Statement of the problem
Keeping pace with continuous changes of our society and rapid growth of globalization, English language teaching (ELT) has become a challenging and demanding occupation
“One of the effects of the growing importance of global English in professional contexts has been the rise of ESP teaching at all levels” (Huttner, Smit & Mehlmauer-Larcher,
2009, p 99) ESP teaching has become a growing trend and mainstream in many areas and regions, especially in Asia, as what Johns and Dudley-Evans (2001) confirm that
The global demand for English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is steadily rising, prompting researchers, educators, and teachers to explore innovative strategies to enhance ESP teaching and learning.
In Vietnam, the teaching of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is still evolving According to the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET), most English teachers at non-English major universities and vocational colleges are responsible for at least one ESP course, highlighting the growing importance of specialized English instruction in higher education.
Despite numerous studies addressing the challenges of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching in Vietnam, there is a lack of insight into the perspectives and practices of ESP teachers themselves Previous research has focused on the realities of ESP courses but has not adequately explored how teachers perceive and conduct their classes or the factors that influence their teaching methods To gain a comprehensive understanding of ESP instruction in the Vietnamese context, it is essential to consider the viewpoints and experiences of ESP educators.
Over the past 50 years, the understanding of teaching and learning has evolved from viewing teaching merely as a technical process to recognizing it as a complex activity that requires contextual decision-making (Schnellert et al., 2008) This shift has prompted extensive research into how teachers' cognition influences their classroom behavior, as evidenced by numerous studies across various contexts (e.g., Dobson & Dobson, 1983; Pearson, 1985; Thompson, 1992; Woods, 1996; Aguirre & Speer, 2000; Phipps & Borg, 2009; Kuzborska, 2011; Melketo, 2012) However, in the field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), research on teachers' perceptions and practices remains scarce, leaving this area largely unexplored (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) This study aims to address the research gap regarding teachers' cognition and practices within the ESP domain, focusing on both global and Vietnamese contexts.
My intrinsic motivation to conduct this research stems from my experience as an ESP teacher at a medical university in Vietnam Over the past seven years, I have observed little improvement in ESP teaching practices, with the same outdated materials being used repeatedly and a sense of routine dominating our approach This led me to question whether similar stagnation exists in other ESP contexts and what steps could be taken to address it While existing studies in Vietnam highlight various challenges in ESP teaching and suggest potential solutions, they often lack a thorough exploration of the underlying causes It was only four years ago, upon studying teachers' cognition and its influence on practices, that I recognized the need to investigate teachers' thoughts and behaviors in relation to their contexts This study aims to provide a clearer understanding of ESP teaching in Vietnam by examining the perceptions and practices of ESP teachers, ultimately offering insights and recommendations for improving teaching practices across the country.
Research aims
This study aims to investigate the perceptions and practices of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teachers at medical universities in Vietnam, focusing on the factors that influence their teaching Specifically, it seeks to address key research questions related to these educators' experiences and methodologies.
(1) What are teachers‟ perceptions of ESP teaching?
(2) To what extent are those ESP teachers‟ perceptions reflected in their teaching practices?
(3) What factors affect those ESP teachers‟ perceptions and their practices?
To address these questions, the research adopted the qualitative approach, using a multiple-case study in collecting and analyzing data.
Scope of the study
This qualitative multiple-case study focused on nine cases across three selected medical universities in northern Vietnam, aiming to explore specific aspects of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) among university teachers The research was designed to align with the established research objectives and did not seek to encompass all ESP areas or all English university educators.
This study explores the concept of teachers' perceptions, defined as "what teachers think, know and believe" (Borg, 2003, p 81), and uses this term interchangeably with teacher cognition It specifically investigates teachers' perceptions regarding various aspects of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching, including the roles of ESP teachers, the concept of ESP itself, ESP pedagogy, and the influence of contextual factors on their teaching practices.
This study focused on investigating teachers' practices in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) classrooms, examining their teaching procedures, focal points, and approaches It specifically analyzed teachers' instructional behaviors, decisions, and choices to understand their teaching practices more comprehensively.
Although the results of the study are not intended for generalization, there is possibility of transferring the findings to other similar contexts.
Significance of the study
This study utilizes Alzaanin’s (2014) Cognitive-Ecological Model (CEM) as its primary analytical framework, emphasizing the importance of understanding teachers' perceptions and practices within the context of diverse factors across multiple scales.
This study employs a qualitative multiple-case approach, addressing the gap in classroom-based qualitative research in Vietnam It provides valuable insights into data collection instruments and analysis procedures, serving as a useful resource for Vietnamese researchers interested in exploring teachers' cognition and practices.
This study highlights the importance of raising awareness among ESP teachers about their teaching practices, allowing them to reflect on their own methods through relatable case studies By doing so, it encourages teachers to take ownership of their teaching, fostering a sense of agency Additionally, the research underscores the necessity of systematically considering contextual factors when making policy decisions in education.
This study's findings will enhance understanding of the reality of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching in Vietnam, highlighting the contextual factors that shape teachers' perceptions and instructional practices The insights gained may foster discussions and encourage further efforts among teacher educators and policymakers aimed at improving the quality of ESP instruction in the Vietnamese context.
Context of the study
This section offers an overview of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching within the Vietnamese educational and socioeconomic landscape It highlights the impact of socioeconomic conditions and educational policies on the evolution and current status of ESP instruction Consequently, the current state of ESP teaching in Vietnam is outlined.
