Rationale for the research
Numerous studies indicate that individuals frequently discuss time using spatial language, employing verbs and prepositions to frame temporal concepts Phrases like "as we approach the end of the year" and "in the days ahead of us" illustrate how people utilize spatial metaphors to understand time This reliance on spatial expressions is evident in contexts such as submitting an MA thesis "before time" or "falling behind schedule," highlighting the use of space-time conceptual metaphors in everyday language.
The spatial prepositions 'before' and 'behind' play a crucial role in how we conceptualize time as space, yet they have received less attention in linguistic studies compared to 'in,' 'on,' and 'at.' This research aims to explore the cognitive implications of these prepositions, particularly in contexts where individuals reflect on their experiences, such as determining whether "the best day is before them" or "the best day is behind them." By investigating these spatial prepositions in depth, the study seeks to enhance our understanding of how language shapes our perception of time.
Aims of the research
This study investigates the metaphorical concept of Time as Space, specifically examining the spatial schemas associated with the prepositions 'before' and 'behind.' It explores how these spatial frameworks influence our understanding of time Through this analysis, the research clarifies the mechanisms by which temporal statements utilizing these spatial prepositions are interpreted.
Research question
The Research Question is: ‘How do the spatial prepositions before, behind conceptualize time?’, which is clarified through three sub-questions:
➢ What are the spatial schemas of before, behind?
➢ How do these spatial schemas affect time reasoning?
➢ By which mechanism the temporal statements using these spatial prepositions are interpreted?
Data source
The data in this study is collected from English books and stories which two prepositions before and behind sometimes appear and are used as spatial and temporal particles.
Scope of the research
Numerous studies have explored the metaphorical concept of Time as Space, examining a range of linguistic elements from verbs to prepositions This research specifically concentrates on the temporal expressions of two spatial prepositions: "before" and "behind," highlighting their usage in conveying time-related meanings.
Significance of the research
This research enhances the understanding of cognitive linguistics and conceptual metaphors, particularly regarding how people perceive time through spatial expressions It raises awareness of time reasoning and promotes knowledge about the metaphor "Time as Space," while also uncovering motion models related to spatial-temporal expressions like "before" and "behind." Additionally, this study serves as a valuable resource for future research and a necessary supplementary material for teaching and learning English prepositions.
Organization of the research
The study consists of three main parts:
Part I: Introduction, presents the rationale of the study, the objectives, the scope, the method, the significance and the organization of the study Part II: Development, includes three chapters:
Chapter 1: Literature Review, reviews the theories of metaphor, conceptual metaphor Time as Space, and related previous studies on the metaphor Time as Space
Chapter 2: Methodology, describes the research method Moreover, this chapter gives detailed theoretical framework on metaphor Time as Space and shows two models for conceptualizing time
Chapter 3: Analysis and discussion, analyzes meaning network of two particles before and behind; analyzes two conceptual models of two prepositions behind, before, followed by discussion of findings
Part III: Conclusion, gives the summary of the research, its implications, limitations and suggestions for further studies
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of term (key constructs)
Concept: The general idea or meaning which is associated with a word or symbol in a person’s mind (“Longman dictionary of Language teaching and applied linguistics” (1992))
Conceptualization (Construal): The way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the word around them (“Longman dictionary of Language teaching and applied linguistics” (1992))
Conceptual metaphor: The understanding of one range of concepts (the target domain) in term of another (the source domain) (“Longman dictionary of Language teaching and applied linguistics” (1992))
Time-moving system: A time-line is conceived of as a river or conveyor belt on which events are moving from the future to the past (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)
Ego-moving system: Ego or the observer’s context progresses along the time- line (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)
An image schema is a fundamental cognitive structure that shapes our understanding and reasoning, as defined by Mark Johnson in 1987 These schemas emerge from our bodily interactions, linguistic experiences, and historical contexts Essentially, an image schema serves as a generalized mental abstraction that aids in linking perceptual experiences with conceptual knowledge.
