Rationale
Nominalization is a significant linguistic feature prevalent in academic discourse, particularly in English research articles, where it enhances formality and encapsulation This linguistic strategy contributes to a higher degree of lexical density, which, as noted by Halliday (1994) and Ure (1997), correlates with text formality; the more nominalizations present, the more formal the text appears Nominalization serves as a key indicator of formality and plays a crucial role in encapsulating complex ideas, as highlighted by Thompson (2000) Understanding the characteristics and functions of nominalization is essential for academic writers, as it aids in comprehending this genre of discourse Therefore, studying nominalization in academic texts is vital for improving both reading and writing skills in English academic discourse, particularly in research articles This thesis aims to explore the realization of nominalization in English articles, emphasizing its importance for readers' comprehension of this genre.
Aims of the study
This study investigates the realization of nominalization in five English research articles from the journal Educational Studies The author classifies the nominalizations used in these articles and describes their characteristics and functions through the lens of Halliday's systemic functional approach.
In brief, the study would seek to answer the following questions:
1 How is nominalization realized in the articles of Educational Studies?
2 What are the possible effects of nominalization in academic discourse?
Scope of the study
This research aims to explore the phenomenon of nominalization through the lens of systemic functional grammar, utilizing a corpus of English research articles sourced from the two most recent volumes of the journal Educational Studies.
Significance of the study
This paper aims to provide insights into the role of nominalization in academic discourse, particularly within research articles Furthermore, the study seeks to offer valuable suggestions for enhancing the teaching of academic writing and translating academic texts.
Academic writing is characterized by its formal and concise style, often featuring a high frequency of nominalization This study highlights common types of nominalization found in scholarly articles and their effects, providing valuable insights for researchers and writers of academic papers.
Design of the study
Following is the construction of the study
Chapter 1 – Theoretical background: provides the background of the study, including definition of key concepts, theories, and review of related studies
Chapter 2 – Methodology: describes the corpus compilation and data collection procedure Data analyzing methods and instruments and analytical framework are also clearly presented in this chapter
Chapter 3 – Findings and Discussion: presents, analyzes and discusses the findings that the researcher found out in order to answer the research questions.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Nominalization
Nominalization is a linguistic process that involves deriving nouns from other word classes According to the Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, it can be defined broadly as any derivation of nouns or more narrowly as a productive word formation process that allows words from all classes to function as nouns The Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics further specifies nominalization as the grammatical method of forming nouns primarily from verbs or adjectives.
Aarts (1982) defines the nominalization as a process of turning a non-nominal element into a noun group It has two aspects of sense in definition (Aarts, 1982):
1) In a narrow sense, nominalization refers to the nouns derived from verbs or adjectives including gerund, or the finite clause turning into a nominalization For example: They rejected my complain → their rejection of my complaint
2) In a broad sense, nominalization refers to all the elements that can act as noun or noun group It includes nominal clauses, infinitives, gerunds, etc for example (nominalization in italics):
- Everyone could see that he did not want to commit himself on the controversy
- That the driver could not control his car was obvious
- The stranger offered to show me the way
Quirk et al (1985) and Aarts (1982) define nominalization in a narrow sense, emphasizing changes in form and grammatical categories In contrast, the Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics and the Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics focus on word derivation, offering broader yet less precise definitions While all these definitions address changes in lexical elements, they overlook the functional roles and structural aspects of nominalization within a clause.
Nominalization is a grammatical process that allows verbs, verb phrases, sentences, or parts of sentences that include verbs to function as noun phrases, according to linguists Li and Thompson (1982).
Nominalization, as defined by Halliday (1985), encompasses elements within a group that can function as nouns or noun groups in a clause, including clauses and nominalized adjectives or verbs Halliday (2004b) emphasizes that nominalization is a powerful tool for creating grammatical metaphor By transforming processes (typically expressed as verbs) and properties (generally conveyed as adjectives) into nouns, nominalization facilitates a more information-dense discourse.
There are different ways of classifying nominalization Some of them are mentioned as follows:
Langacker (1991) identifies three distinct types of nominalizations based on their organizational level The first type occurs at the word level, exemplified by terms like "teacher." The second type involves nominalizations that capture a structure between a verb and a complete clause, such as "Sam's washing the windows." Lastly, the third type consists of full clause nominalizations, illustrated by phrases like "that Sam washed the windows."
