Introduction
The service sector in Vietnam is crucial for overall economic growth, particularly in the context of a transitioning economy The tourism industry plays a significant role, with the World Travel & Tourism Council highlighting key contributors to GDP, such as hotels, airlines, and travel agencies In 2013, the total contribution of travel and tourism to Vietnam's GDP was VND 311,117 billion, accounting for 9.6% of the GDP and directly generating 1,899,000 jobs, or 3.7% of total employment As one of Asia's most popular destinations, Vietnam has seen a consistent rise in international visitors, necessitating enhanced human resources policies in the tourism sector to improve competitiveness and customer satisfaction, given the critical interaction between service providers and customers.
Travel agencies, both traditional and online, hold significant market shares in Vietnam (62%), Thailand (66%), and the Philippines (52%) Despite this, direct booking has emerged as the most popular booking channel in Vietnam, contributing substantially to sales (Thornton, 2016) Consequently, building a strong organizational reputation is essential to leverage the growing trend of direct bookings A key feature of the service sector is the interaction between service providers and customers (Tsaur, Chang).
The tourism industry primarily offers services, and employees serve as key service providers, significantly influencing the organization's image through their performance In Vietnam, enhancing the tourism sector's potential requires addressing existing challenges, particularly by utilizing skilled and friendly front-line service workers as ambassadors for the country.
In today's competitive tourism industry, successful companies are increasingly engaging their front-line service employees by applying emotional labor theory to enhance customer satisfaction Research by Grandey (2000), building on Hochschild's work, highlights the importance of "service with a smile" in improving travel agencies' reputations and customer loyalty Front-line service workers play a crucial role in delivering exceptional customer service, necessitating the regulation of their emotions during customer interactions (Karatepe, 2010) Hochschild (1983) defines emotional labor as the effort to manage both internal feelings and outward expressions to meet organizational expectations, which may involve showcasing or suppressing emotions such as smiles and good humor Effectively managing these emotions leads to better workplace interactions and helps employees adapt to varying customer behaviors and situations (Grandey, 2000).
Emotional intelligence is essential for employees, particularly front-line service workers, as it enables them to recognize and understand emotional signals This capability allows them to manage their feelings effectively and promote personal growth (Salovey & Mayer, 1990) Consequently, emotional intelligence is a crucial factor in helping service workers regulate emotional challenges Given that these employees frequently engage in face-to-face interactions with customers, they must demonstrate appropriate behavior and maintain emotional control (Karatepe, 2010) Therefore, studying emotional labor alongside emotional intelligence is vital for understanding how service employees can express their emotions positively and maintain a pleasant demeanor.
Front-line service workers in Vietnam are increasingly facing various stresses, with many dealing with unexpected challenges and negative customer attitudes that contribute to work-related stress and job burnout (Vietnamnet, 2017) Sexual harassment during customer interactions poses additional emotional difficulties for employees (VOV, 2016) Many workers express fatigue from addressing the poor tourism environment and navigating relationships with intermediaries to provide quality service (Vietnamnet, 2017) Furthermore, employees struggle to balance their family time with work commitments (Tap Chi Du Lich, 2016) According to Chowdhary and Prakash (2010), these challenges lead to significant mental and physical pressure, resulting in job burnout, decreased job satisfaction, and lower service quality While extensive research has focused on emotional labor in developed countries (Hochschild, 1983; Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Grandey, 2000), there is a growing need to explore the emotional labor experiences of service industry workers in Vietnam.
A model conceptualized in 2000 aids employees in regulating their emotions while performing their jobs, incorporating situational cues, emotion regulation processes, and outcomes related to individual and organizational well-being However, limited studies in the tourism industry have explored the interrelationships of these factors within a single model Notably, Hoang (2010) examined emotional labor differences between female employees in low-end and high-end sectors, highlighting a gap in research on this topic within Vietnam's tourism industry Here, front-line workers often struggle with emotional management due to a culture of saving face, which can conflict with organizational display rules (Nguyen, Ladkin & Osman, 2016; Quang, Khuong & Le).
The culture of saving face in Vietnam often compels front-line tourism employees to manage their emotions during prolonged customer interactions, which can lead to physical and emotional stress This study aims to explore the impact of emotional intelligence, job autonomy, and emotional display rules on emotional labor, as well as their subsequent effects on job burnout and satisfaction among service workers in Vietnam's tourism sector The findings will offer valuable insights for managers, enabling them to better understand emotional labor and formulate effective human capital management strategies within tourism organizations.