Landmark (LM): entity with respect to which some other entity moves
Trajector (TR): entity that moves with respect to a (relatively) stationary landmark
The concepts of trajectory and landmark originate from the Gestalt psychology distinction between figure and ground, where the prominent elements in a scene are referred to as the figure, while the less emphasized aspects are known as the ground Cognitive linguists such as Talmy (1978) and Fillmore (1985) have further explored these ideas.
Langacker (1987) explored the relationship between language elements, establishing a parallel between the figure and trajectory, as well as the ground and landmark In this framework, the Trajector (TR) is the focal entity, while the Landmark (LM) serves as its reference point Typically, the LM is larger and more stable in location compared to the TR, highlighting their distinct roles in linguistic structure.
Theoretical background
1.2.1 The conceptual nature of meaning
Words are lexical forms conventionally linked to meanings, stored in a mental lexicon These meanings are grounded in our physical interactions with the world, with various meanings of spatial particles systematically related We advocate a polysemy approach, suggesting that the distinct meanings of a single lexical form are interconnected within a semantic network centered around a primary sense Traditionally, it has been assumed that meaning arises from language's direct reference to the world, relying on the concept of truth to explain how language aligns with reality.
Cognitive scientist Gilles Fauconnier argues that language expressions do not directly reflect objective events but are shaped by complex human cognitive constructions Supporting this view, Jackendoff highlights that our perceptions of the world are largely influenced by the conceptual frameworks we impose on sensory input Consequently, our everyday reality is not an objective truth; instead, it is mediated and shaped by the unconscious human conceptual organization that filters our sensory experiences.
Our perception of reality is shaped by our cognitive processing rather than existing independently The patterns we recognize are a result of how we unconsciously organize sensory information, illustrating that our understanding of the world is influenced by our mental frameworks.
Metaphor significantly influences our conceptual structuring processes, particularly through experiential metaphors rooted in spatial relations Recent perspectives highlight that metaphor is essential for acquiring new conceptual frameworks (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980; Martin, 1990) This view positions language as inherently metaphorical, with metaphor playing a vital role in conceptual development Lakoff and Johnson (1980) argue that core metaphors fundamentally shape our conceptual network, illustrating how abstract concepts like emotions are metaphorically represented through concrete spatial ideas, such as the association of happiness with upward orientation and sadness with downward orientation.
Conceptual metaphor Time as Space
Conceptual metaphor theory, as articulated by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in "Metaphors We Live By," is a significant framework within cognitive linguistics that explores how conceptual organization influences our understanding of the world This theory posits that our conceptual framework is shaped by metaphors that map relationships between distinct domains, such as time and space For example, the metaphor "Time is Space" illustrates how we often perceive time through the lens of spatial concepts, allowing us to understand abstract ideas like time in more concrete terms This interplay between different conceptual domains is fundamental to how we process and interpret our experiences (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980; Lakoff, 2000).
Scholars have identified a distinction between moving-time and moving-ego metaphors (Clark, 1973; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Genter, 2001; Evans, 2003) In the moving-time metaphor, temporal events progress from the future to the past, whereas in the moving-ego metaphor, the observer remains stationary on the timeline and advances toward fixed future events.
Günter Radden, alongside renowned linguists like George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, has made significant contributions to the field of cognition His study, "The Metaphor TIME AS SPACE across Languages," explores the concept of time in various languages, including English, French, Chinese, Italian, and German This research examines time through six dimensions: dimensionality, orientation of the time-line, shape of the time-line, position of times relative to the observer, sequences of time units, and the motion of time Notably, the motion of time is framed within the moving-time and moving-ego models, depending on whether time or the observer is perceived as moving along the time-line.
However, that the motion model of certain verbs and prepositions used in metaphor time as space is not discussed in detail
In her article "Metaphoric Structuring: Understanding Time Through Spatial Metaphors," Lera Boroditsky from the Journal Cognition supports the notion that space and time share a similar conceptual framework in language Through three experiments, she demonstrates that while spatial schemas often influence our understanding of time, they are not always necessary for thinking about temporal concepts The article highlights various spatial expressions, including "in front of," "ahead," "behind," "up," "down," "before," and "forward," illustrating the intricate relationship between these two domains.
