Alternative Transportation Fuels Utilisation in Combustion Engines M K Gajendra Babu K A Subramanian Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu nay!!! Alternative Transportation Fuels Utilisation in Combustion Engines Alternative Transportation Fuels Utilisation in Combustion Engines M K Gajendra Babu K A Subramanian Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Version Date: 20130305 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-7282-6 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in 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by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Preface xv Authors xvii Abbreviations xix Introduction: Land, Sea and Air Transportation 1.1 Transportation 1.2 Modes of Different Transportation 1.3 Indigenous Production Levels of Crude Oil from Different Countries 1.4 Import and Export Levels in Different Countries 1.5 Refining Capacities of Petrol and Diesel Worldwide 1.6 Energy Consumption: World View 10 1.7 Transportation Sector: Current Scenario 15 1.7.1 Mass Transportation: Diesel Buses and Trucks 17 1.7.2 High-Power Rail Transportation 17 1.7.3 Aviation Sector: Gas Turbines 17 1.7.4 Global Vehicle Fleet 18 1.8 Fossil Fuel Consumption in the Transport Sector 21 1.8.1 Energy Consumption in Transport Sector: Indian Perspective 24 1.9 GHG Emissions from the Transportation Sector 28 1.9.1 Mechanism of GHG Pollutant Formation in Internal Combustion Engines 30 1.9.2 CO2 Emission 30 1.9.3 N2O Emission 32 1.9.4 CH4 Emission 33 1.9.5 Roadmap and Strategy for CO2 Emission Reduction by Other Countries 33 1.10 Environmental Concerns 35 1.10.1 Near Term: Local Air Pollution 35 1.10.2 Toxic Air Pollutants 36 1.10.3 Environmental: Long-Term, Climate Change/Global Warming Effect 37 1.11 Environmental Standards 37 1.12 Sustainability Issues 37 1.12.1 Vehicle Attributes 37 1.12.2 Fuel Attributes 37 References 41 v vi Contents Conventional Fuels for Land Transportation 43 2.1 Conventional Fuels for Spark Ignition Engines/Vehicles 43 2.2 Production of Gasoline/Diesel Fuels 46 2.2.1 Primary Oil Recovery 46 2.2.2 Secondary Oil Recovery 46 2.2.3 Tertiary Oil Recovery 47 2.3 Refining Process to Produce Gasoline/Diesel 47 2.3.1 Details of Unit Processes 49 2.3.1.1 Hydro-Treater 49 2.3.1.2 Catalytic Reforming 50 2.3.1.3 Cracking 50 2.3.1.4 Alkylation 52 2.3.1.5 Polymerisation 52 2.3.1.6 Isomerisation 53 2.3.1.7 Reforming 53 2.4 Conventional Fuels for a Spark Ignition Engine 53 2.4.1 Motor Gasoline 53 2.4.1.1 Physico-Chemical Properties 54 2.4.2 Liquefied Petroleum Fuels 58 2.4.2.1 Availability of LPG 61 2.4.2.2 Cost of LPG in India 62 2.4.2.3 Production Process of LPG 62 2.4.3 Compressed Natural Gas .65 2.4.3.1 Resources 67 2.4.3.2 Availability of Natural Gas: World View 68 2.4.3.3 Cost Analysis of CNG (United States) 69 2.4.3.4 Natural Gas Production Process 69 2.4.3.5 Natural Gas Purification 73 2.4.3.6 Advantages of Natural Gas as Transportation Fuel 73 2.4.3.7 Comparison between CNG and LPG 74 2.4.3.8 Methane Number 76 2.4.4 Other Hydrocarbons 76 2.4.5 Inert Gas 77 2.4.6 Contaminants 77 2.4.7 Water .77 2.4.8 Oxygen 77 2.4.9 Hydrogen .77 2.4.10 Hydrogen Sulphide 77 2.4.11 Sulphur 78 2.5 Conventional Fuels for Compression Ignition Engines/Vehicles 78 2.5.1 Diesel 78 2.5.1.1 Cetane Number 78 2.5.1.2 Density 78 Contents vii 2.5.1.3 Viscosity 78 2.5.1.4 Sulphur Content 79 2.5.1.5 Distillation Characteristics 79 2.6 Conclusion 80 Problems 