Theoretical background and hypotheses
Emotional labor
Emotional labor involves managing and expressing emotions that align with organizational expectations, particularly for front-line service employees who must display specific feelings, such as positivity and friendliness, while interacting with customers, colleagues, and supervisors Research indicates that this emotional regulation can create significant pressure on employees, impacting their well-being This study aims to explore how service workers navigate their emotional expressions to enhance job satisfaction and improve overall work outcomes.
Diefendorff et al (2006) and Grandy (2000) explore emotional labor, focusing on how employees can display (surface acting) and regulate (deep acting) their emotions to achieve organizational objectives Front-line service employees must effectively engage with customers in a friendly and enthusiastic manner Therefore, a deeper understanding of emotional labor is crucial for tourism organizations in Vietnam.
The relationships among emotional labor and its antecedents and its outcomes
Emotional intelligence is identified as the concept of “social intelligence” to refer the ability to use emotions in both oneself and others to produce beneficial outcomes (Wong
Emotional intelligence is crucial for front-line service employees in the tourism industry, as it enables them to recognize and manage emotional signals effectively (Wong & Law, 2002; Salovey & Mayer, 1990) This skill allows employees to engage in meaningful social interactions and respond appropriately to customer needs (Grandey, 2000) Those with a strong understanding of emotional intelligence can better regulate their emotions, leading to improved service delivery (Karatepe, 2010; Balogun et al., 2016) By employing emotional intelligence, front-line workers can enhance their interactions with customers, ultimately fostering a more positive service experience.
Emotional intelligence is the ability of employees to understand and manage their own emotions, as well as recognize the emotions of others This skill differentiates emotional intelligence from emotional labor, which refers to the regulation of one's emotions in response to external requests Research indicates that emotional intelligence significantly influences emotional labor, impacting how employees modify their emotional behaviors (Lee & Ok, 2012) Recent studies have highlighted the importance of emotional intelligence for service workers, emphasizing its role in controlling emotions and managing emotional labor (Mastracci, Newman & Guy, 2010; Lee & Ok, 2012) Moreover, understanding emotional intelligence equips employees to handle emotional dissonance, determining whether they engage in surface acting or deep acting (Grandey, 2000) The interdependence of emotional intelligence and emotional labor suggests that the absence of one diminishes the presence of the other (Guy, Newman & Mastracci, 2014).
H1: Emotional intelligence will positively relate to emotional labor
2.2.3 The relationship between job autonomy and emotional labor
Job autonomy, as defined by Breaugh (1999), refers to the freedom and power employees have to perform their tasks independently, enabling them to make their own decisions without external control This autonomy is particularly significant for front-line service employees, such as tour guides in the tourism industry, as it enhances their ability to engage in emotional labor by freely expressing the company's expected emotions Increased job autonomy allows these employees to exercise greater individual choice and discretion in their roles, ultimately leading to higher customer satisfaction However, when front-line service employees are compelled to regulate their emotions by travel agencies, regardless of their level of autonomy, they may lose their authentic selves in the process.
H2: Job autonomy will positively relate to emotional labor
2.2.4 The relationship between emotional display rules and emotional labor
Display rules refer to the informal norms within a social group that dictate the appropriate expression of emotions, including when, where, and how these emotions should be conveyed These rules serve as standard behavioral guidelines for interacting with others, influencing socialization and communication dynamics.
According to research by Grandey (2000), emotional display rules are external expectations set by organizations that dictate how employees should express their feelings in various situations These rules are crucial for understanding cultural and social identities, as they vary significantly across different local cultures In the context of Vietnam, front-line service employees, such as tour guides, often lack experience interacting with multinational customers, which can complicate their ability to meet these emotional expression expectations Emotional intelligence and emotional labor, on the other hand, refer to an employee's internal capabilities to recognize and manage their own emotions.
H3: Emotional display rules will positively relate to emotional labor
2.2.5 The relationship between emotional labor and job burnout
Burnout is a significant issue commonly experienced by employees in service industries, particularly when they become excessively emotionally invested in customer interactions without adequate means to replenish their emotional energy Key indicators of burnout include emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a diminished sense of personal accomplishment For front-line service workers, such as tour guides, effective emotional regulation is essential to manage the demands of face-to-face customer engagement and mitigate the risk of burnout.