However, prepositions before and behind have not been put on focus yet
Metaphors serve as essential tools for expressing abstract concepts that are challenging to grasp through our senses, such as time, love, and morality Researchers like Lakoff & Johnson (1980) and Kửvecses (1991) highlight that each metaphor's target domain is shaped by various source domains Kửvecses (2000) emphasizes that these source domains offer predetermined conceptual materials recognized by a community of speakers Furthermore, metaphors are not mere linguistic embellishments; they are fundamental to human thought and cultural expression Time, being one of the most abstract yet crucial concepts in human life, has inspired diverse metaphors across different cultures.
Cognitive semanticists, building on the foundational research of Lakoff and Johnson (1980), assert that space is symbolically utilized in the thought processes and languages of nearly all individuals This concept highlights the prevalence of orientational metaphors across languages, which give rise to various related phrases and expressions Our understanding is deeply rooted in our interactions with the world, exemplified by the common association of growth with health and strength.
From the studies reviewed, there is a call for further investigations on the certain spatial expressions such as before, behind and their roles in time conceptualization.
METHODOLOGY
Research method
The researcher examines the meaning network of spatial prepositions such as "before" and "behind." Following this, the study explores the use of these prepositions in expressing time, relying on spatial schemas to uncover corresponding temporal schemas Ultimately, the analysis focuses on two distinct temporal schemas: Ego-moving and Time-moving.
Lakoff and Johnson (1980) emphasize that metaphor plays a crucial role in our daily lives, influencing not only our language but also our thoughts and actions They argue that our common conceptual framework is inherently metaphorical, shaping the way we perceive and engage with the world around us.
This paper is grounded in the conceptual theory of metaphor as established by Lakoff and Johnson, which posits that metaphors are deeply embedded in everyday language and thought processes.
Metaphor serves as a powerful tool that shapes our conceptual framework, offering a unique perspective on the world and helping us interpret our experiences According to Lakoff and Nunez (2000:5), metaphor is "the mechanism by which the abstract is comprehended in terms of the concrete," highlighting its role in bridging complex ideas with tangible concepts.
Lakoff and Johnson assert that the metaphors individuals use reveal their understanding and thought processes They emphasize that communication serves as a crucial indicator of a person's cognitive framework Furthermore, metaphors not only offer insight into another person's conceptual system but also play a significant role in shaping one's own understanding and perception.
"govern our everyday functioning, down to the most mundane details Our concepts structure what we perceive, how we get around the world, and how we relate to other people "
Metaphors are essential in communication and shaping our understanding, with the conceptual metaphor TIME AS SPACE serving as a prime example This metaphor illustrates how we often perceive time through spatial concepts, evident in common expressions like “Look how far we have come We cannot turn back now.” Such phrases highlight the influence of metaphorical thinking on our daily activities and interactions.
Metaphorically, time is often comprehended through the lens of space, illustrating how one domain of experience can inform another This process can be described as a mapping from a source domain, which is space, to a target domain, represented by time.
How to determine distinct senses
Modeling a meaning network involves various subjective approaches, as highlighted by Tyler and Evans (1999), who proposed two key criteria for identifying distinct senses of spatial particles Firstly, a distinct sense must encompass additional meanings that are not present in other senses associated with the same form, indicating that it includes non-spatial meanings or different configurations between the target referent (TR) and the landmark (LM) compared to the proto-scene Secondly, there should be context-independent instances of the sense, meaning that the distinct sense cannot be inferred from other senses or their contexts.
(1) We were walking behind you
(2) The road is behind the house
In both sentences, the term "behind" indicates a spatial relationship where the Theme Referent (TR) is positioned at the back of the Landmark (LM) In the first instance, "we" is behind "you," while in the second, "the road" is behind "the house." The consistent TR-LM configuration in both examples shows that the use of "behind" does not introduce any additional meaning, suggesting that these instances cannot be classified as distinct senses.
Besides, there are also examples that do appear to constitute a distinct sense:
(3) The president placed environmental welfare behind all other items in his legislative programme
In this sentence a non-spatial relation designated by behind, in which the
In Turkey, environmental welfare is often deprioritized compared to other legislative issues, indicating a lack of importance that may not be evident in other examples This perception suggests that environmental concerns are overshadowed by more pressing matters on the agenda The context in which environmental welfare is discussed highlights an additional layer of meaning, fulfilling the criteria for recognizing it as a distinct concept.