In Cognitive Grammar (Langacker, 1987, 1991), three types of nominalization are proposed:
Action nominalization nominalizes a verb with no accompanying arguments
(actants), creating a new lexical item which designates a generic type of action or event
Factive nominalization transforms a verb and its actants, excluding the subject, into a noun form, often referred to as "participles" or "gerunds." This process results in an event representation that lacks a specific identification or location within conceptual space.
Sentential nominalization transforms a verb and its associated elements, including the subject, into a noun phrase This process effectively creates a unique event representation, allowing listeners to locate it distinctly within conceptual space.
Chomsky (1970) identifies two significant types of nominal expressions in English: gerundive nominalization and derived nominalization For instance, the sentence “John has refused the offer” can be transformed into the gerundive nominal “John's refusing the offer” and the derived nominal “John's refusal of the offer.”
According to Comrie & Thompson (2007), nominalization is divided into two main types: lexical nominalization and clausal nominalization
1) Lexical nominalization is a derivational process that creates nouns from lexical verbs and adjectives, and the resulting nouns become the head nouns in a noun phrase (Comrie & Thompson, 2007) Derivational nominalization: According to Biber et al (2002), derivational nominalizations are ones derived from verbs and adjectives Most derived nouns are abstract in meaning This type of nominalization is formed by adding suffixes to the roots Nominalizing suffixes in English are listed below; the symbols V and A in the list show whether the noun is derived from a verb or an adjective respectively
-age (various meanings) baggage, wastage, postage, orphanage -al action or instance of V-ing arrival, burial, denial, proposal
-an, -ian nationality, language, etc American, historian, Korean,
Victorian suffixes play a crucial role in English word formation, indicating various states or actions The suffixes -ance and -ence denote the action or state of being, as seen in words like assistance, resemblance, and experience Meanwhile, -ant and -ent refer to individuals or items involved in an action, such as assistant and consultant The suffix -cy signifies a state or quality, exemplified by accuracy and lunacy Additionally, -dom conveys a state of being, found in terms like freedom and wisdom The suffix -ee identifies a person in relation to an action, including absentee and trainee, while -er and -or denote a person or thing that performs an action, as seen in actor and teacher Lastly, -ery and -ry cover various non-personal meanings, including bakery and bravery Understanding these suffixes enhances vocabulary and comprehension in the English language.
-ese nationality or language Chinese, Japanese, journalese
-ess a female N actress, baroness, tigress, waitress -ette a small N cigarette, kitchenette, novelette
-ful amount that fills a N handful, mouthful, spoonful
-hood state of being A/N childhood, falsehood, likelihood
-ician person concerned with N clinician, mathematician, physician -ie, -y a pet name for N auntie, daddy, doggie, Johnny
-ing action/instance of V-ing, place or material feeling, meeting, reading, training, building, crossing, landing, lining -ism ideology, movement, tendency atheism, criticism, capitalism, Marxism
-ist follower of N/A-ism, specialist atheist, capitalist, racist, physicist
-ite citizen or follower of N Moabite, Muscovite, Thatcherite
-ity state or quality of being A ability, activity, density, insanity
-let a small N bomblet, booklet, leaflet, piglet
The suffixes "-ment," "-ness," "-ship," "-tion," and "-ure" serve to transform verbs and nouns into meaningful terms that describe various actions, states, or qualities For instance, "-ment" indicates the action or instance of a verb, as seen in words like "argument" and "treatment." The suffix "-ness" denotes the state or quality of being, exemplified by terms such as "happiness" and "darkness." Similarly, "-ship" reflects the state or skill of being associated with a noun, found in "friendship" and "membership." The suffix "-tion" signifies the action or instance of a verb, as illustrated by "communication" and "education." Lastly, "-ure" conveys the action or instance of a verb, with examples like "closure" and "pressure." Understanding these suffixes enhances clarity in language and supports effective communication.