Daily repetitive tasks can lead service workers to experience emotional fatigue or detachment To cope with these emotional challenges, front-line employees may resort to distancing themselves from customers, sometimes through avoidance or dishonesty If left unaddressed, these issues can result in negative self-perception, dissatisfaction with their roles, and ultimately a decline in job performance.
H4: Emotional labor will positively relate to job burnout
2.2.6 The relationship between emotional labor and job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is a crucial aspect of employee performance, characterized by a positive emotional connection to one's work (Dubinsky & Hartley, 1986) For front-line service workers, such as those in the Vietnamese tourism industry, maintaining a friendly demeanor towards customers can enhance their enjoyment of the job (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993) However, the ongoing need to manage emotions can lead to internal conflicts, potentially undermining personal well-being (Hochschild, 1983) In Vietnam's face-saving culture, service workers often face the challenge of emotional regulation during direct interactions with customers Over time, the repetitive nature of this emotional management can result in fatigue and diminished job satisfaction Consequently, it is suggested that frequent emotional regulation may correlate with lower levels of job satisfaction among service workers.
H5: Emotional labor will negatively relate to job satisfaction
2.2.7 The relationship between job burnout and job satisfaction
Research indicates that excessive work-related stress significantly diminishes employees' love for their jobs, as highlighted by Rothmann (2008) and supported by Fairbrother and Warn (2003), who note that job burnout leads to decreased job satisfaction Rothmann (2008) further emphasizes that increased pressure and worry negatively affect job satisfaction, particularly among frontline service workers in the tourism industry In Vietnam, where front-line employees frequently engage in face-to-face interactions with customers, the stress experienced can further reduce their job satisfaction Consequently, the researcher proposes a hypothesis to explore these dynamics.
H6: Job burnout will negatively relate to job satisfaction.
Research model
Method
Procedure and sample
This study conducted an in-depth qualitative analysis and a questionnaire survey targeting employees in Ho Chi Minh City, where 69.7% of Vietnam's travel agencies are located, establishing a vital connection between customers and service suppliers (Department of Tourism Ho Chi Minh City, 2017) The participants included front-line employees, such as tour guides, from the tourism sector The original scales were adapted during in-depth interviews to ensure relevance for Vietnamese respondents A quantitative survey tested the measurement and structural models, while the questionnaires, translated into Vietnamese, were refined through interviews with six individuals to enhance the official version From June 7th to June 14th, six interviews were conducted, focusing on ensuring respondents fully understood each measurement scale item The final measurement scales were slightly adjusted for appropriate use in Vietnam (see Appendix A, B, & C).
This study utilized a self-administered survey with a convenience sampling approach, requiring a minimum sample size of 205 participants based on its 41 measurement items From July 13 to September 25, a total of 500 questionnaires were distributed to front-line officers at travel agencies in Ho Chi Minh City through various methods: electronic mail (21%), Google surveys (58%), and hard copies (21%), with the email contacts provided by tour operators and the Saigon Tour Guide Union.
The researcher collected 356 responses from 35 travel agencies, achieving a response rate of 71.2% However, 54 responses were deemed unsuitable for analysis—13 were from outside the tourism industry, 8 had identical answers for all questions, and others were missing values Ultimately, 302 valid responses were analyzed, meeting the required sample size This data was utilized to calculate Cronbach’s alpha and conduct Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to assess the reliability and validity of each measurement scale Subsequently, the model and hypotheses were tested using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analysis.
