,
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Skill Development
Skills development plays a crucial role in promoting sustainable development and aiding the transition from the informal to the formal economy It is vital for addressing the opportunities and challenges presented by evolving economic demands and emerging technologies within a globalized context.
Workforce skills are essential for enhancing both enterprise profitability and productivity, as they enable individuals to work more effectively and increase their income An up-skilled labor force benefits not only businesses but also contributes positively to national economies.
Investing in employee skill development is essential for enhancing productivity, as failure to upskill can hinder growth (Ketels et al., 2010; Warner, Goodall, & Ding, 1999; Ying Chu & Siu, 2004) While increased skills offer greater worker flexibility, they can also lead to challenges such as poaching, higher job turnover, and wage inflation not aligned with productivity (Shen & D’Netto, 2012) Therefore, it is crucial for countries to focus on improving training systems, enhancing skill sets, and retaining their skilled workforce (Ketels et al., 2010).
A skilled workforce is essential for economic development and societal modernization, as highlighted by the Asian Development Bank (2014) The experiences of developed nations indicate that as economies expand and modernize, there is a significant shift in labor demand from manual to non-manual tasks (Collins).
2011) As a result, a skilled workforce is emerging as a key factor in economic and social development (P Brown & Lauder, 2001; Manning, 2010)
Developing a skilled labor force is essential for enhancing global competitive advantages, as highlighted by Porter (1998) While low labor costs once attracted foreign investment in developing countries (Nankervis et al., 2011), this approach is now outdated and misaligned with current human resource needs (Collins, 2009) The existing shortage of skilled labor hampers these nations' ability to elevate production levels, ultimately hindering their development and competitiveness on the global stage (Thang & Quang, 2005; Watson, Webb, & Johnson, 2006).
Montague (2013) emphasizes that formal education and workplace learning are essential for skill development, leading to enhanced problem-solving, communication, and teamwork abilities within the workforce This, in turn, boosts job performance and productivity Neglecting to invest in a robust higher education system can have significant repercussions, as highlighted by T T Tran (2013b) and Trung & Swierczek (2009) A strong educational foundation is crucial for meeting the qualifications needed for economic growth, social development, and adapting to global integration trends (Porter).
1998) However, in most developing countries, higher education systems have many inadequacies in producing graduates equipped with essential skills for work later (Collins, 2009)
Training is a vital strategy for effective human resource management, as highlighted by Edralin (2011), and it plays a crucial role in fostering creativity that can provide a competitive edge for businesses The choice of training programs is tailored to align with the specific goals of the organization’s training and development policy, ensuring that employees enhance their knowledge and skills effectively (Shen & D’Netto).
In 2012, enterprises recognized the dual opportunity to enhance their work segments and transform societal work environments They understand the significance of technical training courses for employee learning and the value of fostering a culture of self-career development within their organizations (Edralin, 2011).
Vietnamese managers are facing significant challenges in human resource management, with foreign investors noting a lack of essential managerial skills and market knowledge (Ren, Collins, & Zhu, 2014; Zhu & Verstraeten, 2013) While Vietnamese managers often feel that foreign investors have unrealistic expectations regarding functional skills such as accounting, HRM, marketing, and finance, many enterprises continue to struggle with under-skilled staff (T T Tran, 2013b) This skills gap is evident not only among general workers but also technicians and managers, particularly in labor-intensive industries like garment manufacturing In response to these challenges, training has become a crucial strategy to bridge the gap between the demand for and supply of a skilled workforce (Shultz et al., 2000).
Workforce skills are cultivated through training and hands-on experience in the workplace, while educational institutions provide foundational knowledge and essential skills through their programs and qualified teaching staff Employment opportunities allow individuals to apply and enhance their skills in real-world settings, fostering further professional development However, a skills gap may arise between job requirements and employee capabilities, potentially hindering both individual performance and overall organizational effectiveness.
Vietnam is facing a significant skills shortage in its workforce, largely due to the insufficient interaction between employers, students, and universities (Bodewig et al., 2014) Universities are not aligning their curricula with the actual demands of the labor market, leading to a disconnect in the skills being taught Students tend to adopt a passive approach to their education, merely accepting what is offered without actively seeking the knowledge and skills necessary for a successful career Consequently, while Vietnamese employers are eager to hire highly skilled workers, they struggle to attract candidates who meet these qualifications.
