Critical Discourse Analysis
Critical Linguistics originated in the late 1970s at the University of East Anglia, developed by linguists and literary theorists including Fowler, Hodge, Kress, and Trew, and was grounded in Halliday's Systemic Functional Linguistics Over the years, it evolved into what is now known as Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) A key focus of CDA is understanding the role of audiences and their interpretations of discourse, which contrasts with the perspectives of discourse analysts Additionally, CDA broadens the scope of analysis to include intertextuality, as highlighted by Fairclough, emphasizing the connections between texts and their meanings.
Linguistic analysis has traditionally focused on clauses, often neglecting the higher-level organizational properties of texts (Fairclough, 1995b) Fairclough's initial approach resulted in a singular theoretical framework In contrast, van Dijk (2001) conceptualized Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as a collective perspective that includes various approaches, rejecting the notion of it being merely one school of thought Consequently, CDA is now recognized as an interdisciplinary research program that addresses specific problems (Wodak, 2013).
Critical discourse analysis, as defined by van Dijk (2008), focuses on examining written and spoken texts to uncover the ways in which power abuse, social inequality, and injustice are perpetuated through discourse.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is defined by Fairclough (1995) as a method that systematically examines the complex relationships between discursive practices, events, and texts, and the broader social and cultural structures that shape them It seeks to understand how these elements are influenced by power dynamics and ideological struggles, while also investigating how the obscurity of these connections reinforces power and hegemony Ultimately, CDA focuses on the interplay between discourse and society, text and context, as well as language and power.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) examines how ideology, identity, and inequality are represented in texts within social and political contexts (van Dijk, 2001) It highlights the role of language in constructing and perpetuating ideologies, as well as in shaping social identities and power dynamics (Wodak & Reisigl, 2001) Fairclough (1989) emphasized that language functions as a battleground for power struggles, reinforcing the idea that it is a crucial social practice.
In 1985, West and Zimmerman introduced the concept of participant identities, which encompasses three types of power: master identities, situated identities, and discourse identities Master identities are characterized by enduring factors like age, sex, and social class Situated identities pertain to power dynamics influenced by specific social contexts, while discourse identities emerge from the verbal interactions of participants This exploration highlights the multifaceted nature of power in language.
Power is intricately linked to ideology, serving as a means to convey meaning that supports power dynamics Ideology functions as a process that weaves together specific representations of reality and constructions of identity, particularly within groups and communities (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997) Consequently, texts often harbor covert and hidden meanings that are subject to manipulation This interplay of meanings, ideology, power, and identities highlights their interdependent relationships.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) emphasizes the importance of examining language alongside other semiotic systems to understand identity construction, power dynamics, and social relations (van Dijk, 1998) Discourse serves as a platform for analyzing identity from cultural, ethical, religious, and political perspectives through various discursive practices Meyer (2001) highlights that studying social transformations involves theoretical assumptions linked to empirical data, facilitating specific interpretations that bridge empirical observations with theoretical frameworks Moreover, CDA provides tools for contextual analysis, asserting that all discourses are historical and must be understood in relation to extralinguistic factors such as culture, society, and ideology (Meyer, 2001).
Identity
Identity
Identity is a complex and evolving concept that is influenced by one's environment and culture, making it inherently fluid rather than fixed Scholars like Hall and Gieben (1992) emphasize that identity is not fully understood within contemporary social science, highlighting its complexity It serves as a self-construal device, allowing individuals to reflect on themselves and how they present their identities to others McCarthey and Moje (2002) assert that identity is crucial for understanding how individuals interpret their experiences and the world around them, including their interactions with texts.
Identities are dynamic and undergo constant change due to ongoing cultural socialization (Deaux, 2007) This process is essential for helping individuals cope with various stresses and contributes to the formation of collective identity, which emerges when people feel a sense of belonging to a group engaged in social activities Collective identity fosters a sense of "we-ness" and unity based on shared characteristics While individual identity is negotiated in personal interactions with colleagues or family members, collective identity becomes prominent in group settings, such as meetings, where individuals represent the community or organization they belong to, influencing the way they communicate and present themselves.
In addition to individual and collective identities, there are social and personal identities Social identities encompass broad categories, including national, religious, racial, gender, and political affiliations Conversely, personal identities consist of unique membership categories and distinct moral and physical traits, such as being strong, decisive, visionary, or honest Furthermore, situational identities represent roles within specific social interactions, such as those of a husband and wife, professor and student, or nurse and patient (Zimmerman, 1998).
Identity Research
In recent decades, research on language and identity has significantly expanded, highlighting the essential role of language in various fields such as anthropology, linguistics, psychology, and social theory While providing a comprehensive overview of the theoretical frameworks in identity studies is challenging, this section aims to briefly explore key approaches and concepts related to identity and its construction.
The construction of identity is a key focus for researchers in the humanities and social sciences, leading to various conflicting analytical approaches Prominent studies often target specific identity categories, including racism (van Dijk, 1996; Wodak & Reisigl, 2001), gender and sexism (del-Teso-Craviotto, 2006; Machin & Thornborrow, 2003), war and political strategies (Butt, Lukin, & Matthiessen, 2004; Chouliaraki, 2004; Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1999; Fairclough, 2000), and national identity (Jones, 1997; Lechner, 2012; Miller, 2005; Smith, 1991) Additionally, broader discussions on identity in discourse have been explored, such as organizational identity by Hatch and Schultz (2002) and the relationship between emotions and teacher identity by Zembylas (2003).