Vietnam's socio-economic landscape has significantly influenced its foreign language education, particularly following the economic reforms of 1986, which spurred a surge in foreign investments This influx motivated many Vietnamese to learn English to access Western scientific knowledge and pursue better job opportunities in foreign companies, leading to a nationwide "English language fever" (Canh, 2011, p 17) and establishing English as a "de facto foreign language" (Khanh, 2015, p 227) Consequently, there was a marked increase in the demand for specialized English language skills tailored for specific work environments (Shapiro, 1995, p 8) This trend fostered the growth of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) in Vietnam, with universities incorporating discipline-specific English into their curricula to equip graduates with both expertise in their fields and the confidence to communicate effectively with international partners.
Despite the growing demand for English language skills in Vietnam's market economy, universities are struggling to produce graduates with the necessary English proficiency As noted by Vallely & Wilkinson (2008), around 50 percent of Vietnamese graduates cannot find jobs in their field, largely due to insufficient English skills This lack of competency poses a significant barrier to Vietnam's integration into the global economy, particularly as the country seeks to engage more fully with the World Trade Organization (Tu, 2006).
(WTO) in 2007 required the Government and the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) to seek for measures to improve the situation
The Government has acknowledged the significance of English for national economic development and is committed to reforming the country's foreign language education system through the approval of the National Foreign Language Project.
The Prime Ministerial Decision 1400/QĐ-TTg, dated September 30, 2008, outlines a significant investment of VND 9,378 billion aimed at enhancing foreign language proficiency among Vietnamese students by 2020 The project's primary objective is to ensure that graduates from various educational levels can confidently communicate in a foreign language, thereby positioning language skills as a key advantage for Vietnam's industrialization and modernization efforts According to the Common European Framework for Reference (CEFR), students are expected to achieve levels A1, A2, and B1 upon graduation However, despite raising awareness about the importance of English, the project has not met its goals, with a considerable number of graduates, including 80% of master's students at Da Nang University, failing to reach the required proficiency levels.
The quality of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses at the tertiary level is often questioned, with various challenges contributing to their ineffectiveness, including outdated course materials, low student proficiency, insufficient teacher expertise, limited course duration, and inadequate assessment methods (Dong, 2011; Dung & Anh, 2010; Hai, 2011; Khanh, 2015; Hoa & Mai, 2016) This raises critical concerns about why graduates struggle to apply their English skills in professional settings and what adjustments are necessary to align training with societal needs Despite numerous recommendations for improvement, such as updating course content, extending course duration, enhancing teacher training, and revising assessment strategies, there appears to be a lack of strategic planning from higher authorities to implement these changes effectively.
The 2020 Project has increased pressure on university administrators to ensure that graduates meet the necessary English proficiency standards Many high school graduates struggle to reach the required B1 level, necessitating a retraining process upon their entry into university.
In recent years, many universities have reduced the time allocated for English education at the tertiary level, often sacrificing English for Specific Purposes (ESP) to prioritize General English courses (Dong, 2011) Additionally, at institutions that do offer ESP courses, progress appears to be stagnant, indicating a lack of development in this area (Duyen, 2014).
The ongoing debate regarding the necessity of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses in Vietnam highlights a prevalent skepticism, termed a "dilemma" by Dong (2011) Some universities are considering the removal of ESP to prioritize graduates' English proficiency requirements However, in the long term, ESP instruction remains essential for fostering learning through English (LTE) and supporting the country's integration and modernization efforts (Hoa, 2011) This situation necessitates a thorough evaluation and strategic planning by higher authorities, as ESP teachers currently face significant challenges in their teaching environments.
This study outlines the educational and socioeconomic contexts of Vietnam relevant to English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching at the tertiary level Detailed insights into the specific contexts of three universities will be provided in Section 2.2.1 of the thesis These contexts shape and influence teachers' perceptions and practices in ESP instruction To effectively explore teachers' views on ESP teaching and the factors that affect their methods, it is essential to consider these contextual elements.
Organization of the thesis
This thesis is structured into three key sections, beginning with an introduction that outlines the research problem, objectives, scope, and significance of the study Additionally, it offers insights into the context of the research, specifically focusing on the landscape of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching in Vietnam, where the study takes place.
The second part of the study is divided into four chapters Chapter One reviews relevant literature on English for Specific Purposes (ESP), focusing on its development in global and Vietnamese contexts, key areas of interest, and the perceptions and practices of ESP teachers This chapter identifies research gaps by extensively reviewing previous studies on teachers' perceptions and practices Chapter Two outlines the research methodology, detailing the research philosophy, approach, data collection, and analysis procedures, while ensuring reliability and ethical standards Chapter Three presents three main findings aligned with the research questions concerning teachers' perceptions of ESP teaching, their practices, and influential factors Finally, Chapter Four discusses these findings in relation to existing literature, research questions, and the analytical framework, highlighting the landscape of ESP teaching in various Vietnamese contexts.
The thesis concludes with a comprehensive summary of the research findings, highlighting both theoretical and practical implications It also addresses the limitations encountered during the study and offers several recommendations for future research in the fields of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching and teacher cognition.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
Since its inception in the 1960s, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has evolved significantly, marked by numerous controversies and advancements over the decades It has established itself as a vital component of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching, recognized as a dynamic and rapidly developing multi-disciplinary field of study globally.
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is increasingly recognized in English language education and various other disciplines Despite its growing prominence, creating a clear and comprehensive definition of ESP remains a challenge, as noted by Strevens (1980).
The literature has seen a great deal of efforts in defining ESP In the early days, ESP was considered as the teaching of technical vocabulary of a given field (Swales,
1971) Later on, Hutchinson and Waters (1987), instead of showing directly what ESP is, described what ESP isn’t, from which three main claims are made, including (1)
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is not merely about teaching specialized varieties of English or focusing solely on vocabulary and grammar relevant to specific professions, such as science or hospitality It encompasses a broader understanding of communication that goes beyond surface features ESP aligns with general language teaching principles, emphasizing effective and efficient learning tailored to the learner's specific reasons for studying Hutchinson and Waters (1987) highlight that all decisions regarding content and methodology in ESP should prioritize the learner's needs, underscoring the significance of this approach within the ESP community.