De-verbal nominalization encompasses various forms, including nouns that represent the agent of the verb, such as those with the suffixes -ant, -er, -or, and -ar It also includes nouns that denote the patient of the verb, typically ending in -ee Additionally, de-verbal nominalization captures both the process and result of the verb through nouns with suffixes like -age, -al, -ance, -tion, and -ment, as well as instruments of the verb, often represented by nouns with the suffixes -age and -ant On the other hand, de-adjectival nominalizations relate to abstract concepts characterized by adjectives, represented by nouns with the suffixes -ity, -ness, and -ism, or to individuals embodying those qualities, indicated by nouns ending in -ist.
Conversion, also known as zero derivation, is a process of deriving nouns from other word classes without adding any affixes Instead, the base or root word is transformed into a different word class, typically shifting from a verb or adjective to a noun.
Base Meaning(s) of converted noun
Example of converted noun adjectives
Presidential hopefuls often adopt the speech patterns of Southern whites, reflecting cultural influences In sports, a brilliant catch can be a game-changer, while a successful fishing trip can yield a fine catch The term "catch" also refers to mechanisms, such as loosening a catch to open a window Accusations of cheating are common in competitive scenarios, highlighting the importance of integrity Walking can be a leisurely activity, with phrases like "the walk of a gentleman" emphasizing style and grace Notably, some walks can be extensive, with certain trails stretching for impressive distances, such as 154 miles.
Related studies
Numerous studies have explored nominalization within specific discourses, including medical, scientific, and political contexts Su (2011) examined the use of lexical nominalization in the abstracts of medical journals, analyzing 96 abstracts from the New England Journal of Medicine and BioMed Central Medicine Additionally, Wenyan (2011) conducted research on nominalization in medical papers, further contributing to the understanding of this rhetorical device in academic discourse.
A comparative study analyzed the discussion sections of 10 medical papers by native English writers and 10 by Chinese academic writers from influential medical journals, focusing on nominalization frequency and lexical density Holtz (2009) conducted a quantitative analysis of nominalization in research articles and abstracts, revealing that nominalization is significantly more frequent in abstracts, which also exhibit a broader vocabulary range Additionally, Sarnackaite (2011) explored nominalization in political discourse through an analysis of 16 American political speeches, concluding that nominalization is crucial for categorizing and describing phenomena, enhancing the cohesion and fluency of political language.
Despite numerous studies on nominalization across various discourse types, research specifically focusing on nominalization in academic articles remains scarce Notably, there has been no examination of this phenomenon within articles from the journal Educational Studies This research aims to fill that gap by offering a comprehensive analysis of nominalization in this particular writing genre.
METHODOLOGY
Corpus compilation
This study utilizes a corpus of five English research articles from volumes 39 and 40 of the journal Educational Studies, totaling approximately 20,000 words The selection of these five articles is deemed sufficient for both quantitative and qualitative analysis, making it appropriate for a minor thesis Educational Studies focuses on research related to social and educational foundations, and all selected articles are structured with distinct sections: introduction, method, results, and discussion To streamline the analysis, the articles are coded as I, II, III, IV, and V, with specific examples referenced as A_x, where A indicates the article and x denotes the line number For instances covering multiple lines, the format A_x-y is used, indicating a range from line x to line y in the respective article.
Data collection procedure
The data collection procedure involved several key steps Initially, the researcher identified nominalizations in the selected articles, focusing specifically on those functioning as head nouns within nominal groups These nominalizations were then categorized based on an analytical framework Finally, the analysis examined the ideational, interpersonal, and textual metafunctions of the nominalizations to determine their semantic roles.
2.2.1 Data analyzing instruments and methods
Content analysis serves as the primary method for data examination, allowing for both quantitative and qualitative interpretations In the quantitative phase, nominalizations within the corpus are identified and their occurrences are counted, with frequencies calculated for each article and presented in tables to highlight trends in nominalization usage across five articles The analysis also includes a percentage breakdown of the different types of nominalization, visually represented in tables The semantic roles of nominalization are explored through the lens of metafunctions, with relevant statistics illustrated in tables and graphs For qualitative analysis, the data statistics are interpreted to uncover the characteristics and effects of nominalization in educational articles, with each instance of nominalization rigorously analyzed using an established analytical framework.