Scholars have used a variety of analytical methods and theoretical perspectives to analyze identity, such as Conversation Analysis (Auer, 2013),
Membership categorization analysis, discursive psychology, narrative analysis, and critical discourse analysis are key frameworks used by researchers to explore identity construction These methodologies examine various discursive contexts, ranging from everyday conversations to institutional dialogues, to understand how identities are formed and negotiated in social interactions.
The most recent approach used to analyze different identity categories is
Computer-Mediated Communication(Benwell & Stokoe, 2006) In their book,
Benwell and Stokoe examine how identity is expressed in online chatrooms through Computer-Mediated Communication, introducing the concept of "virtual" identity in contrast to "authentic" or "real" identity.
Recent studies on identity within discourse have converged, integrating theories on the self, the role of interaction in shaping personal and social realities, and the impact of language on socio-cultural processes This convergence has led to the emergence of a new paradigm that is distinctly social constructionist, emphasizing the significance of practice and interaction in shaping identity.
2006), social theory (Giddens, 1991), feminist theory about identity (Butler, 2011), symbolic interactionism(Mead, 1934) and ethnomethodology (Garfinkel, 2005)
Social Constructivism posits that identity is not a fixed entity but a dynamic process shaped through specific interactions and negotiations This perspective suggests that identities are multifaceted and emerge from social contexts rather than being solely derived from the individual Research in this field highlights the role of linguistic strategies in constructing identities, leading to the concept of "repertoires of identities." Scholars widely agree on the existence of multiple identities, emphasizing the complexity and fluidity of self-conception.
Critical Discourse Analysis, as outlined by Hall (1997), reveals how discursive formations across different historical periods contribute to the development of various identities Discourse plays a crucial role in identity formation, as individuals utilize it to understand themselves while also subjecting themselves to its disciplinary influences (Howarth, 2000) Research by scholars such as Covaleski, Dirsmith, Heian, and Samuel (1998) and Du Gay (1996) has explored the power-knowledge dynamics within discourse, where subjects are positioned, identities are shaped, and bodies are disciplined Fairclough (1992b) examined how discourses are strategically controlled by identifiable actors within specific historical and institutional contexts, highlighting that these actors navigate multiple discourses and can occupy a discursive space to interact among them (Fairclough, 1992b, 1995b; Hardy & Phillips, 2004).
Discourse functions as a political practice by establishing, maintaining, and transforming power relations among collective entities Additionally, it serves as an ideological practice that shapes, normalizes, and alters the meanings of the world from various positions within these power dynamics.
In the light of CDA, Mumby(2001, p 614) worked on „how communication practices construct identities, experiences and ways of knowing that serve some interests over others.‟
De Fina et al (2006) identified three key perspectives on identity: first, the self is viewed as an isolated and self-constrained entity; second, interpersonal communication plays a crucial role in the construction, enactment, and negotiation of identities; and third, there is a significant relationship between identity and language.
Self and identity are complementary terms which share much in common and in uncommon James (1890, p 330) warned us that selfhood (including identity) is
The concepts of self and identity are crucial in psychology, with the self being a dynamic process shaped by self-reflection, while identity serves as a means for individuals or groups to present themselves to the world (Owens, 2006) Owens (2006, p 206) describes the self as an organized and interactive system of thoughts, feelings, identities, and motives that emerges from self-reflexivity and language, allowing individuals to define themselves Fundamental questions about the self, such as "Who am I?" and "What does my life mean?" highlight its significance, as the self enables people to perceive themselves from both external and internal perspectives (Mead, 1934).
According to Owens (2006), identity is a crucial aspect of the self, encompassing the categories individuals use to define themselves and their relationships with others It reflects both distinctiveness—highlighting how one differs from others—and a sense of sameness, illustrating shared traits with others (James, 1890) This duality underscores the complexity of identity in social contexts.
In the interpersonal communication in the construction of identity, Butler
In 2011, it was highlighted that identity is not merely an inherent trait, but rather a dynamic performance shaped by actions and communication This notion suggests that individuals express or deny their identities through their behavior in various contexts A notable example of this was on June 7, 2008, when Hillary Clinton delivered her Concession Speech at the National Building Museum in Washington, DC, after a year and seven months of active campaigning, addressing her supporters with a poignant message.
Our campaign transcended individual ambitions and elections; it was fundamentally about fostering a hopeful, inclusive, and compassionate America Although the current pain and division within our nation are profound, my belief in the enduring spirit of America remains unwavering.
This verbal communication reflects a deep engagement in identity work, as she openly acknowledges the enduring pain experienced by herself and her supporters By expressing her struggles, she embodies qualities of honesty and directness, while simultaneously fostering a sense of shared experience with her supporters.
The campaign is not focused on personal ambitions or the presidential election, but rather on fostering hope and unity for the country It embodies a vision of America as an inclusive and compassionate nation By using the modal verb "will" and the process verb "believe," she positions herself as a strong, resilient woman committed to this national identity.