To effectively prepare students for their future careers, universities must have access to information about the emerging skill requirements of employers and the labor market This knowledge enables institutions to develop relevant programs that guide learners in making informed decisions regarding their educational paths Additionally, understanding the quality of programs offered by educational providers is essential for students to choose universities that align with their abilities and expectations Therefore, enhancing collaboration between employers and universities is crucial to bridging the information gap While Vietnam has made strides in establishing this relationship, the ongoing challenge lies in sustaining and improving it (Bodewig et al., 2014).
Lange, Ottens, and Taylor (2000) noted a disconnect between government initiatives and enterprise practices, as the government strives to implement regulations aimed at fostering a skilled workforce, while businesses frequently circumvent these efforts by opting to recruit skilled employees externally.
While the government expects enterprises to develop a skilled workforce, enterprises seek to recruit skilled labour and avoid training at the enterprise
3.4.3 Engagement of educational providers and industry
This section has been developed based on the study of Ankrah and Omar (2015) that reviewed 191 recent studies concentrating on the collaboration of education and industry
Historically, the government served as an intermediary between education and industry, providing support through resources and policies to foster alliances (McLendon & Hearn, 2013) In today's competitive global economy, the government has taken on a crucial stewardship role, ensuring that innovation and structural adjustments are effectively implemented among stakeholders Education now not only supplies a trained workforce and facilitates knowledge transfer but also takes on responsibilities for firm formation and regional development (Lind, Styhre, & Aaboen, 2013) Furthermore, industry actively participates in skill development, moving beyond a passive role in workforce acquisition.
In today's competitive global market, industries must innovate to keep pace with rising demands and competition To address this challenge, many companies are prioritizing retraining initiatives and enhancing workforce knowledge through collaborations with educational institutions focused on research and professional training.
Situated Learning Theory
3.5.1 Introduction to situated learning theory
The situated learning theory has gained significance due to the growing demand for training professionals equipped for the 21st century Future workforces must possess the ability to collaborate and tackle problems across diverse contexts and situations, as highlighted by various researchers.
Situated learning theory, introduced by J S Brown et al (1989), addresses the disconnect between theoretical knowledge and practical application in education (Pérez-Sanagustín et al., 2015) This theory highlights the separation of 'know what' and 'know how' in learning, attributing it to an education system that prioritizes abstract concepts over real-life contexts As a result, practical situations are often undervalued, relying heavily on knowledge transfer Recent research (Bishop et al., 2006; Cacciattolo, 2015; Collin et al., 2011) challenges this separation, emphasizing the importance of integrating contextual situations into the learning process for effective knowledge application.
Lave and Wenger (1991) introduced the concept of legitimate peripheral participation, emphasizing that situated learning plays a crucial role in understanding human communication and cognition They argue that learning is intrinsically linked to social contexts rather than merely the acquisition of knowledge Instead of focusing on cognitive processes, they highlight the importance of social engagements that create the appropriate environment for effective learning.
Lave and Wenger (1991) emphasize that social interactions are crucial for skill acquisition, suggesting that learners cannot merely acquire abstract knowledge for application in the workplace Instead, effective skill development requires active participation in a legitimate peripheral context.
In this study, we explore the application of situated learning theory, as proposed by J S Brown et al (1989) and Lave and Wenger (1991), to analyze the collaboration between Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions and enterprises in Vietnam's garment industry Learners engage in practical experiences similar to experts, albeit with limited responsibility for the final product, while acquiring knowledge through both stationary and abstract representations from lessons This research builds on previous contributions to situated learning processes and instructional design strategies (Clancey, 1995; Pérez-Sanagustín et al., 2015), aiming to enhance the skills development of Future Leaders in Management (FLMs) within the sector.
3.5.2 Rationale for applying situated learning theory in this study
The situated learning theory is central to this research, emphasizing the concepts of legitimate peripheral participation and communities of practice to enhance understanding of apprenticeship and workplace learning (Fuller et al., 2005) This theory highlights that learners cannot simply acquire abstract knowledge and apply it in real-world settings; instead, skill development requires active engagement through legitimate peripheral participation In this model, learners participate in actual practices alongside experts, albeit with limited responsibilities This study specifically focuses on first-line managers (FLMs) trained by apprenticeship institutions, making the situated learning theory particularly relevant for exploring skills development within Vietnam’s garment industry.