In this study, the analytical framework is the combination of framework of Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002) and systemic functional grammar of Halliday (1994)
Nominalizations identified in the articles are classified according to Biber Conrad and Leech‟s way of categorizing (2002) as the framework in the table 1 below:
-al: arrival, -ance: assistance, -ence: difference, -ant: assistant,
-ent: student, -ee: trainee, -er: driver, -or: visitor, -ing: feeling, -ment: argument, -tion: education, -ure: closure
DA -cy: accuracy, -dom: freedom, -hood: childhood
-ee: absentee, -ist: racist, -ity: ability, -ness: richness
CV walk (v) – walk (n) catch (v) – catch (n)
The truth is that we don't know exactly how the disease is spread
Most experts agree that drugs like heroin can cause permanent brain damage
WH What he did was surprising
We have no knowledge of where it came from
I‟m just trying to get away early
A fourth challenge is to develop management arrangement within hospital
VING He began paging through old newspapers
My uncle‟s hobby is collecting fish
The next framework presents a sample of analysis in terms of transitivity, mood and theme according to the systemic functional grammar of Halliday (1994)
Figure 6: Analysis in terms of transitivity, mood and theme
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Realization of nominalization in the five articles of Educational Studies …
Nominalization frequency is calculated by dividing the total instances of nominalization by the overall word count in a text For instance, a frequency of 1/14 indicates that nominalization appears, on average, once every 14 words.
To code the five chosen articles, each of them is assigned a number from I to V The summary of frequency of nominalization is presented in Table 2 below
Table 2 indicates that nominalization is more frequent in the first three articles compared to the others, occurring approximately once every 13 to 14 words in Articles I, II, and III, while in the remaining articles, it appears once every 12 words.
Articles IV and V contain 18 words each, while Articles I, II, and III have fewer words but exhibit a higher frequency of nominalization This suggests that increased nominalization contributes to a more succinct text Despite variations in nominalization frequency across the five articles, the differences are minimal Therefore, it can be concluded that nominalization is a prevalent phenomenon in academic discourse, particularly in research articles, and serves as a key characteristic of this genre.
The author analyzes the distribution of nominalization types within the data corpus, categorizing them based on previously outlined classifications A comprehensive overview of all nominalization types found in the five texts is included in Appendix 3 The accompanying chart illustrates the distribution of these nominalization types, complete with specific statistical data.
Figure 7: Distribution of nominalization subtypes
DV DA CV THAT WH VING TO
Figure 7 illustrates the presence of various types of nominalization across all five articles Notably, lexical nominalization, which includes DV, DA, and CV, is significantly more prevalent than clausal nominalization, which encompasses THAT, WH, VING, and TO.
In the analysis of clausal nominalization, it is evident that the types "THAT" and "TO" dominate, comprising a higher percentage compared to "WH" and "VING." Regarding lexical nominalization, a significant trend emerges across the texts, with dynamic verbs (DV) being the most prevalent, particularly in articles II and III, which show proportions of 44.2% and 44.9%, respectively Close behind are circumstantial verbs (CV), which have a nearly equal representation In contrast, the use of descriptive adjectives (DA) is notably lower, with only 2.7% in article I and 2.9% in article II Overall, the majority of nominalizations originate from verbs, allowing speakers to transform processes into nouns, thereby facilitating the expression of entities and their assumed existence as participants or circumstances in other processes.
3.1.3 Nominalization in terms of ideational metafunction
Nominalization serves various functions within a clause, significantly impacting the overall meaning of the text An investigation into the roles of nominalization across five articles, focusing on ideational metafunction, is summarized in Table 3 below.
Table 3: Ideational realization of nominalization
The analysis reveals that nominalizations predominantly function as circumstances across different categories, with their usage recorded at 34.7% in category I, 44.55% in category II, 23.5% in category III, 31.6% in category IV, and 24.1% in category V.
In many sentences of these research articles, it could be found that the frequency of circumstances is fairly high For example:
“Beliefs are based on prior experiences and influence subsequent interactions circumstance circumstance through what are known as schemas” (II_103-104) circumstance
Siegel's research highlights that resilience is a skill that can be developed through experience He emphasizes the importance of mindfulness strategies, which include confronting challenging emotions instead of avoiding them, substituting rumination with curiosity and kindness, and reflecting on thoughts and feelings through notation and labeling.