Identity as a Discursive Work
Focusing on the domain of socialinguistic theories so as to provide a description of identity construction, the term „discursive work‟ was introduced(Zimmerman & Wieder, 1970)
The concept of "discursive strategy" refers to a deliberate plan of discursive practices shaped by an individual's habitus and internalized dispositions, aimed at achieving specific social, political, psychological, or linguistic outcomes These strategies are goal-oriented behaviors that utilize knowledge for persuasive communication Discursive work serves as a reference that conveys information about social interactions, highlighting the dynamic relationship between speakers and their audiences, which contributes to the construction of identities through sequential discourse and performance styles Individuals possess multiple, evolving identities that are contextually bound and influenced by various factors, including personal experiences and life choices This adaptability allows for the coexistence of different identities within a social framework Ultimately, identity is viewed as a linguistic construction, with language playing a critical role in its formation and transformation as a social product.
Identity is a social construction that has been explored by various scholars, highlighting how in-group associations foster a sense of belonging and contribute to social identity This notion suggests that identity is a source of pride and distinction among individuals Stone and Strauss (2017) propose that the development of identity is shaped by historical and relevant influences, emphasizing that group identity provides a crucial sense of belonging and representation despite individual differences Grounded in sociological theories like symbolic interactionism, as articulated by Mead (1934) and Goffman (1959), identity is influenced by group interactions and personal interpretations Rimskii (2011) describes identity as an individual's consciousness that encompasses self-awareness, personality stability, and social group membership, while Yanow views identity as both a collective narrative of a group and a personal benchmark for individual members.
2015, p 7) The social construction of identity in this research has to do with is how Hillary Clinton constructs her shared values
Identity serves as a fundamental source of meaning and experience for individuals, as highlighted by Castells (2011), who emphasizes its role in the construction of meaning based on prioritized cultural attributes McAdams (2003) views identity as a self-regulatory mechanism that filters information and governs both internal perceptions and external impressions through impression management Marcia (1980) defines identity as a dynamic organization of drives, abilities, beliefs, and personal history, while Erikson (1980) suggests that identity embodies a persistent sameness within oneself, as well as a shared essential character with others These perspectives underscore the notion that identity is self-constructed and shaped by the recognition of individual agency.
According to the insights from 1986, identities are shaped by self-conceptions, reflecting how individuals perceive themselves This perspective highlights that the narrative of one's personal life, constructed through self-definitions and characterizations, is essential for understanding one's identity.
In the context of the 2016 Presidential Election, group affiliations significantly influenced both the Democratic Party and audience perceptions An individual's identity and the process of identity construction are crucial for understanding Hillary Clinton's role within the political landscape This framework not only clarifies personal identity but also highlights the unique characteristics of the political and social systems in which Clinton operated as a presidential candidate Thus, identity serves to illuminate both individual and societal traits.
Identities are fluid, dynamic, and constantly evolving, adapting to the specific environment in which they exist.
All in all, identity plays a central role because it enables an individual cohesion of self even in different situations (Cerulo, 1997; Hogg & Abrams, 1999;
According to Castells (2011), identity construction is a complex process that involves the use of various "raw materials," including history, geography, biology, institutions, collective memory, personal fantasies, power structures, and religious revelations He argues that individuals and groups actively process and reinterpret these materials, reshaping their meanings based on social determinants and cultural projects that are deeply embedded in their social structures and temporal contexts.
In his analysis, Castells (2011) highlights that identity formation occurs within a framework influenced by power dynamics, delineating three key structural markers: legitimizing identity, resistance identity, and project identity Legitimizing identity serves to uphold the dominance of a prevailing social group, determining who is included or excluded from the mainstream In contrast, resistance identity emerges from individuals and groups marginalized by dominant forces, allowing them to assert their positions in political discourse Lastly, project identity involves individuals and social actors actively redefining their identities to instigate broader social change, fostering a robust collective identity that aims to transform existing social structures.
Identity plays a crucial role in politics, serving as the foundation for the connection between candidates and their constituents Candidates aim to enhance their appeal to voters by leveraging in-group and out-group dynamics, while voters strive to align themselves with specific causes or candidates This relationship is rooted in a shared political engagement, where candidates seek election, and citizens desire representation by someone who resonates with their values Consequently, identity is essential for both understanding and shaping a presidential candidate, as well as influencing how the audience evaluates that candidate.
Politics necessitates the intervention of power in language and ideology, creating boundaries and facilitating transformations in society Social movements seeking to establish new identities must navigate the inherent fiction of arbitrary closures, which, while not definitive, enable the existence of both politics and identity This approach embodies a politics of difference and self-reflexivity, remaining adaptable to contingencies while maintaining the capacity for action Ultimately, it requires a politics of articulation and a hegemonic project to effectively shape societal change.
Identity is a multifaceted concept that encompasses a sense of belonging and the unique qualities that distinguish us from others At its core, identity provides a stable foundation for our individuality, helping us understand our personal place in the world.
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the study's social context, presenting essential background information in section 3.1 Section 3.2 details the data collected for the research project, while section 3.3 outlines the analytical framework, focusing on the representation of social actors, modality, and intertextuality to highlight the language resources utilized in the data Finally, section 3.4 addresses the methods employed to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
The Context of the Study
Hillary Diane Rodham, born on October 26, 1947, in Park Ridge, Illinois, is the daughter of Dorothy and Hugh Rodham and has two brothers, Hugh and Tony She enjoyed a disciplined and happy childhood, actively participating in sports and her church, while also being a member of the National Honor Society.
In 2016, Hillary revealed that she carries a Bible with her for comfort during stressful times Her mother noted that Hillary has always held herself in high regard, a quality she admired Additionally, Hillary's classmates recognized her potential by voting her "most likely to succeed."