According to J S Brown et al (1989), the situated learning theory highlights a critical gap in the education system, where learners often face a disconnect between theoretical knowledge and practical application This system predominantly focuses on abstract concepts while neglecting the contexts in which learning takes place Research has shown a significant mismatch between skill supply and demand in Vietnam (T T Tran, 2013b; Trung & Swierczek, 2009), largely due to the educational system's inability to adapt to evolving skill requirements as the country integrates into the global economy (Collins, 2009; B T Nguyen, Cu, & Nguyen, 2006; Quang & Dung, 1998; T T Tran, 2013b; Trung & Swierczek, 2009) The situated learning theory serves as a valuable framework for examining the changing skill needs driven by competition and technological advancements.
The situated learning theory emphasizes the importance of sociocultural context in education, contrasting with human capital theory, which prioritizes investment in education to enhance individual skill sets and productivity in the labor market (Becker, 1962) This raises critical questions about how skills are formed and developed in relation to productivity, as well as what educational methods effectively support skill development and upgrading (Stasz, 2001) Notably, the human capital approach overlooks the processes of skill formation and development (P Brown, Green, & Lauder, 2001) and fails to consider the significant influence of social context on the motivations for educational investments (Fernando, Fernando, & Hannif, 2014).
The situated learning theory, rooted in the sociocultural approach, is particularly relevant for understanding skills in a multivariate and context-sensitive manner (Stasz, 2001) This theory emphasizes the importance of formal education in broadening our understanding of skills and knowledge, including tactile, social, and improvisational aspects It prioritizes 'know how' over 'know what' in the learning process Lave and Wenger (1991) argue that learning should be embedded in real-world contexts rather than isolated structures, as knowledge is co-produced through specific activities To improve learning and teaching environments, further research is essential to identify when narrower or broader contexts and skills are most effective for optimal learning outcomes (Anderson et al., 1996).
This study investigates the extent of collaboration between technical-vocational education and training (TVET) institutions and enterprises to enhance skills for frontline managers (FLMs) in Vietnam's garment industry To address the skill mismatch between TVET institutions and garment enterprises, the research employs situated learning theory from a sociocultural perspective as its guiding framework.
The situated learning theory serves as a crucial framework for analyzing the engagement between Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions and enterprises According to J S Brown et al (1989), knowledge transfer is inherently linked to specific learning situations that promote the co-production of knowledge through targeted activities and contexts Lave and Wenger (1991) emphasize the importance of embedding learning within action contexts rather than relying on isolated structures To improve the learning and teaching environment, it is essential to investigate the contexts that dictate the necessity for broader or narrower skill sets, as highlighted by Anderson et al (1996) This study aims to address the skills mismatch between TVET graduates and enterprise requirements in Vietnam, making the situated learning theory the most suitable guiding framework for this investigation The study's framework is illustrated in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4 Conceptual framework guiding the research
This study aims to enhance situated learning theory by addressing the engagement barriers between educational institutions and enterprises, ultimately evaluating and understanding the skills acquisition and development for Frontline Managers (FLMs).
Skills development for Front line managers
Situated learning theorySituated learning theory
Technical Skills Conceptual Skills educational and industrial sectors to have a comprehensive and deep understanding of skills development for FLMs in the specific context of Vietnam’s garment industry.
Conclusion
Vietnam's economy is undergoing a transitional phase, increasingly integrating into the global market and facing competitive pressures that demand higher productivity through skilled and innovative human resources To avoid being relegated to a low-cost manufacturing role, Vietnam must address its vocational skill shortages The garment industry, a key sector in the economy and among the top five largest exporters globally, requires a significant number of workers with updated skills First-Line Managers (FLMs) are essential to this sector, with their roles evolving to enhance productivity However, many FLMs in Vietnam's garment enterprises currently lack the necessary skills to perform their duties effectively.
This chapter identifies the necessary skill set required by managers in Vietnam
Despite the limited research on the skills of Frontline Managers (FLMs), this chapter establishes a foundational understanding of essential skills relevant to Vietnam's garment industry It reviews current educational and industrial collaboration efforts aimed at skill development, highlighting a significant gap between the skills provided by Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions and those required by garment enterprises To address this skills mismatch, the study adopts the situated learning theory, which emphasizes the importance of legitimate peripheral participation in apprenticeship and workplace learning for graduates transitioning to FLMs This theory also clarifies the discrepancies between theoretical knowledge and practical application, aligning with the study's central research question regarding the collaboration between TVET institutions and enterprises in enhancing FLM skill requirements Therefore, situated learning theory is deemed the most suitable framework for further exploration in this research The subsequent methodology chapter will detail the data collection and analysis processes aimed at answering the study's research questions.