A decade later, another effort in defining ESP made by Dudley-Evans and St Johns
(1998) when they tried to identify „absolute‟ characteristics and „variable‟ characteristics which were followed by earlier work by Strevens (1988):
ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners
ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves
ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre
ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines
ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General English
ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level
ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students
Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems
(Dudley-Evans & St Johns, 1998, pp 4-5)
According to Far (2008), the flexible and overlapping nature of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) highlights its definitional fluidity This perspective reinforces and clarifies the distinctions between what constitutes ESP and what does not, building upon the foundational definitions established by Hutchinson and Waters in 1987.
As the demand for English for specific purposes (ESP) continues to rise, the interpretation of ESP has evolved to emphasize its practical applications in course design According to Smoak (2003), her experiences as an ESP practitioner highlight the importance of aligning ESP courses with real-world needs and contexts.
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is designed to address the immediate and practical needs of learners, enabling them to perform real-life tasks beyond merely passing an English class or exam As Harding (2007) notes, the primary goal of ESP is closely tied to the specific requirements of the learner's vocation or job This approach emphasizes not only fulfilling learners' needs but also engaging with typical discourses and real-life scenarios relevant to their target situations.
Drawing on different definitions of ESP in the literature, it is true to Ibrahim‟s (2010) statement that:
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) focuses on teaching specialized English tailored to adult learners within specific contexts, such as business, engineering, medicine, or science This approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of the language being taught, the learners' needs, and the particular settings in which the language will be used, all aimed at achieving practical objectives.
In Vietnam, the term "English for Specific Purposes" (ESP) is often translated as "Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành," which implies a focus on specific disciplines However, this interpretation can lead to a limited understanding of ESP, which should prioritize the specific needs of learners Many non-English major universities in Vietnam tend to teach ESP without adequately addressing these needs, resulting in a disconnect between ESP training and the actual requirements of learners and society To bridge this gap, it is essential to establish a clear working definition of ESP that can serve as a guideline for developing effective ESP courses in Vietnam.
Combining the review of the established definitions of ESP in the literature and reflecting on the contexts of ESP teaching in Vietnam, in this thesis, the concept of
ESP, or English for Specific Purposes, refers to the instruction of English tailored to specific disciplines, featuring relevant discourses and practical tasks This approach equips learners with the skills necessary to effectively utilize English in their academic pursuits and future careers Emphasizing the importance of aligning English instruction with the unique needs of students and societal demands, ESP focuses on developing the ability to use English purposefully for academic and professional objectives.
1.1.2 ESP development as a global trend
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), English for Specific Purposes (ESP) emerged not as a planned movement but as a response to several converging trends The first trend was the post-World War II expansion of technology and commerce, particularly driven by the economic strength of the United States, which created a demand for English learning with specific goals for success in the global marketplace The second trend involved a shift in linguistics from traditional language study focused on rules to an analysis of how English is used in various communication contexts, allowing for the identification of the specific English needed by different learner groups based on their professional or academic fields Lastly, advancements in educational psychology emphasized learner needs and attitudes, significantly influencing the design of English courses to enhance teaching effectiveness.
Since its inception, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has evolved through distinct phases of development Johns (2013) outlines a timeline that highlights four key periods in the evolution of ESP: the Early Years (1962-1981) and the Recent Past (1981-1990).
The Modern Era of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) from 1990 to 2011 marked a significant evolution in the field, initially focusing on English for Science and Technology (EST) in the post-World War II years Early research aimed to identify general sentence-level characteristics of EST, but soon shifted towards contrastive discourse analyses and rhetorical considerations A pivotal moment in ESP methodology occurred with the contributions of Tarone et al (1981), who introduced two key approaches: consultations with subject-specialist informants and a deeper understanding of the specific needs of learners in specialized fields.
From 1981 to 1990, there was a notable shift in the field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), characterized by a focus on more narrowly defined research topics and text types within EST disciplines This period saw the emergence of detailed rhetorical and grammatical analyses that contributed to a deeper understanding of specialized texts.
The "Genre Analysis approach" marked a significant expansion in the field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), introducing key concepts such as needs assessment and linguistic devices with rhetorical purposes However, much of the early ESP research remained focused on a limited range of topics, predominantly English for academic purposes in science and technology (Johns, 2013, p 12) The "Modern age in ESP" has witnessed a surge in research across various countries, including Taiwan, China, the US, Iran, and Malaysia, indicating the global reach of ESP This period emphasized genres and corpora, setting the stage for the future of ESP, which is expected to explore international authorship, diverse methodologies, triangulation, multimodalities, and varied contexts (Johns, 2013).
Hewings (2003) identified five significant trends impacting the global development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) One key trend is internationalization, which fosters the ongoing expansion of ESP research and practice across the globe, particularly thriving in regions such as Eastern and Mediterranean Europe and China.
Major foci in ESP
The evolution of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) over recent decades has sparked numerous discussions and issues This study highlights key areas of focus within ESP, including needs analysis, the role of ESP practitioners, the differentiation between ESP and General English Proficiency (EGP) teaching methodologies, and contemporary ESP teaching approaches, providing a solid theoretical foundation for the research.