In "Hillary Rodham Clinton: On the Couch," Bond (2015) reveals that Hillary was affectionately nicknamed "Owl Face" by her high school peers due to her large, thick glasses During her time at Wellesley College, she excelled in academics and student government On her graduation day, she articulated her vision for the future, stating, "The challenge now is to practice politics as the art of making what appears to be impossible, possible."
The young Hillary stayed in place, roughly unchanged from her birth in 1947 up until Bill Clinton lost his job as governor of Arkansas in 1981 (Wakefield,
Until 2016, Hillary Clinton remained unaware of the expectations surrounding a political spouse, maintaining her maiden name and rejecting traditional makeovers, which her mother described as her view of makeup being superficial Following Bill Clinton's electoral defeat, she transformed her appearance by dyeing her hair and abandoning her glasses, fully embracing her identity as a Clinton Reflecting on her journey, she acknowledged her previous oversight regarding the significance of a candidate's spouse in influencing voter perceptions.
In 1964, Hillary Clinton was a dedicated Right winger, actively campaigning for Republican Senator Barry Goldwater and embracing the identity of a "Goldwater girl." She expressed her admiration for Goldwater's rugged individualism and willingness to challenge the political norms of the time Clinton further engaged in Republican politics by attending the 1968 convention to support New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller However, her political transformation from Republican to Democrat began at Yale Law School, influenced by her encounters with Marian Wright Edelman and Bill Clinton Over the years, speculation has surrounded her hawkish stance and her reluctance to acknowledge mistakes regarding the Iraq War.
In the book The First Ladies of the United States of America by Black
Hillary Clinton served as Arkansas's First Lady for 12 years, managing the demands of family life with her husband, Bill Clinton, whom she married in 1975, and their daughter, Chelsea, born in 1980 During this time, she also balanced her legal career at the Legal Services Corporation and the Rose Law Firm while actively engaging in public service.
As First Lady, Hillary Clinton skillfully balanced her public service commitments with family life, beginning her active involvement in 1993 when President Bill Clinton appointed her to chair the Task Force on National Health Care Reform Her efforts focused on expanding health insurance coverage, ensuring proper immunization for children, and raising public awareness about critical health issues.
In November 2000, Hillary Clinton made history by becoming the first First Lady elected to the United States Senate and the first woman to win a statewide election in New York (Black, 2013).
Hillary Clinton served as the 67th United States Secretary of State under President Barack Obama from 2009 to 2013, making her the first former First Lady to hold a Cabinet position During her tenure, she engaged with countries across Asia, Africa, Europe, and South America, participating in key meetings and summits with international organizations such as NATO and the United Nations.
In 2010, Hillary Clinton established a strong relationship with the Obama administration, which led to mutual respect and collaboration Obama showed openness to her political perspectives, occasionally embracing some of Clinton's more assertive strategies.
By the end of 2012, Hillary Clinton achieved her tenth consecutive and sixteenth overall win in Gallup's Most Admired Man and Woman poll, solidifying her status as a globally admired figure A poll conducted in Iowa indicated that she had 58 percent support to become the Democratic nominee for the 2016 presidential election However, her health took a turn when she was diagnosed with a stomach virus, leading to dehydration and a fainting incident that resulted in a mild concussion This health setback hindered her ability to travel and fulfill her duties as Secretary of State, a role in which she had visited 112 countries and logged nearly one million miles of air travel Additionally, she faced significant criticism from Congress, particularly regarding the Benghazi incident.
In "Language and Power," Fairclough (1989) emphasizes the importance of examining language practices within specific social institutions, highlighting the necessity of analyzing the social context of a study The 2016 United States presidential election, the fifty-eighth quadrennial election, featured a series of primary elections and caucuses from February to June 2016 to determine the nominees for the two main political parties This nominating process involved an indirect election system, where voters selected representatives to attend their party's nominating convention, who then voted for the presidential nominee.
Hillary Clinton, the former Secretary of State, U.S Senator, and First Lady, made history by becoming the first woman to officially announce her candidacy for the presidency She declared her intention to run for the Oval Office, marking a significant milestone in U.S political history.
On April 12, 2015, Hillary Clinton announced her candidacy for the presidency through a video message During her campaign, she encountered significant competition from Independent Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont, who declared his candidacy on April 30, 2015 By March 2016, Clinton had secured 504 pledged delegates, while Sanders had garnered support as well.
340 delegates In May, 2016, Bernie Sander won Indiana, West Virginia, Oregon on all 5 campaign states.
The Data
Hillary Clinton delivered a powerful speech in San Diego on June 2, 2016, which was a direct critique of Donald Trump, marking a significant moment in her presidential campaign Lasting 37 minutes and containing 4,150 words, this address is viewed as a pivotal point in her run for the presidency The speech, titled "Hillary Clinton Destroys Trump, Defends American Values," was uploaded to YouTube on June 3, 2016, by the Hillary Clinton Speeches and Events Channel, highlighting its importance in the political landscape.
The US presidential election consists of two main phases: the Party presidential primaries and the general election To secure the Party's nomination, a candidate must obtain a majority of delegate votes at the National Convention, where delegates play a crucial role in determining the nominee For example, Hillary Clinton or Bernie Sanders would need to secure 2,117 votes from pledged delegates at the Democratic National Convention to earn the Democratic Party's nomination.