To determine if the lack of priority meaning is contextually derived, we must assess whether "behind" signifies a unique relationship where the Theme Referent (TR), environmental welfare, is deemed less important than the Landmark (LM), other items In this case, the TR does not hold the same importance as the LM, as legislative priorities typically favor other issues over environmental welfare, indicating that the president often prioritizes these other matters over environmental concerns Thus, the absence of importance associated with "behind" cannot be inferred from context.
In examples (1) and (2), the spatial relationship between the reference point (TR) and the landmark (LM) is typically expressed through front/back distinctions, such as "we are walking at the back of you," rather than indicating lesser importance Therefore, without prior knowledge that "behind" carries a non-priority meaning, it is challenging to interpret this meaning in sentences like (3) Consequently, we conclude that the absence of a priority meaning associated with "behind" in (3) represents a unique interpretation.
The assessment criteria may overlook valid senses present in a language user's mental lexicon, necessitating adjustments This methodology aligns with existing findings and serves as a reliable framework for distinguishing between distinct senses stored in semantic memory and contextual inferences made for immediate comprehension It offers a systematic approach for evaluating whether a sense is distinct, facilitating inter-subjective judgments in the assessment process.
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis
In this chapter, the researcher explores the concept of front versus back by relating it to the human body's perception, highlighting that primary sensory organs are situated at the front of the head The researcher illustrates that spatial particles carry multiple meanings, with a subset of these interpretations being stored in memory for permanent access, referred to as senses.
3.1.1 Meaning network and image schema of ‘before’
The term "before" has historical roots in Old English, originating from "beforen" or "bifuran," which translates to 'be front' or 'ahead.' In Old English, "fore" served as a distinct preposition meaning 'located at the front of.' The modern usage of "before" reflects an evolving meaning of 'located at the front of' through an in tandem configuration In contemporary English, there are two predominant interpretations of "before": the Location Sense, which involves a target reference (TR) and an oriented landmark (LM), and the In Advance Of Sense, characterized by an in tandem configuration.
(Eg 1) A reached the finish line before B
Fig 1: Image schema of before in Eg 1
(Eg 2) Hannah arrived home before George
Fig 2: Image schema of before in Eg 2
When two aligned entities are in motion, the one ahead will encounter others first, leading to a sequential interaction For example, in a race with three runners—A, B, and C—runner A reaches the finish line first, demonstrating this principle of sequential encounters.
In a race scenario where runner A finishes ahead of runners B and C, A's position in front of B and C establishes a clear sequence of arrival This positioning leads to A encountering the finish line before both B and C Consequently, the strong connection between an athlete's location and their finishing sequence reinforces the implication that A's victory occurs prior to B and C's arrival.
When two static entities are aligned, a person approaching them will encounter them in a sequential order For example, if three individuals—Tony, George, and Hannah—are standing in line one behind the other, a fourth person, Katherine, approaching from the front will meet each of them in succession.
When we move through our environment, we often come across aligned static objects that lack inherent orientation As we get closer, we tend to perceive the nearest side as the most significant, assigning it a functional "front." This leads us to experience aligned but unoriented items, like lamp posts, as if they are sequentially arranged Consequently, we naturally encounter these objects one after another, allowing the concept of "before" to emerge in our understanding We propose that the implication of sequence associated with "before" has become more prominent, enabling its use to describe any set of ordered entities.
(Eg 3) B is before C in the alphabet
Fig 3: Image schema of before in Eg 3
(Eg 4) Thursday is always before Friday
Figure 4: Image schema of before in Eg 4
Sequences are defined by their temporal relationships, as they either reflect the timing of events or require time to process connections between discrete units, such as letters in the alphabet.