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is characterized by its goal-directedness, focusing on the specific needs of learners (Robinson, 1991) Initially, needs analysis concentrated on linguistic and register analysis to identify essential grammar and vocabulary for various disciplines The publication of "Communicative Syllabus Design" by Munby (1978) introduced the significance of function and situation in needs analysis, leading to the development of the Communicative Needs Processor (CNP), which was pivotal for ESP researchers (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) However, Munby’s CNP faced criticism for being inflexible and overly complex (West, 1994), as it primarily reflected the needs analyst's perspective while neglecting learners' and institutions' views To address these limitations, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) differentiated between target-oriented needs, such as necessities, lacks, and wants, and learning-oriented needs, which consider learners' existing skills and knowledge This evolution in needs analysis also led to the introduction of terms like objective versus subjective needs (Brindley, 1989) and perceived versus felt needs (Berwick, 1989), emphasizing the growing recognition of diverse learner needs.
Students have both immediate needs during a course and delayed needs that may become more significant later (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998) Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) integrate various approaches to categorize these needs, providing a framework for needs analysts to follow This framework is visually represented in the needs analysis jigsaw model developed by Songhori (2008).
Figure 1.1: Needs Analysis jigsaw (Songhori, 2008, p 22)
The diagram above helps to depict a holistic approach to needs analysis that ESP teachers should be aware of
Needs analysis is a crucial first step in designing any English for Specific Purposes (ESP) course, as emphasized by Dudley-Evans and St John (1998), who describe it as "the cornerstone of ESP" that facilitates the creation of highly focused courses This foundational process ensures that the course effectively addresses the specific requirements of learners.
Effective decision-making requires the integration of diverse perspectives and contexts, as emphasized by Huhta et al (2013) It is crucial that this process relies on empirical evidence rather than the subjective intuitions of stakeholders, including educators and materials developers (Long, 2005; Huhta et al., 2013).
The term "ESP practitioners," introduced by Swales (1988), highlights the multifaceted responsibilities of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teachers beyond traditional teaching Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) outline five essential roles for ESP practitioners: teacher, course designer and materials provider, collaborator, researcher, and evaluator As teachers, ESP practitioners are encouraged to leverage students' existing knowledge to foster authentic communication and effectively negotiate lesson objectives Additionally, they often take on the role of course designers, tailoring and creating materials to meet specific learner needs Collaborating with content departments and subject matter experts is crucial for engaging with relevant disciplines Furthermore, ESP practitioners conduct research on learners' needs, target situations, and genre analysis pertinent to their fields Lastly, they play a vital role in evaluating student learning, as well as assessing courses and teaching materials.
ESP teachers must possess a diverse knowledge base that includes not only general language teaching skills but also specialized theories and practices relevant to English for Specific Purposes According to Tom and Valli (1990), this knowledge base encompasses the skills, knowledge, and dispositions necessary for effective classroom practices ESP practitioners should be well-versed in needs analysis, course design, and various ESP teaching approaches, as well as having a strong understanding of the subject matter they are teaching This multifaceted expertise enables them to fulfill their roles as teachers, course designers, materials providers, researchers, evaluators, and collaborators effectively.
Debates among ESP researchers highlight the ongoing discussion about whether English language teachers or subject specialists should teach English for Specific Purposes (ESP) (Ahmadi, 2008; Maleki, 2008; Rajabi, Kiany & Maftoon, 2011), with a tendency towards favoring EFL teachers Hutchinson and Waters (1987) emphasize that ESP teachers must expand their mastery of both language and subject matter beyond their previous experiences, yet they assert that only three key elements are essential: a positive attitude towards ESP content, a grasp of fundamental principles of the subject area, and an awareness of their existing knowledge (p 60, 163) Bell (2002) further notes that the required depth of subject matter knowledge for ESP teachers varies based on factors such as learners' prior knowledge, their experience level, and the specificity of the language and skills needed Thus, while ESP teachers do not need to be experts in a specific field, they should possess a general awareness and interest in the vocational area, embodying Hutchinson and Waters's idea that they should act as engaged learners rather than mere instructors of the subject matter (p 163).
The rapid evolution of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching has heightened the expectations for ESP instructors Today, educators are required to possess a comprehensive understanding of genre theory, utilize corpus tools, implement scaffolding techniques, and develop strategies that enhance metacognitive and metadiscoursal awareness.
11) Those are theories of ESP practice that ESP teachers should also be equipped
ESP teachers worldwide, including those in Taiwan, Iran, Greece, Pakistan, and Vietnam, face significant challenges due to limited official and professional training This lack of training has been identified as a critical issue for ESP practitioners, contributing to the difficulties they encounter in their roles In Vietnam, specifically, the inadequate training of ESP teachers has been cited as a major problem and a factor in the failure of ESP programs.
ESP teachers must fulfill various roles and possess a solid knowledge base in both General English (GE) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) to be effective and confident practitioners This highlights the need for further research on ESP teacher training and how the knowledge of ESP teachers influences their teaching practices.
1.2.3 Distinguishing ESP and EGP teaching methodology
The distinction between English for General Purposes (EGP) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has been a topic of discussion among researchers and practitioners since the inception of ESP, as noted by Widdowson (1983), Hutchinson and Waters (1987), Strevens (1988), and Anthony (1997) Strevens (1988) emphasizes that ESP is fundamentally different from General English (GE), highlighting the unique focus and objectives of ESP in catering to specific professional or academic needs.
(1997) observes the vague line between GE and ESP courses; and Chen (2009) asserts that “EGP is the premier stage for ESP and ESP is the advanced stage for EGP teaching” (p 57)
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) highlight that the key differentiator between English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and General English (GE) is the “awareness of the need” (p 53) They argue that while the content may vary, the methodologies applied in ESP classrooms are relevant to all English classes This leads them to conclude that in theory, ESP and GE are similar, but in practice, they differ significantly (p 53) Building on this perspective, Chen (2009) identifies two crucial points: first, the similarities between ESP and EGP are more pronounced than their differences; second, the teaching principles and procedures in both ESP and EGP classes are fundamentally aligned.