According to Halliday (1994), circumstance serves as an expansion of something else
The frequent use of circumstances in academic discourse contributes to longer clauses and enhances cohesion, making it a notable feature of this style of writing This complexity often makes academic texts challenging for many readers to comprehend.
3.1.4 Nominalization in terms of interpersonal metafunction
Figure 8: Interpersonal realization of nominalization
In the context of interpersonal metafunction, nominalizations predominantly function as complements, comprising over 50% in articles III and V, and nearly 50% in articles II and IV Adjuncts follow as the second most common role, representing 34.7%, 40.5%, 23.9%, 30.1%, and 24.4% in articles I through V, respectively The least frequent role is that of the subject, which accounts for approximately 20% of the total nominalizations.
A complement, found within the Residue, can serve as a subject and holds the potential to attain modal responsibility, making it central to the argument This element is usually represented by a nominal group.
At the heart of stereotyping is a process of mental categorisation
MOOD Subject Finite Predicator Complement
In the example above, the nominalization “categorisation” functioning as complement in the clause has the potential of being subject like:
Eg4: “A process of mental categorisation is at the heart of stereotyping”
Nominalization can serve as the subject in a sentence, as demonstrated in example Eg4, where it fits seamlessly into a standard sentence structure In contrast, the original version, Eg3, employs inversion to highlight the nominalization, creating a different emphasis.
“categorisation” turn into complement and then the emphasis is on the prepositional phrase “at the heart of stereotyping” This creates uniqueness as well as formality for the utterance
3.1.5 Nominalization in terms of textual metafunction
Figure 9: Textual realization of nominalization
Figure 9 illustrates that nominalizations predominantly appear in the rheme position across all five articles, with percentages ranging from 73.6% to 82.9% In contrast, nominalizations in the theme position represent only about one-fourth of those in the rheme The theme serves as the starting point of the clause, while the rheme provides additional information, facilitating further development in the text (Halliday, 1994) The rheme often introduces new information that requires reader interpretation, making the use of nominalization in this position significant.
Theme Rheme the new information becomes something abstract and non-negotiable, which helps create preciseness for the research articles
The relationship between theme and rheme plays a crucial role in creating cohesion within a text Coherent writing is evident in the progression of information from theme to rheme in clauses, a concept known as thematic progression According to Eggins (1994), this progression can be categorized into three patterns: simple linear progression, constant continuous theme, and theme progression with derived themes, as outlined by Danes (1974) and Eggins (1994).
(3) Theme progression with derived themes
Possible effects of nominalization
Using nominalization instead of processes makes the processes disappear and the actors of the processes become invisible For example:
Eg10a: “If there is a natural tendency to think that Spinoza’s identification of
48 emotions was, perhaps, rather overambitious, Goleman (1996) brings us back to earth with a more economical taxonomy.” (IV_418-420)
Without using nominalization “tendency”, the above sentence might be paraphrased as follows:
Eg10b: If we tend to think that Spinoza identifies 48 emotions which was perhaps rather overambitious, Goleman (1996) brings us back to earth with a more economical taxonomy
In the article, the writer employs the term "tendency" metaphorically instead of the congruent form "tend," transforming the concept into an abstract notion This shift also results in the omission of the subject "we," thereby redirecting the focus of the expression.
The concept of "tendency" can obscure the subject, allowing the statement to convey a sense of objectivity, a key characteristic of academic writing This effect of nominalization is further illustrated in another example from Article V.
All Scottish teachers are required to establish a set of "positive behaviour strategies" prior to their registration with the General Teaching Council for Scotland.
This example might be reworded as:
The Scottish government requires that all teachers in Scotland develop a set of "positive behaviour strategies" prior to their registration with the General Teaching Council for Scotland.
In Eg11b, the phrase "expects" indicates the participation of the human agent, the "Scottish government," which compromises the sentence's objectivity In contrast, the original version, Eg11a, maintains a more neutral tone.
“Scottish government” is obscured; therefore, the emphasis is placed on
“expectation”, which creates the objectivity for the utterance
Nominalization enhances the objectivity of discourse while allowing for a higher density of lexical items For instance, it effectively condenses information, illustrating the impact of this linguistic technique.