At the time of the data collection, Hillary Clinton was against two rivals:
Bernie Sanders for the first phase of becoming the Democratic Presidential nominee, and Donald Trump, the Republican presumptive presidential nominee
Starting in August 2015, Donald Trump emerged as a frontrunner in the Republican primaries, consistently leading polls from RealClearPolitics while campaigning against Hillary Clinton By May 2016, only three candidates remained in the GOP race, but Trump achieved a significant victory in Indiana on May 3, 2016, which solidified his nomination Following this win, he was declared the presumptive Republican nominee after the other candidates suspended their campaigns (Kaplan, 2016).
In a RealClearPolitics Poll from January to June 2016, Hillary Clinton faced significant challenges, particularly in May when her poll numbers aligned closely with Donald Trump's However, by late May and early June, Clinton experienced a surge in support, while Trump saw a decline This shift can be attributed to Clinton's impactful speech at the beginning of June, which marked a pivotal moment in her campaign.
Political speeches, particularly electoral ones, serve as valuable resources for examining identity formation They reflect ongoing power struggles aimed at promoting specific ideas and interests, manifesting political will, and translating it into social action As Schaffner notes, "any political action is prepared, accompanied, controlled, and influenced by language," highlighting the critical role language plays in shaping political discourse.
Analytical Framework
Representing social actors
First and foremost, Hall thinks of representation as the making of meaning from different orders of things:
The process of meaning-making within a culture relies on signifying systems, as objects, people, and events do not possess inherent meanings Instead, it is society and human cultures that attribute significance to these elements, leading to meanings that evolve across different cultures and time periods Representation is the act of creating meaning by connecting three realms: the tangible world of objects and experiences, the conceptual world of mental ideas, and the signs used in languages and other forms of communication that convey these concepts.
Baker(2014, p 73) regards representation as „the creation of a mental image of something using signifying practices and symbolic systems‟ Meanwhile, van
RQ2: How are identities linguistically realized?
RQ1: What identities does Hillary Clinton discursively construct?
RQ3: Why does she choose to project different identities?
Dijk (2005) takes representation as the mechanism to control symbolic elites or reproduce prevalent ideologies in society
Van Leeuwen (1996) emphasizes the significance of agency in Critical Discourse Analysis, highlighting how social actors are portrayed as agents within specific contexts He notes that these participants are analyzed through their discursive practices, allowing for a deeper understanding of their representation Salama (2012) further elaborates that social actors can be examined within their collocation environments, focusing on the contested representations that emerge in discourse.
The representation of social actors is what groups and individuals are referred to and how van Leeuwen (1996, p 38) himself refers this to as „exclusion‟ and that
Exclusion is a crucial element in Critical Discourse Analysis, as it highlights how representations can include or exclude social actors to align with specific interests and purposes for targeted readers This study effectively utilizes van Leeuwen's framework of social actor representation to examine the lexical and grammatical choices made by Hillary Clinton in her campaign speech, illustrating how she crafted her self-representation Techniques such as passive agent deletion, non-finite clauses, nominalizations, and process nouns reveal instances of suppressed exclusion, while backgrounding is identified through ellipses in non-finite or paratactic clauses For instance, the 2017 report on serious cases of child abuse in Vietnam exemplifies passive agent deletion, as it conveys information about the report without specifying who reported it.
Social actors play significant roles in representations, a focus of research among critical linguists such as Fairclough and van Dijk These actors are often depicted as "agents" responding to actions, and van Leeuwen notes that representations can shift roles and alter social relations among participants Analyzing social actors within their institutional and social contexts reveals whose interests are represented and the purposes served Koller and Fairclough further explore role allocation through process types, examining the actions, norms, and values attributed to social actors This analysis utilizes the systemic functional framework to understand how specific domains of experience are constructed in discourse.
Figure 3: The grammar of experience: Types of processes in English
The material process highlights concrete actions taken by social actors, such as resigning from a position In contrast, the mental process relates to sensing and perceptions, exemplified by the belief in someone's efficiency The relational process establishes connections between entities, while the behavioral process captures physiological and psychological behaviors, like a glance The verbal process focuses on the act of communication, as seen when someone expresses their grading intentions Lastly, the existential process denotes existence or occurrences, illustrated by the unreported cases of child abuse in Vietnam in 2017.
Social actors can be assigned active or passive roles, analyzed through transitivity structures as outlined by Halliday et al (2014) Active roles include Actor in material processes, Behaver in behavioral processes, Senser in mental processes, Sayer in verbal processes, and Assigner in relational processes In contrast, passive roles are divided into two categories: subjection and beneficialization, as described by van Leeuwen (1996) Subjected social actors are viewed as objects, while beneficialized social actors are identified as a third party that gains from the action Subjection can be further examined through participation, where the passivated social actor serves as Goal in material processes, Phenomenon in mental processes, or Carrier in effective attribute processes The concept of possessivation is represented by prepositional phrases using "of."
Adjectival premodification can manifest as passivation, where beneficialization is identified through the participation of social actors or participants as either the Recipient or Client in material processes, or as the Receiver in verbal processes (Halliday et al., 2014).
Figure 4: The representation of social actors: Activation and Passivation
Social actors can be represented in two ways: as generic classes or as specific individuals, as noted by van Leeuwen (1996, p 46) Genericization occurs through plural forms without articles, such as "Children need love from their parents," or through singular forms with definite or indefinite articles, like "Maybe a child learns from his mother most." In contrast, specification is often indicated through numeratives, highlighting the distinction in representation of social actors.