80 Unsolved Problems 85 References 87 Alternative Fuels for Land Transportation 89 3.1 Introduction 89 3.2 Alternative Fuels for Spark Ignition Engines 89 3.2.1 Fossil-Based Fuels 89 3.2.1.1 Gas to Liquid Fuel 89 3.2.2 Hydrogen from Fossil Fuel 90 3.2.3 Biofuels: Alcohol Fuels 91 3.2.3.1 Methanol 91 3.2.3.2 Ethanol 96 3.2.3.3 Propanol 99 3.2.3.4 Butanol 100 3.2.3.5 Dimethyl Carbonate 103 3.2.4 Biofuels: Gaseous Fuels 104 3.2.4.1 Producer Gas 104 3.2.4.2 Biogas 106 3.2.4.3 Bio-Syngas 113 3.2.4.4 Hydrogen 115 3.3 Alternative Fuels for a Compression Ignition Engine 123 3.3.1 Biofuels 123 3.3.1.1 Introduction 123 3.3.1.2 Biodiesel 123 3.3.2 Gas to Liquid Fuel 140 3.3.3 Fischer–Tropsch Diesel 141 3.3.4 Dimethyl Ether 147 3.3.5 DEE 150 3.4 Conclusion 153 References 153 Aviation Fuels 157 4.1 Introduction 157 4.2 Fuel Quality Requirements of Aircraft Engines (Aircrafts and Helicopters) 157 4.3 Aviation Gasoline Fuel 158 4.4 Aviation Kerosene 160 4.5 Compressed Natural Gas 161 4.6 Liquefied Natural Gas 161 4.7 Biodiesel–Diesel Blend 161 viii Contents 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 Fischer–Tropsch Diesel 162 Carbon-Free Fuel: Compressed and Liquid Hydrogen 162 Carbon-Neutral and Sustainable Fuel 162 Production Technology of Aviation Fuel 163 Volume and Weight of Aviation Fuel for Smaller- and LargeSized Aircraft 165 4.13 Emission and Effects by Aviation Fuel 166 4.14 Conclusion 168 References 169 Utilisation of Alternative Fuels in Internal Combustion Engines/Vehicles 171 5.1 Spark Ignition Engines 171 5.1.1 General Introduction 171 5.1.2 Various Challenges with SI Engine 172 5.1.3 Preliminary Studies Regarding Combustion Phenomenon 174 5.1.4 Parameters Affecting Burning Velocity 175 5.1.5 Characterisation of Combustion Process 179 5.1.6 Study of Flame Kernel Growth Development 180 5.1.6.1 Pre-Breakdown Phase 181 5.1.6.2 Plasma Phase 181 5.1.6.3 Initial Combustion Phase 181 5.1.7 Carburettor, Manifold, Port and Direct In-Cylinder Injection 191 5.1.8 Different Methods That Can Be Adapted for Using CNG in SI Engines 191 5.1.9 Continuous Injection 194 5.1.10 Timed Manifold Injection 194 5.1.11 Exhaust Gas Recirculation 195 5.1.11.1 Oxides of Nitrogen 195 5.1.12 Ethanol–Gasoline Blends 196 5.1.13 Methanol–Gasoline Blends 200 5.1.14 Butanol–Gasoline Blends 204 5.1.15 Hydrogen 206 5.1.16 Compressed Natural Gas 210 5.1.16.1 Difference in Performance and Power Output between CNG and Gasoline 210 5.1.16.2 Fuel Consumption 212 5.1.16.3 Brake Thermal Efficiency 214 5.1.16.4 Effect of Speed on Emissions 214 5.1.17 Liquefied Petroleum Gas 223 5.1.17.1 Comparison among Gasoline, CNG, E10 and LPG Fuels 224 421 Global Warming and Climate Change TABLE 12.9 Emissions from Vessels Travelling on Inland Waterways Pollutant Netherlands (in g / tonne–km) CO 0.11 CO2 33 HC NOx United States (in kg/103 L of fuel) Rivers Great Lakes Coastal 12 13 13 0.05 6.0 7.0 6.0 0.26 33 31 32 SO2 0.04 3.2 3.2 3.2 Particulates 0.02 c.470 g/h c.470 g/h c.470 g/h Source: Adapted from Dutch data from the Central Bureau voor de Statistiek, T J H Schoemaker and P A Bouman 1991, Facts and Figures on Environmental Effects of Freight Transport in the Netherlands, in Kroon et al., eds 1991, (p 57); US Environmental Protection Agency (September 1985), Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors Volume II: Mobile Sources, AP-42, Fourth Edition Office of Air and Radiation, Office of Mobile Sources, Test and