Eg12a: “Teachers with a humanistic orientation have an accepting, trusting view of students, and have confidence in students’ ability to be self-disciplining and responsible.” (II_164-165)
The example above contains two processes: “have an accepting, trusting view of students” and “have confidence in … responsible” By using nominalization:
Replacing the nominalizations "confidence" and "ability" with adjectives transforms the sentence structure, adding complexity and enhancing clarity This shift introduces two additional processes, enriching the overall meaning and coherence of the complex clause By utilizing adjectives as attributes, the sentence becomes more dynamic and engaging, ultimately improving its effectiveness in conveying the intended message.
Eg12b: Teachers with a humanistic orientation have an accepting, trusting view of students, and they are confident that students are able to be self-disciplining and responsible
The nouns "confidence" and "ability" in Example 12a are effectively transformed into the adjectives "confident" and "able" in Example 12b This transformation results in a structure composed of multiple clauses instead of a single complex sentence, leading to a reduction in text density and formality Consequently, it can be concluded that the nominalization process is crucial for improving conciseness in academic writing.
Besides, using nominalization is a useful way to create formality which is another notable feature of academic discourse This is clearly shown in the following example:
Eg13a: “They give me an angry look.” (II_240)
Eg13b: They look me angrily
While the example Eg13b uses the process expressed by a verb “look”, the example
In Eg13a, the process is metaphorically rephrased as a noun within the nominal group "an angry look," which illustrates the nominalization of the metaphor "look." This transformation lends a more formal tone to the expression compared to the congruent version in Eg13b Another instance that demonstrates the impact of nominalization further supports this observation.
Eg14a: “This is the essence of a resilient affective style.” (IV_102-103)
This example could be paraphrased using the adjective “essential” as:
Eg14b: This is essential for a resilient affective style
Clearly, the expression of the Eg14b is informal with using the congruent expression
“essential” Whereas, using nominalization “essence” in the Eg14a helps enhance formality for the discourse
Similarly, the following example shows the marked effect of nominalization
Eg15a: “… simple rules, rewards and sanctions can help pupils to improve their behaviour by taking responsibility for it.” (V_213-215)
Eg15b: … simple rules, rewards and sanctions can help pupils to improve their behaviour by being responsible for it
Using the phrase "being responsible" in Eg15b creates a less formal tone compared to the more metaphorical "taking responsibility" in Eg15a Generally, employing nominalization can enhance the formality of academic expressions.
Nominalization serves as an effective cohesive device within texts In the analyzed corpus, specific nominalizations, such as "perception" and "control," are prominently featured in article titles and are repeated throughout the content, with "perception" appearing 12 times and "control" appearing 30 times.
“response” (15), “explanation” (19 times in III), “education” (15 times in IV),
In academic writing, the use of nominalization enhances cohesion and unity within the text For instance, the frequent repetition of terms like "mindfulness" and "discipline" helps to connect ideas across sentences and contributes to the overall coherence of the article As noted by Thompson (2004), this technique is essential for constructing a well-integrated academic piece.
Summary
In this chapter, answers to the research questions have been provided via a thorough analysis and discussion of the collected data
Nominalization is a common feature in English academic discourse, appearing approximately once every 13 to 21 words in scholarly articles It often serves as a circumstance, complement, or rheme, aligning with the ideational, interpersonal, and textual metafunctions The use of nominalization contributes to the objectivity, conciseness, formality, and cohesion of academic texts.
In this chapter, a summary of findings together with pedagogical implications, limitations and suggestions for further studies would be put forward.
Recapitulation
Nominalization is crucial in shaping academic discourse, with research articles exhibiting a high frequency of this linguistic feature, occurring approximately every 13 to 21 words Among the various types, lexical nominalization is predominantly used over clausal nominalization, with direct verb nominalization (DV) being the most common within lexical forms Additionally, clausal nominalization tends to favor the use of "THAT" and "TO" over "WH" and "VING." In the context of ideational metafunction, many nominalizations serve to express circumstantial meanings.