Representation of social actors Activation
The forth question so far is are social actors referred to as individuals or as groups? van Leeuwen (1996) names these representations as „individualization‟ and
In Critical Discourse Analysis, van Leeuwen (1996) highlights the significance of individuality and conformity within society, noting that individualization is characterized by singularity, such as in the phrase "He was not here," while assimilation is represented by plurality, as seen in collective expressions like "America will be great again."
Social actors can be represented as either associated or disassociated groups Association refers to groups formed by social actors that may not be explicitly labeled in the text, although the individual actors can be named or categorized This association can be achieved through parataxis, which involves listing the actors, such as in the phrase, "Thank you Sam, Nga, and Nam."
„circumstances of accompaniment‟ (Halliday et al., 2014, p 170) (e.g They played
„higher and higher‟ with the other children (van Leeuwen, 1996, p 51)) Disassociation is realized by the process of association unforming, the breakdown of association or no association is detected
Social actors can be classified as either indeterminate or differentiated Indetermination occurs when these actors are portrayed as unspecified or anonymous individuals or groups, while determination involves a clear specification of their identity (van Leeuwen, 1996, p 52) Indeterminate representations often utilize indefinite pronouns, such as "some," "any," "someone," and "anyone," which serve a nominal function in the discourse.
Indetermination occurs when a writer presents their identity as either irrelevant or akin to that of the reader, often through generalized exophoric references This approach grants social actors a sense of impersonal authority and an invisible yet impactful coercive force (van Leeuwen, 1996, p 52), exemplified by statements like "Someone has taken my phone." In contrast, differentiation explicitly distinguishes an individual or group from others, highlighting the distinction between "self" and "other" or "us" and "them" (van Leeuwen, 1996, p 52), as seen in phrases like "Mummy, did you know there is another Marry in my class?"
Are social actors nominated or categorized? The representation of social actors can be divided in terms of nomination when social actors project their
In social interactions, individuals establish a "unique identity" through the sharing of their roles and characteristics with others This identification often involves proper nouns that can be categorized as formal, semi-formal, or informal, exemplified by specific instances where a single social actor holds a distinct position or fulfills a particular role, such as in the case of "Yan, at the age of 28, fell in love with Jie." Additionally, categorization can be expressed through the use of plural pronouns like "we," "us," "they," and "them," or through collective terms such as "racists" and "predators."
Social actors can be understood through the concepts of functionalization and identification Functionalization is evident in relational processes where social actors are defined by their roles, such as "She is a doctor." In contrast, identification, as described by van Leeuwen (1996), involves representing social actors through personal, kinship, or work relationships, using specific nouns like "friend" or "aunt" to denote these connections.
In relational processes, social actors are often represented through nouns that highlight physical traits, adjectives, or prepositional phrases that include "with" or "without," as illustrated by the example, "She is a gorgeous woman." Van Leeuwen (1996) introduces the concept of "appraisement," which refers to the evaluation of social actors based on positive or negative attributes This evaluation can be expressed through various linguistic forms, including nouns, idioms, and adjectives, that convey whether an individual is viewed as good or bad, loved or hated, admired or pitied.
Modality
What is modality?Fairclough (1992b, p 158) posits that modality can be used to define the „dimension of the grammar of the clause which corresponds to the
The interpersonal function of language encompasses modality, which linguistically expresses a writer's attitude ranging from certainty to uncertainty, advice to obligation, and commitment to permission According to Zdenek and Babara (2008), modality, along with naming, nominalization, tense, and aspect, plays a crucial role in shaping representations of agency, responsibility, time, and identity, ultimately influencing political and rhetorical legitimacy.
According to Dunmire(2008) differentiates two types of modality: Deontic and epistemic modality:
Deontic modality focuses on future actions and policies, utilizing modal auxiliaries like "ought," "should," and "must" to convey obligation, conviction, and permission In contrast, epistemic modality relates to knowledge and belief about reality.
Through modal auxiliaries such as “will,” “might,” and “would,” epistemic modality expresses judgments about the status and/or certainty of that knowledge and belief (Dunmire, 2008, p 85)
Modality, as defined by Fairclough (1992b), refers to the degree to which producers express commitment or distance from a proposition, highlighting their level of 'affinity' with it This concept, borrowed from Hodge and Kress (1988), is crucial for understanding how modality interacts with the representation of social actors, particularly in terms of inclusion and exclusion, thereby enriching the study of collective identity Koller’s model further explores this relationship by analyzing collective identity through the lens of modality.
The author perceives social groups through a temporal lens, examining their characteristics in the past, present, and future This analysis explores potential developments, highlighting both epistemic possibilities and deontic desires for these groups By analyzing likelihood and desirability, the text producer conveys their beliefs about social actors and sets goals for them These goals, driven by underlying values, reflect what social actors deem good and important, thereby linking the analysis of modality to the norms and values identified through evaluative assessment.
Referring back to the term „affinity‟ Fairclough (1992b, p 159) posits that
Subjective modality refers to the explicit expression of a speaker's or writer's personal degree of affinity towards a proposition In contrast, objective modality is applied when this affinity is not personally defined Understanding these modalities is crucial for effective communication, as they clarify the speaker's intent and perspective.