Evaluation Branch, Ann Arbor, MI (p II-3-2); Environmental Effects of Freight, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, http:// www.oecd.org/dataoecd/14/3/2386636.pdf The well-to-wheel (WTW) analysis enable us to find out life cycle emission including GHGs for conventional as well as alternative fueled vehicles [12] The WTW analysis comprises of well to tank and tank to wheel CO2 emission from the fuel cell and electric vehicle may be zero But net CO2 emission is higher with hydrogen derived from natural gases as shown in Table 12.10 It can be observed from the table that the GHG emission from the electric vehicle is about 136 g/km Localised zero CO2 emission from the electric vehicle may be possible but net CO2 emission may be higher than conventional fuels as the electricity for an electric vehicle battery is generally produced by coal-based power plants The net CO2 emission reduction from fuel production as well as vehicles poses a big challenge It may be observed from Table 12.10 that the GHG emission reduction is strongly dependent on fuel production from the nature of resources and vehicle technology Biofuels such as biodiesel and ethanol have high potential for CO2 emission reduction CO2 emission (46.7 Mt/year CO2 equivalent) was achieved in Brazil due to the ethanol and bagasse substitution from fossil fuels [13] However, the costs of these fuels are still higher than conventional fuels In general, CO2 emission by the use of biofuels will be recycled by the crop plant resulting in no further new addition into the atmosphere Hence, biofuels could play a vital role in CO2 emission control in the near future Biodiesels are the biofuels that are produced from plants Hence, net CO2 emission is dropping zero Many researchers have reported the increase in NOx, with utilisation of biodiesels But another aspect of the utilisation of 422 Alternative Transportation Fuels TABLE 12.10 WTW Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Vehicles Fuelled by Natural Gas Derivatives Fuel Vehicle GHG (g/km) Compressed natural gas (CNG) ICE Hybrid Fuel cell ICE Hybrid Fuel cell Fuel cell ICE Hybrid Fuel cell ICE Hybrid Fuel cell ICE Hybrid Fuel cell ICE Hybrid Fuel cell EV ICE Hybrid ICE Hybrid 148 97 96 189 127 157 117 163 109 135 178 120 109 226 152 139 157 105 120 136 209.2 140 182.7 130 Fisher−Tropsch diesel derived from natural gas Methanol from natural gas Dimethyl ether derived from natural gas Compressed hydrogen derived from natural gas Liquefied hydrogen derived from natural gas Hydrogen stored in metal hydrides Electricity Gasoline Diesel Source: Adapted from J Louis, Well-to-wheel energy use and greenhouse gas emissions for various vehicle technologies, Society of Automotive Engineers, SAE paper no 2001-01-1343, 2001 TABLE 12.11 Direct Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Passenger Cars on Petrol, Diesel, LPG and CNG under Real-World Driving Conditions Fuel Petrol Diesel LPG CNG CO2 (g/km) CH4 (g/km) N2O (g/km) GHG Emission (gCO2 eq g/km) 208.1 180.5 189.3 168.6 0.009 0.004 0.007 0.0074 0.003 0.007 0.003 0.001 209.2 182.7 190.4 170.6 Source: Adapted from H Hass, Well-to-wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and power trains in the European context, a joint study by EUCAR/JRC/CONCAWE, European Commission, 2003 Global Warming and Climate Change 423 alternative fuels is the production of N2O, which is primarily generated at a lower temperature (