Concerning interpersonal metafunction, the majority of nominalizations have function as complement in the clause In addition, vast quantities of nominalizations are realized in the position of rheme
Nominalization significantly impacts academic discourse by promoting objectivity, as it renders actors or participants less visible Additionally, it enhances conciseness in academic writing by allowing for the dense packing of lexical items Finally, nominalization contributes to the formality characteristic of academic texts, making it an essential tool in scholarly communication.
Implications for teaching and translating English academic writing
Nominalization is a key feature of academic discourse that teachers must consider when instructing students in academic writing A mere descriptive analysis of this grammatical structure is insufficient for enhancing students' awareness and application of nominalization in their writing It is crucial to teach nominalized structures and cultivate students' skills in employing them effectively Understanding nominalization aids students in constructing stronger arguments in their writing tasks Furthermore, it enhances objectivity, conciseness, formality, and cohesiveness in academic texts Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on teaching nominalization within the English curriculum.
The study highlights that an increase in nominalizations within a text leads to greater complexity and ambiguity, posing challenges for translators of academic discourse Understanding the role of nominalization in academic writing can aid translators in overcoming potential translation difficulties Furthermore, translators should leverage nominalization to ensure objectivity, conciseness, and formality in their translated academic texts.
Limitations and suggestions for further studies
It is unavoidable that there exist some limitations of the research due to the limited scope, the time constraint and other objective factors
This study primarily examines nominalization within English academic discourse without comparing it to Vietnamese Future research could explore the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese research articles, which may help students better understand the unique characteristics of this genre in academic writing.
This study is limited to five articles due to time constraints, highlighting the need for future research to expand the data corpus Increasing the number of articles analyzed will enhance the reliability of the findings.
Furthermore, later studies could be conducted on using nominalization of students to investigate their awareness and knowledge of this grammatical phenomenon
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RESEARCH ARTICLES OF EDUCATIONAL STUDIES
Pre-service teachers’ perceptions of middle school students
Kevin J O‟Connor a * and Christina M D‟Angelo b
This report examines pre-service teachers' perceptions of middle school students through a study where participants completed the Adjective Checklist (ACL) The results revealed that the most commonly endorsed adjectives reflected a largely negative view of middle school students, with terms such as "awkward," "confused," and "emotional" being frequently selected The findings highlight important implications for pre-service teacher training programs.
In the USA, middle school serves as a crucial educational transition for young adolescents, typically encompassing grades 6 to 8 for students aged 11 to 14 The establishment of middle schools is rooted in a philosophy aimed at effectively supporting young learners (Association for Middle Level Education, 2010) However, this distinct categorization often leads to negative stereotypes, portraying middle school students as socially awkward, cognitively immature, and emotionally turbulent Such perceptions, likening them to "uncivilised beasts" or "disembodied hormonal surges" (Finders 1998/1999, 256), obscure the true diversity and complexity of this age group, highlighting the need for a more nuanced understanding of middle school students.
The public image problem middle school students have has not gone unnoticed by those interested in the education of early adolescents The Association for
Middle Level Education (2010) advocates that pre-service teachers should be given opportunities during their training to develop a positive disposition toward
Research indicates that pre-service teachers often harbor stereotypical views and negative attitudes towards middle school students, reflecting a low perception of the teaching profession's status in this educational setting While only a limited number of studies have explored this issue, findings consistently show that these future educators share common biases similar to those found in the general population (Finders 1998/1999; Prado et al 2007; Sage 1990; Stahler 1995).
This report revisits the perceptions of pre-service teachers towards middle school students, providing a timely update on the subject given the gap in recent research By re-examining this topic, our study aims to offer fresh insights and a more current understanding of pre-service teachers' views on middle school students, building on the foundation of prior works.
Specifically, we designed the study to identify the character traits that comprise the image of a middle school student as held by pre-service teachers
A study involving fifty-six traditional-age undergraduate students (M = 20.12, SD = 1.22) enrolled in an education program at a private college in the northeastern USA examined their backgrounds and experiences The participants, consisting of 45 women and 11 men, specialized in various fields, including 37 in elementary/special education, 16 in secondary education, and 3 in music education The majority of participants were Caucasian (92.9%), and a significant portion reported limited experience with middle school-aged adolescents, with only 32% having any experience, of which 21% had field-based training in a middle school setting.