Far (2008) identifies key differences between English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for General Purposes (EGP) ESP learners are typically adults with prior English knowledge, aiming to acquire language skills for specific professional tasks, while EGP classes cater to a broader age range with English treated as a general subject In EGP, instruction covers all four language skills equally, whereas ESP prioritizes skills based on learners' specific needs Additionally, EGP emphasizes language structure, while ESP focuses on contextualizing language within relevant disciplines and real-world situations, enhancing student motivation Ultimately, ESP empowers learners to leverage their existing English knowledge to further their language acquisition.
In the realm of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching methodology, various perspectives have emerged Widdowson (1983) notes that "methodology has generally been neglected in ESP," highlighting a gap in focused teaching strategies (p 87) Hutchinson and Waters (1987) further assert that there is no distinct methodology for ESP, emphasizing that it should adhere to the same foundational principles of effective and efficient learning as any other language teaching approach (p 18).
Teachers‟ perceptions
Since the 1970s, teacher cognition research has expanded significantly, influenced by advancements in cognitive psychology This shift has transformed the focus from merely analyzing teachers' behaviors in isolation to a more comprehensive and qualitative examination of individual teachers' practices and thought processes (Borg, 2015, p 7).
The growth of teacher cognition research has introduced various terms, including personal pedagogical systems, pedagogic principles, theoretical beliefs, images, and maxims, to depict the psychological context of teaching (Borg, 2003) This evolution signifies a crucial advancement in inquiry development within the field, while also presenting challenges in achieving a unified understanding.
„definitional confusion‟ due to such proliferation of terms (Eisenhart, Shrum, Harding
The variability in terminology within academic discourse is evident, as identical terms can be defined differently while various terms may describe similar concepts This inconsistency highlights the complexities of language and interpretation in scholarly discussions.
“perception”, Hornby (2000) put it in the form of a countable noun and defined it as
In this study, "teachers' perceptions" are defined as a form of teachers' beliefs, falling under the broader concept of teacher cognition, which encompasses what teachers think, know, and believe (Borg, 2003) This understanding highlights the importance of teachers' perspectives in shaping their educational practices and interactions.
Human cognition is influenced by various social and personal factors, particularly in the context of teaching Borg (1997, 2003) proposed a framework that illustrates the significant role of teacher cognition in educators' lives, emphasizing four key elements: schooling, professional coursework, classroom practice, and contextual factors These elements are widely recognized in the literature as the primary influences on teacher cognition.
Firstly, the ‘schooling’ factor can refer to „prior language learning experiences‟ which were mentioned by scholars and researchers like Johnson (1994), Woods
Research has shown that pre-service teachers enter education programs with established beliefs shaped by their prior experiences, which are often resistant to change (Johnson, 1994) This phenomenon, referred to as “the apprenticeship of observation” (Lortie, 1975), significantly influences teachers’ instructional behaviors, particularly when these beliefs are acknowledged by the teachers themselves (Bailey et al., 1996) Consequently, these early experiences play a crucial role in forming the foundational beliefs that teachers hold about their teaching practices.
The impact of professional coursework and teacher training programs varies significantly, as studies on pre-service and in-service training have yielded mixed results While some researchers, such as Lamb (1995) and Richardson (2003), found that short training programs resulted in minimal changes to teacher beliefs and practices, others, like Soldat (2009) and Debri (2012), noted a substantial impact on teacher beliefs Gursoy (2013) highlighted that both education and experience play crucial roles in shaping teacher beliefs, suggesting that the effects of teacher education are context-dependent and influenced by the type and duration of training programs.
Classroom practice, or teaching experience, significantly influences teacher cognition, as highlighted by various studies (Nunan, 1992; Breen et al., 2001; Larcote & Canabal, 2005) It is regarded as the most critical factor affecting teachers' instructional performance (Phipps & Borg, 2009) However, there is a scarcity of research focused on how teaching experience shapes teachers' beliefs, with most existing studies primarily examining ESL rather than EFL educators (Canh, 2011, p 46).
Feiman-Nemser and Floden (1986) introduced the concept of "culture of teaching," emphasizing the importance of social and institutional contexts in education They highlighted various factors influencing the teaching environment, including interactions among teachers, students, administrators, and parents, as well as the intrinsic rewards of the teaching profession and overall working conditions This perspective has garnered interest from numerous scholars and researchers in the field.
Borg (2003) highlighted a significant gap in research regarding the influence of contextual factors on teachers' decision-making, pointing out a critical weakness in traditional studies on teacher cognition.
Existing research on teaching cognition often overlooks the broader context of teaching, failing to consider the essential relationships between teachers and their students, as well as the connections within the teaching community and other relevant contextual factors (Li, 2008, p 1).
A study by Canh (2011) on Vietnamese teachers revealed key factors influencing their beliefs about form-focused instruction, including professional training, personal language learning experiences, institutional influences, learner variables, instructional materials, and community experiences Similarly, Viet (2013) identified obstacles to task-based teaching in Vietnam, such as teachers' core beliefs, subjective norms, lack of theoretical knowledge, public examination pressures, and perceptions of student proficiency and motivation, along with institutional factors like discipline and textbook content Despite these findings, research on contextual factors affecting teacher cognition remains limited in both global and Vietnamese contexts, highlighting the need for further studies to explore these aspects comprehensively.
Teacher cognition is influenced by various contextual factors and develops through social construction, making it challenging to isolate these influences As highlighted by Canh (2011), teachers' beliefs stem from both public theories and personal life experiences, evolving within their practical environments Therefore, it is essential for researchers to adopt a broader perspective on the factors impacting teaching practices to better understand the relationship between teachers' thoughts and behaviors.