„subjective basis is left implicit.‟ For example, it may rain tomorrow it may be unclear that whose perspective is being expressed
Fairclough (2003) emphasizes that modality encompasses more than just modal verbs like can, will, may, must, would, and should It can also be conveyed through various forms, such as statements that frame conflict as either creative or not, questions like "Isn't the window open?", demands such as "Open the window!", offers like "I'll open the window," and different grammatical moods, including declarative, interrogative, and imperative forms.
Intertextuality and Interdiscursivity
This subsection presents the framework of analyzing intertextuality and interdiscursivity The term „intertextuality‟along with its kin term
Interdiscursivity is a prominent concept in cultural studies, linguistics, and sociolinguistics, yet it encompasses a variety of interpretations According to Fairclough (1992b, p 84), intertextuality refers to the way texts incorporate elements from other texts, which can be either clearly defined or seamlessly integrated, allowing for assimilation, contradiction, and ironic echoes Bartesaghi (2015, p 1) further clarifies this concept, emphasizing its complexity and multifaceted nature.
Intertextuality illustrates how texts are interconnected, recycling and referencing previous expressions Bartesaghi and Noy (2015) expand on this by explaining that interdiscursivity builds upon intertextuality, viewing discourse as a complex combination of simultaneous and linked linguistic acts that encompass broader fields of action than a single text Silverstein (1976) further emphasizes that intertextuality and intertexts emerge through communicative events utilizing interdiscursive techniques.
Fairclough (1995b, p 61) emphasizes that intertextual analysis examines the intersection of text and discourse practice within an analytical framework This approach involves analyzing texts through the lens of discourse practice, identifying the traces and influences of discourse within the text itself.
Linguistic analysis is primarily descriptive, while intertextual analysis leans towards interpretation (Fairclough, 1995b) Intertextuality refers to how texts incorporate elements from other texts, which can be explicit or blended, allowing for various interactions such as assimilation or contradiction (Fairclough, 1992b) Fairclough identifies two types of intertextuality: manifest intertextuality, characterized by clear indicators like quotation marks, and constitutive intertextuality, which involves the integration of discourse conventions (Fairclough, 1992b) He emphasizes that the linguistic features of texts serve as evidence for intertextual analysis, making it a specific interpretation of those features (Fairclough, 1995b).
Interdiscursivity examines the connections between texts, genres, and discourses, revealing inter-group relations and reflecting collective identity by highlighting the features an author utilizes to shape that identity (Koller, 2012) This concept, along with intertextuality, illustrates the power dynamics between text producers and other discourse creators, as well as the norms and values upheld by social actors Fairclough (2003) emphasizes that interdiscursivity enhances the dialogue within a text, showcasing the interaction between the author's voice and other voices, which contributes to the concept of style as a representation of identities and ways of being.
Interdiscursivity analysis can be complex and imprecise, as noted by Fairclough (2003), who suggests starting the analytical process by examining which texts and voices are included or excluded, as well as identifying significant absences When linking two texts, genres, or discourses, diverse perspectives, objectives, and interests emerge, which can be recognized through four types of reporting.
Direct reporting: Quotation, purported the actual words used, in quotation marks, with reporting clause (e.g She said: „He‟ll be there by now‟)
Indirect reporting involves summarizing the essence of what was communicated without using the exact words, eliminating quotation marks This method includes a reporting clause, such as "she said he’d be there by then," and requires shifts in verb tense (for example, "he’ll" changes to "he’d") and deixis (where "now" becomes "then").
Free indirect reporting serves as a bridge between direct and indirect speech, incorporating elements such as tense and deixis shifts characteristic of indirect speech, yet omitting a reporting clause This narrative technique is particularly prominent in literary contexts, allowing for a seamless blend of a character's thoughts and the author's voice, as exemplified in sentences like, "Mary gazed out of the window He would be there by now She smiled to herself."
Narrative report of speech act: Reports the sort of speech act without reporting its content (e.g She made a prediction) (Fairclough, 2003, p 49)
Fairclough (2003) argues that genre represents a form of prospective interdiscursivity, highlighting that genre mixing or hybridity is an inherent characteristic of interdiscursive texts Additionally, he notes that irony can also manifest as a property of interdiscursivity.
Analyzing Identity
This subsection discusses the parameters to analyze the constructon of identity as a discursive work, which focuses mainly on Bucholtz and Hall‟s (2005) and De Fina (2011) frameworks of identity analysis
Identity has garnered significant interest across various disciplines, with analysts emphasizing an analytical approach over a theoretical framework in identity studies, as noted by Bucholtz and Hall (2005) They suggest several principles for analyzing identity effectively.
Identity is primarily a social and cultural construct, shaped by linguistic and semiotic practices rather than an internal psychological phenomenon It encompasses various levels, including macro-level demographic categories, temporary stances, and ethnographically specific cultural positions Linguistic elements such as labels, implicatures, and styles serve to index identities Additionally, identities are relationally constructed through complex interactions between self and others, reflecting aspects of similarity and difference, genuineness and artifice, as well as authority and delegitimacy Furthermore, identity is influenced by intentional actions, habitual behaviors, interactional negotiations, external perceptions, and broader ideological processes.