Participants provided their consent and completed the Adjective Checklist (ACL), a self-report personality measure developed by Gough and Heilbrun in 1983 This tool, featuring 300 alphabetically arranged adjectives, is frequently utilized by researchers to assess stereotypes.
In stereotype research, participants assess traits by marking adjectives that they feel best describe a specific target group In this study, individuals were asked to review a list of adjectives and select those they believed represented a typical middle school student.
Descriptive statistics were used to analyse overall responses on the ACL to
76 middle school student as held by pre-service teachers? The top 25 adjectives based on highest frequency of endorsement were delineated (see Table 1)
Stereotyping involves mental categorization, where a group is identified by unique features that set it apart from others When individuals interact with members of this group, they tend to assign these associated characteristics Research indicates that pre-service teachers overwhelmingly describe middle school students with negative attributes such as "awkward" and "immature," reflecting a largely undesirable stereotype These findings align with previous studies, confirming that negative perceptions of middle school students among pre-service teachers have persisted over time.
Table 1 Top 25 adjectives selected to describe a typical middle school student (N
These findings, while limited, have implications on pre-service teacher
To enhance pre-service teacher training, it is crucial to provide experiences that challenge stereotypical beliefs about middle school students Teacher education courses should present a comprehensive view of early adolescents, moving beyond common stereotypes (Finders, 1998/1999) Engaging pre-service teachers in meaningful field experiences with middle school students can effectively diminish reliance on these stereotypes (Prado et al., 2007) Understanding the impact of perceptions and beliefs, particularly those rooted in stereotypes, is essential for shaping pre-service teachers' approaches to middle school education Research focused on strategies to mitigate negative perceptions during teacher training can significantly contribute to the literature Ultimately, this effort aims to cultivate educators who are passionate about teaching young adolescents and are committed to the middle school environment (Association for Middle Level Education, 2010).
Student teachers’ discipline strategies: relations with self-images, anticipated student responses and control orientation
Romi de Jong, Jan van Tartwijk, Theo Wubbels, Ietje Veldman, and Nico Verloop are affiliated with leading educational institutions in the Netherlands, including the Graduate School of Teaching at Leiden University and the Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences at Utrecht University Their collaboration emphasizes the importance of research in educational practices and teacher development.
Teacher discipline strategies significantly impact students and the classroom environment, yet the application of these strategies by student teachers remains largely unexplored This study investigates the beliefs of student teachers regarding their discipline approaches, categorizing them into three types: sensitive, directive, and aggressive strategies Key beliefs examined include self-images related to control and affiliation, control orientation, and expected student reactions The research involved 2506 student questionnaires from a one-year secondary education teacher training program in the Netherlands, with 104 student teachers providing insights on their self-images and control orientations Findings from multiple regression analyses indicate that sensitive and directive strategies are primarily influenced by self-images of control, while aggressive strategies are more closely linked to self-images of affiliation and control orientation These insights are not only academically relevant but also hold practical value for enhancing teacher education programs.
Student misbehaviour impacts negatively on student learning time and
59 academic achievements (Lewis et al 2005) Teachers use different discipline strategies to deal with student misbehaviour, however not always successfully
Classroom management challenges are a significant factor contributing to teacher attrition, as highlighted by Evertson and Weinstein (2006) and Walker (2009) This issue is particularly pressing for student teachers, for whom effective classroom management remains a primary concern (Veenman).
1984; Ghaith and Shaaban 1999; Liston, Whitcomb, and Borko 2006) The focus in this paper is on student teachers‟ discipline strategies
Student teachers hold varied beliefs regarding classroom management, which significantly impact their teaching practices (Woolfolk Hoy and Weinstein, 2006) These beliefs about their students and their roles as educators are crucial for effective teaching (Pajares, 1992) Additionally, teachers develop self-perceptions that shape their identities as educators, influencing their thoughts and behaviors in the classroom (Pajares and Schunk, 2002; Beijaard).
Verloop, and Vermunt 2000; Pajares and Schunk 2002; Korthagen 2004) Besides self-images, it is also likely that teachers have beliefs about classroom life and classroom management (Kaplan 1992; Balli 2011)
Beliefs in relation to classroom management, specifically discipline strategies, are considered to be relevant because of the nature of the classroom situations