Teachers‟ practices
Despite the growing research on teachers' practices, clear definitions remain limited Fives, Lacatena, and Gerald (2015) describe teachers' practices as encompassing all activities related to teaching, including lesson planning, assessments, instruction, and interactions with students, parents, and colleagues Isac et al (2015) categorize these practices into two main areas: instructional practices, which involve the strategies teachers employ in the classroom, and collaborative practices, which pertain to peer collaboration outside the classroom They emphasize that these two types of activities, while distinct, are interconnected Depending on the study's focus, teachers' practices can be understood as either classroom activities (Borg, 2003) or a broader range of teaching-related actions.
This study primarily emphasizes teachers' instructional methods within the classroom, while also exploring their interactions with students and colleagues Key areas of focus include teaching procedures, teaching foci, and various teaching approaches.
Teachers' practices are influenced by various factors within their teaching context, similar to teacher cognition In his comprehensive review, Borg (2003) identified key reasons behind teachers' instructional decisions, including their focus on cognitive processes that enhance learning, language management, lesson pacing, and the balance of teacher talk He emphasized the importance of quality explanations and instructions to foster student understanding and motivation Borg also referenced his earlier findings to support these insights.
Teachers' practices are influenced by various social, psychological, and environmental factors within the school and classroom context Key elements that shape these practices include the expectations of parents and principals, societal influences, curriculum requirements, classroom and school design, school policies, interactions with colleagues, standardized testing, and the availability of resources.
In Borg's framework (1997, 2003), classroom practice is defined as the interplay between teachers' cognitions and contextual factors Thus, when examining teachers' practices, it is essential to consider both their cognitive processes and the influential elements present in their teaching environment.
Studies on language teachers‟ perceptions and practices
1.5.1 Relationship between teachers’ perceptions and practices
Research indicates a significant connection between language teacher cognition and their instructional behaviors in the classroom (Borg, 2003, 2009) However, findings in the field of teacher cognition reveal mixed results regarding this relationship Some studies demonstrate a consistent alignment between teachers' beliefs and their teaching practices (e.g., Thompson, 1992; Woods, 1996; Aguirre & Speer, 2000; Kuzborska).
2011), others demonstrate divergence (e.g Dobson & Dobson, 1983; Pearson, 1985; Phipps & Borg, 2009; Melketo, 2012)
Research has shown a strong alignment between teachers' beliefs and their instructional practices Woods (1996) conducted a longitudinal study with eight experienced ESL teachers in Canada, revealing that teachers' behaviors and strategies were significantly influenced by their coherent beliefs Similarly, Wang (2006) explored the beliefs of two English language teachers in China, finding a high degree of agreement between their beliefs and classroom practices, especially in teaching activities and methods Furthermore, Kuzborska (2011) examined the relationship between teachers' beliefs and practices in a Lithuanian university, utilizing lesson observations and interviews, and concluded that the teachers' instructional approaches were consistent with their theoretical beliefs.
Research indicates a significant disconnect between teachers' beliefs and their actual classroom practices Phipps and Borg (2009) explored this tension in a qualitative study involving English teachers in Turkey, revealing that while their grammar teaching practices conflicted with specific beliefs about language learning, they aligned with broader educational principles Similarly, Melketo (2012) examined English teachers at Wolaita Sodo University in Ethiopia, finding inconsistencies between their stated beliefs and their actual writing instruction methods, particularly in pre-writing, writing, revision, and error correction processes These studies underscore the complexities of teacher beliefs and highlight the need for deeper understanding in the field of education.
In 2012, research examined the alignment between Chinese novice EFL teachers' beliefs about postmethod approaches and their actual teaching practices, revealing a significant disconnect The study, which utilized the same research instruments as Melketo's (2012) work, found that teachers' practices often did not reflect their stated beliefs, indicating a serious gap between theory and practice (p 69) This discrepancy is echoed in various studies within the literature, including those by Karavas-Doukas (1996), Richards et al (2001), and Farrell & Kun (2008).
The relationship between teachers' beliefs and practices is complex and bidirectional, as highlighted by Canh (2011) It remains unclear whether beliefs primarily guide actions or if actions, particularly their outcomes, shape beliefs, with both elements potentially influencing each other based on various factors (Richardson, 2003) This interplay is described as a "symbiotic relationship" (Foss and Kleinsasser, 1996) Borg (2003) notes that while teacher cognition significantly impacts classroom practices, teachers' experiences in the classroom also play a crucial role in shaping their beliefs.
“incluences cognitions unconsciously and/ or through conscious reflection” (p 82)
Research shows significant interest in the connection between teachers' cognition and their instructional practices, which can vary based on specific contexts Understanding "what teachers think, know, and believe, and how these mental constructs relate to their actions in the language teaching classroom" (Borg, 2003, p 81) necessitates considering contextual factors.
1.5.2 Some theoretical frameworks for exploring teachers’ perceptions and practices
Various frameworks have been developed in the literature to demonstrate the connection between teachers' cognition and their practices Notable examples include Burns' (1992) intercontextuality, Borg's (1997) elements of teacher cognition, and Alzaanin's (2014) cognitive-ecological model (CEM) This section provides a concise review of these models, highlighting the specific focus of each framework.
In a 1992 study, Burns explored the intricate relationship between teachers' belief systems and their impact on classroom practices, revealing that these beliefs are complex and significantly influence classroom interactions To illustrate these "networks of intercontextuality," she proposed a comprehensive framework that highlights the dynamics at play in educational settings.