Measurement (see Appendix D)
Job autonomy was measured by seven-item scale (adapted from Breaugh, 1999)
Job autonomy (adapted from Breaugh, 1999)
JobAuto1 I have freedom choose the ways to do my job
JobAuto2 I can manage my work timetable
JobAuto3 I can arrange my work activities (when I do)
JobAuto4 It is possible for me to decide when to do specific work activities
JobAuto5 My job allows me change how to be evaluated so that I can highlight my job and play down others
JobAuto6 I am allowed to change my job objectives
JobAuto7 I am allowed to manage what I am asked to achieve by my supervisor
The measurement scales for emotional intelligence consist of four key components: self-emotions appraisal, others-emotions appraisal, use of emotion, and regulation of emotion, each assessed through three items This framework is adapted from the work of Wong & Law (2002), providing a comprehensive approach to evaluating emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence (adapted from Wong & Law, 2002)
SelfEmoA1 I can often know why I have certain feelings
SelfEmoA2 I understand my own emotions very well
SelfEmoA3 I always know whether or not I am happy
OtherEmoA1 I know my friends’ feelings from their external manners all the time
OtherEmoA2 I am a very good person who can see others’ emotions
OtherEmoA3 I can recognize emotions of people surrounding me
UseEmo1 I always have objectives and have big efforts to get them
UseEmo2 I always trust my competences
UseEmo3 I encourage myself for being well
RegulaE1 I can regulate my manner so that I can control difficulties critically
RegulaE2 I calm down quickly when I lose my temper
RegulaE3 I regulate my own emotions very well
Emotional labor was measured by two sub-dimensions: Deep acting: 4 items; Surface acting: 4 items (adapted from Diefendorff et al., 2006)
Emotional labor (adapted from Diefendorff et al., 2006)
DeepAct1 I just want to do my job without being annoyed
DeepAct2 I try to recognize the emotions that I need to show to others
DeepAct3 I try my best to feel the emotions that I need to show to customers
DeepAct4 I try to develop my internal feelings that I need to show to my clients
SurfaceAct1 I give an appropriate action to deal with customers
SurfaceAct2 I just pretend to have the emotions I need to display for my job
SurfaceAct3 I express my emotions to client that are different from what I feel inside SurfaceAct4 I fake a good mood when interacting with customers
The measurement scale of emotional display rules was used by four-item scale (adapted from Heuven et al., 2006)
Emotional display rules (adapted from Heuven et al., 2006)
EmoDisplay1 I am requested to only express positive emotions to customers
EmoDisplay2 I am requested to never express negative emotions to customers
EmoDisplay3 I am requested to place myself in the situation of customers
EmoDisplay4 I am requested to be sincere and authentic with customers interactions
Burnout’s measurement scale was used by five items (adapted from Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998)
Job burnout (adapted from Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998)
JobBurn1 I feel less interested in doing my work since I began doing this job
JobBurn2 My work does not sound enthusiastic to me
JobBurn3 I have uncertain feelings about the importance of my job
JobBurn4 I am more skeptical about my contribution
JobBurn5 I am extremely tired from my work
Job satisfaction was measured by five items adapted from Lytle (as cited in Kim, Leong
Job satisfaction (adapted from Lytle (as cited in Kim, Leong & Lee, 2005))
JobSatisf1 I think my job enjoyable
JobSatisf2 I am quite satisfied with my current job
JobSatisf3 I love my work very much
JobSatisf4 My job is very special
JobSatisf5 I really enjoy doing my job
A seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), was utilized to assess the measures The items were modified to ensure cultural relevance for Vietnamese respondents Subsequently, the questionnaires were translated into Vietnamese for the primary survey (refer to Appendix D).
Results and discussion
Respondents Characteristics
The SPSS software was used to analyze data and the findings of the demographic analysis were described in Table 1
Demographic profile Category Frequency Percentage (%)
Less than 6 From 6 to less than 9 From 9 to less than 14 Above 14 Total
Less than 0.6 From 0.6 to 2 Over 2 Total
An initial analysis of data revealed that 35 travel agencies in Ho Chi Minh City participated in the study, with a total of 302 respondents, including front-line service officers Among the respondents, 59.9% were male and 40.1% were female The majority of participants, accounting for 62.9%, were aged between 24 and 30 years, while only 0.7% were older than this age group Additionally, the income distribution showed that 93.4% of respondents earned a high salary, exceeding 9 million VND per month.
Scale validation
In this research, the scales were assessed using factor loadings, Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE) through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to evaluate scale reliability, as well as discriminant and convergent validity Each construct was analyzed separately, leading to the removal of certain items that did not meet the factor loading threshold of 5, specifically EmoDisplay1, JobAuto7, and JobBurn4 The emotional display rules were retained with three items, while job autonomy and job burnout were measured with six and four items, respectively, ensuring acceptable measurement scales The CFA results indicated a good model fit, with a minimum discrepancy of 1.889, a comparative fit index of 947, and a Tucker-Lewis coefficient of 942 All items exhibited standardized regression weights above 0.5 with p