Identity is inherently social and cultural, as highlighted by Antaki and Widdicombe (1998), who emphasize the significance of local context in shaping and negotiating identities They argue that holding an identity involves being categorized with specific characteristics, and this categorization is influenced by local circumstances The concept of local occasioning suggests that identity projection is context-dependent and simultaneously shapes that context, making identities both relevant and impactful Furthermore, studies by Hall (1997) and Chun (2001) indicate that broader identity categories can ideologically interact, meaning that while an individual may share a social identity, its interpretation can vary significantly based on contextual factors.
Bucholtz and Hall (2005, p 591) argue, discursive identity basically emerges
In communication, individuals and groups construct and negotiate their identities through various roles, such as evaluator or engaged listener, often defining themselves in contrast to others (Fairclough, 2003) The distinction between 'us' and 'them' serves as a mechanism for expressing political identities, which can be strategically employed to garner support and counter rivals (De Fina, 1995; van Dijk, 2010; Wilson, 1990) Positioning, as described by Fairclough (1992b), refers to how discourse shapes identities, with Davie and Harre (1990) noting that identities are plural and influenced by social contexts and discursive practices However, De Fina (2011) points out that not all identities can be easily negotiated due to power dynamics, where some social agents may dominate the discourse while others are marginalized This aligns with Briggs's (2007) findings that ideological associations can significantly influence the roles and actions of individuals within these social interactions.
Identities are socially constructed and negotiated in various ways, as individuals embrace labels such as "politician," "good student," or "fan of Elton John." These identities can be explicitly stated or symbolically represented, as seen in the claim of being a "good father," which establishes criteria for that identity category For instance, in Hillary Clinton's Concession Speech, significant identity work is achieved through meaningful associations Sounds, words, and expressions are linked to qualities, ideas, and social presentations, all of which contribute to broader ideological systems This interplay of meaning and symbol creation, which both reflects and modifies accepted social meanings, is known as indexicality.
Indexicality, a term introduced by Silverstein in 1976, refers to the semiotic connections between language use and social meanings According to Bucholtz and Hall (2005, p 594), indexicality can be identified and analyzed across all levels of linguistics.
Identity relations develop through various interconnected indexical processes, which include the explicit reference to identity categories and labels, the implications and assumptions about one's own or others' identity positions, the expression of evaluative and epistemic attitudes during conversations, and the use of linguistic structures linked to particular personas and groups.
The use of the term "guy" to address someone can signify a close relationship, while language, accents, and expressions can reflect social identities tied to specific groups and their characteristics For instance, the pronunciation of "l" instead of "n" by some Hanoians is linked to a distinct regional identity Hall (1997) demonstrated that premodifiers and adjectives play a role in shaping the identity of hijra in India Additionally, Liang highlighted that the LGBTQ+ community often employs implicature to navigate potential hostility from listeners.
The principle emphasizes the connection between social meaning and the available identity positions of social actors, highlighting that identity relations should be examined through the lenses of both sameness and difference According to Bucholtz and Hall (2004), this approach is essential for understanding the complexities of identity dynamics in social contexts.
Bucholtz and Hall (2005) introduce three pairs of identity relations in identity construction, emphasizing that these concepts are not mutually exclusive and may overlap The first pair, adequation and distinction, challenges the traditional view of identity as simply similar or different They argue that adequation highlights that groups or individuals need not be identical to be perceived as alike; rather, they must be understood as sufficiently similar for the purposes of interaction.
Differences that could hinder collaboration between individuals or groups are often minimized, while shared traits that bolster the current identity project are emphasized This approach highlights the importance of focusing on commonalities to foster unity and support collective goals.
The concept of distinction, initially proposed by Bourdieu (1984), refers to the differences rooted in social class among the bourgeoisie Bucholtz and Hall (2005) expand this idea to encompass a broader understanding of social differentiation Additionally, they introduce the processes of authentication and denaturalization, where speakers assert their authenticity and challenge perceived norms, respectively.
The term authentication discerns the analysis of how identities are verified in discourse, meanwhile the term denaturalization emphasizes the ways in which
The concept of identity is often perceived as seamless, but this assumption can be challenged (Bucholtz & Hall, 2005, p 603) The relationship between authorization and illegitimation highlights this complexity Authorization refers to the endorsement or enforcement of an identity through established power structures and ideologies, whether at a local or global level (Bucholtz & Hall, 2005, p 603) In contrast, illegitimation involves the ways in which identities are dismissed, criticized, or rejected by these same structures (Moustafa, 2015).
Speakers can create varied identities in their discourse by adjusting their levels of authorship and accountability In a monologic speech, for instance, the speaker often represents the author, distancing their identity from that of an out-group This allows the speaker to obscure their personal identity and forge a new one that aligns with their group, or they may choose to ridicule the opposing identity to evade responsibility and authorization.
The fifth tool named by Bucholtz and Hall (2005) is partialness Visweswaran
The term used by (1994, p 41) highlights an ethical commitment to acknowledging the contextual and partial nature of knowledge claims, emphasizing that identities are shaped by context and represent incomplete narratives Consequently, identity construction can be seen as both intentional and habitual, often revealing only certain aspects through singular analyses Broad interdisciplinary research, particularly through the lens of sociocultural linguistics, is essential for exploring the multifaceted nature of identity The understanding of identity is closely tied to agency; as Bucholtz and Hall (2005, p 606) note, agency becomes problematic when viewed as solely an individual endeavor devoid of structural influences Instead, agency should be seen as the outcome of social actions, with each instance of language use representing an act of agency (Duranti, 2004).