Burns' model operates on three interlinked levels of focus: the institutional culture, teachers' beliefs about learning and language, and instructional behaviors in the classroom The highest level, institutional culture, encompasses the conventions and beliefs that guide teachers' practices The second level reflects teachers' perspectives on learning and learners, influencing their teaching methods The final level zeroes in on the instructional behaviors teachers observe in their classrooms The bidirectional arrows in the model illustrate the close interdependence of beliefs across these levels, providing insight into how teachers navigate institutional constraints While Burns' model is effective for examining teachers' beliefs and practices, particularly regarding specific techniques and the impact of social norms, it lacks consideration of broader contextual influences, such as national and global factors, and does not specify the sources of teachers' cognition.
Borg's (1997) framework identifies five key elements centered around Teacher Cognition, which is influenced by early schooling experiences, professional coursework, contextual factors, and classroom practice Teacher cognition develops as educators learn teaching theories and practices, and evolves through training programs and hands-on teaching experiences These experiences shape their beliefs and approaches to teaching, while contextual factors encompass various influences related to the teaching environment This comprehensive framework is particularly relevant for studies examining teacher cognition.
Figure 1.4: Borg‟s (1997) teacher cognition elements
Alzaanin (2014) developed the Cognitive-ecological Model (CEM) by integrating Burns' (1992) model and Borg's (1997) framework, while examining teacher cognition and practices through a cognitive-ecological lens This model emerged from her research focused on the pedagogical practices of EFL writing teachers in Palestinian universities, highlighting the significance of understanding the cognitive and ecological factors that influence teaching methodologies.
The concept of "ecology of contexts" highlights the dynamic interplay of various contexts and the constraints that shape entities, closely aligning with Bronfenbrenner's (1979) Ecological Systems Theory This theory identifies five environmental systems—microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem—that influence individual development, emphasizing the significant role of environmental factors In developing the CEM framework, Alzaanin (2014) focused on the term "cognitive" to underscore how teachers' cognitions impact their classroom behaviors and instructional practices.
„ecological‟ referred to the multiple and nested contexts that shape teachers‟ cognitions and affect their teaching practices The detailed framework is modeled as follows:
Figure 1.5: Alzaanin‟s (2014) Cognitive-Ecological Model
(CEM) of teaching EFL writing
The author presents a model described as a "rainbow-like figure of seven bands" that illustrates how contextual factors influence teacher cognition and practices at various scales, from global to institutional and classroom levels Unlike Borg's (1997) framework, which places teacher cognition at the center, this model suggests that teaching practices result from the interaction between cognitive influences and ecological factors Consequently, the outer layers of the model serve as contextual filters that shape teachers' practices.
Alzaanin's (2014) Contextualized Educational Model (CEM) shares similarities with previous frameworks by Burn (1992) and Borg (1997), particularly in illustrating the bilateral relationship between contextual factors and classroom practices, as well as the connection between teacher cognition and actual teaching methods It aligns with Burn's model by viewing human activity as a social network system However, unlike earlier models, Alzaanin's CEM encompasses a broader range of factors influencing teachers' cognition and practices The model's multi-layered representation of contextual factors highlights the reciprocal relationships among these components Consequently, Alzaanin (2014) posits that the CEM framework can effectively investigate the interplay between teacher cognition, teaching practices, and the ecological factors present in various educational contexts.
In sum, each framework has its own focus Based on specific purpose of each study, researchers can adopt or adapt such models accordingly.
Studies on ESP teachers‟ perceptions and practices
Despite the significant advancements in research on teacher cognition within EFL and ESL contexts, which have notably influenced teachers' professional development (Borg, 2003), there remains a substantial lack of focus on this subject in the field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) This evident gap is reflected not only in the scarcity of studies but also in the narrow range of topics and research methodologies explored.
Before 2003, there was a notable lack of research focused on the cognition and practices of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teachers This gap in the literature was highlighted in reviews by various authors, including Clark and Peterson (1986), Carter (1990), and Calderhead.
Research by Verloop, Van Driel, and Meijer (2001) and Borg (2003), along with Hewings' (2003) comprehensive review of 20 volumes of the English for Specific Purposes Journal from 1980 to 2001, highlights key areas of focus for ESP researchers Hewings identified seven main topics of interest: text/discourse analysis, program description, needs analysis/syllabus design, materials/methods, argument, testing, and teacher training This analysis reveals a notable neglect of teacher cognition within the realm of ESP studies.
Since Borg's (2003) review, there has been no official update on teacher cognition research; however, literature indicates that approximately a decade ago, ESP researchers began focusing on teachers' cognition regarding ESP-related issues, particularly in Asia, including Taiwan, China, Iran, and Vietnam This emerging interest within the ESP community has led to limited exploration of aspects such as ESP courses, pedagogical challenges, learners' needs, and teachers' difficulties in course design and curriculum planning.
Several studies, including those by Tsao, Wei, and Fang (2008), Shen (2009), and Su (2010), have explored teachers' perceptions of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses in both university and vocational school settings These studies utilized survey questionnaires to gather insights from teachers and students regarding the significance and advantages of ESP courses, the challenges faced during these courses, factors influencing course success, and the differences between ESP and English for General Purposes (EGP) In the Vietnamese context, Huong focused on understanding teachers' perceptions related to instructional issues and the working environment within ESP programs.
In 2013, an online survey was conducted with English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teachers across 12 universities in Vietnam However, similar to previous studies, the reliance on questionnaires may not adequately capture the "unobservable dimension of teaching" as noted by Borg (2009, p 1).
Rajabi, Kiany, and Maftoon (2011) explored the differing perceptions of English language teachers and subject matter teachers regarding pedagogical issues and instructional practices in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) classes Their findings revealed some consistency in teaching methods, such as the traditional translation method, while highlighting differences in preferred activities between the two teacher groups The study aimed to identify factors influencing the beliefs of these ESP teachers through a questionnaire, but its limitation was the reliance on this single method, which did not fully capture the teachers' underlying thoughts and beliefs Similarly, Oanh, Chau, and Chi conducted related research.
In a 2005 study involving 250 students and 20 teachers at a Vietnamese university, researchers investigated beliefs surrounding English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching and learning, the appropriateness of teaching methods and materials for students' levels and interests, and the effectiveness of students' communicative competence post-course While the study incorporated various data collection methods, including follow-up interviews and informal oral tests, its primary findings stemmed from questionnaire responses Despite highlighting the prevalent use of the Grammar Translation Method among teachers, the study did not conclusively determine whether teachers' reported practices aligned with their actual behaviors.
Needs analysis is a fundamental aspect of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), as highlighted by studies conducted by Donesch-Jezo (2011) and Ali and Salih (2013), which explored teachers' perceptions and their effects on ESP courses and materials Donesch-Jezo (2011) utilized surveys to assess both teachers' and students' views on current instructional methods and the needs and expectations of students The findings revealed a notable discrepancy between students' learning styles and teachers' instructional approaches, stemming from differing perceptions of needs Although the study acknowledged its limitation of relying solely on questionnaires for data collection, it emphasized the importance of aligning teaching methods with students' needs in ESP contexts.
This information encourages teachers to reflect on their existing teaching methods and adapt them to align with the preferred learning styles of their students, ensuring more effective instruction.
In their studies conducted in 2011 and 2013, Ali and Salih examined language teachers' perspectives on the role of needs analysis in the development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) materials Utilizing a survey distributed among 55 teachers across five higher language institutions, the researchers discovered that a significant majority of ESP practitioners recognized the critical importance of needs analysis This finding underscores the pressing need for the creation of more responsive ESP materials tailored to the specific requirements of learners.
18) as in the authors‟ words However, by only relying on a survey questionnaire, the findings might not reflect adequately what those teachers really perceived about their students‟ needs In Vietnam, although there are a number of studies on needs analysis for ESP courses (e.g Khuong & Chi, 2008; Dung, 2011; Dung & Anh, 2013); generally, in most ESP courses, needs analysis regarding learner needs and society needs seems not to be done holistically (Dong, 2011; Thanh, 2011), leading to ineffectiveness of ESP courses Although Dong (2011) reckoned that most ESP teachers tended to base on their experience and intuition about learner needs to design ESP courses or materials, up to now, not any study investigates what ESP teachers in Vietnam really understand and perceive about needs analysis
Wu and Badger (2009), Wu and Hung (2011), and Huong and Malvetti (2012) employed qualitative methods to explore ESP teachers' perceptions regarding teaching challenges and strategies Wu and Hung (2011) utilized ethnographic tools, including observation and interviews, to uncover the pedagogical beliefs influencing a teacher's curriculum planning in an EAP course This in-depth analysis highlighted how teacher beliefs were manifested in their behaviors and instructional choices However, the study's limitation was its focus on a single teacher, which restricted the diversity of beliefs represented Additionally, the research did not investigate the origins of the teacher's beliefs regarding curriculum planning and implementation Similarly, Huong and Malvetti (2012) conducted 15 in-depth interviews with ESP teachers from various universities, further contributing to the understanding of teachers' perspectives in this field.
In Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, a study was conducted to identify common challenges faced in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses and to explore effective strategies for addressing these issues Although the interviews were conducted meticulously, the findings were not cross-verified with actual classroom observations.
Regarding the topic of ESP teachers‟ problems and strategies, Wu and Badger‟s
The 2009 study by Wu and Badger stands out for addressing the "In-class Subject Knowledge Dilemma" (ISKD) faced by ESP teachers, a concern echoed in the works of Wu and Hung (2011) and Huong and Malvetti (2012) This research effectively integrated semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, stimulated-recall, and post-observation interviews, ensuring a comprehensive examination of these methodologies It explored the factors influencing teachers' responses to ISKD situations and the contextual effects on their behaviors and strategies However, the study primarily focused on specific challenges and strategies of a limited number of teachers, leaving a gap in understanding the broader teaching approaches and underlying factors in ESP classes.
Summary
This chapter provides a theoretical foundation for the study of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), highlighting its evolving definition and the growing emphasis on understanding learners' needs and the specific discourses of various fields A thorough analysis of key aspects of ESP underscores the significance of needs analysis in designing effective ESP courses, as well as the requirements for ESP practitioners and the diverse teaching methodologies available By examining these critical issues, this study aims to investigate teachers' perceptions and practices in ESP teaching, offering essential context for data collection and analysis.
A critical review of studies on the relationship between teachers' perceptions and practices in the field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) reveals significant research gaps Notably, there has been insufficient exploration of how ESP teachers actually deliver their lessons in practice Additionally, the reliance on survey questionnaires in these studies limits the depth of understanding regarding teachers' perceptions Furthermore, the contextual factors influencing ESP teachers' thoughts and actions remain inadequately examined, highlighting the need for further investigation in this area.
This study aims to investigate how English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teachers in Vietnam perceive and deliver their instruction, while considering the contextual factors that influence their teaching practices By integrating insights from both global and Vietnamese perspectives on ESP education, the research will address key questions regarding the perceptions and instructional behaviors of these educators.
(1) What are teachers‟ perceptions of ESP teaching?
(2) To what extent are those ESP teachers‟ perceptions reflected in their teaching practices?
(3) What factors affect those ESP teachers‟ perceptions and their practices?
The upcoming chapter will outline the research methodology for the study, detailing the selected research approach, sites, and participants It will also present the analytical framework and instruments used, along with a comprehensive demonstration of the data collection and analysis procedures designed to address the research questions.