A sequence is necessarily a temporal concept, and as such a Sequence Sense is thereby a Temporal Sense Thus, before is largely associated with temporality while its origins are spatial in nature
Some sentences employing before do not necessarily involve an in tandem alignment and do not have a sequential interpretation:
(Eg 5) John was summoned before the principal
Figure 5: Image schema of before in Eg 5
In spatial contexts, the term "before" is often associated with a privileged vantage point, indicating a sense of location that closely resembles "in front of." However, this usage is limited and has largely been replaced by "in front of" in many situations Some native speakers even find using "before" to describe a non-human landmark, such as in the sentence "Look, Chris is standing before his new truck," to be semantically odd or outdated This indicates that "before" has mainly preserved its historical meaning of "located at the front of" in specific contexts, suggesting that its locational use is still partially retained.
(Eg 6) Look, Chris is standing before his new truck in this picture
Fig 6: Image schema of before in Eg 6
The term "before" conveys a sense of priority, indicating a non-spatial relationship between two entities where one is perceived as more privileged or significant For instance, it emphasizes the importance of sequence and precedence in various contexts.
(Eg 7) This airline makes a virtue out of placing safety before all else
Fig 7: Image schema of before in Eg 7
In this context, safety takes precedence over all other considerations, indicated by the term "before." This interpretation differs from earlier meanings of "before," as it introduces an additional layer of non-spatial relationships.
Being physically present in a front position during a simultaneous alignment offers greater advantages and priority This scenario highlights the benefits of being first in line, akin to the safety of a truck leading the way.
In a foot race, achieving priority often signifies advantages or privileges The original meaning of "before" suggests a close alignment with this concept, leading to the natural evolution of its association with a sense of priority.
The term "behind" originally referred to a position at the back of something For instance, when we say "the woman stood behind the man," it indicates that the man is in front of the woman, who is positioned relative to his back Importantly, the woman's orientation is not essential; she may either be facing the man's back or have her back turned to him.
(Eg 8) The woman stood behind the man
Fig 8: Image schema of behind in Eg 8
The person A represents the woman, the other one represents the man
The arrow illustrates the man's orientation, with the woman positioned directly behind him This placement creates ambiguity regarding her front and back orientation, as she lacks clear perceptual access to the man Consequently, it is uncertain whether the woman is gazing at the man's back or if her back is turned toward him.
Landmarks can be considered non-animate entities when we perceive them as having a front and back orientation For instance, in the phrase "the road is behind the house," houses typically have a designated main access point identified as the front In this context, the road, acting as the trajector, is positioned closest to the back of the house, which is opposite the front Importantly, while houses may not have a fixed orientation, they possess a functional orientation that guides our understanding of their spatial relationships.
The Lack of Priority Sense
Behind also has a sense that relates to a lack of priority, hence a concomitant lack of importance or being privileged Consider an example:
(Eg 9) The president placed environmental welfare behind all other items in his legislative programme
Fig 9: Image schema of behind in Eg 9
Discussion
The analysis of two spatial particles, "behind" and "before," reinforces the principled polysemy approach, highlighting that non-spatial meanings frequently stem from our spatial experiences This perspective emphasizes the significance of how we engage with our surroundings, particularly in face-to-face interactions.
Human interactions with both other people and inanimate objects lead to the projection of orientation, often reflecting a mirror-image alignment in enclosed spaces For instance, we tend to assign a front and back to a house based on typical access points, or determine the orientation of lamp-posts depending on the side visible to us as we approach.
Time is commonly perceived as moving from the past to the present and into the future, as reflected in phrases like "time goes by" or "time passes." However, it is essential to consider whether it is solely time that is in motion Often, it is the world or events that shift within time, as seen in expressions like "her birthday is approaching" or "Tet is coming." This perspective highlights that both time and people move through time at different speeds This article focuses on common models of motion with a fixed background, specifically examining two primary models of conceptualizing time as motion: the time-moving model and the ego-moving model.
In the time - moving model, time is conceived of as moving Lakoff
In Lakoff's (1993) conceptualization, time is metaphorically understood through the lens of motion, where the passage of time is likened to the movement of an object This can occur in two ways: non-deictically, as seen in phrases like "It’s getting close to sundown," where time progresses independently of a human observer, or deictically, where time is perceived relative to a stationary observer Additionally, in the ego-moving model, the observer is imagined as the one in motion, with time represented as a fixed landscape.
The time-moving model challenges our conventional understanding of time as flowing from the past to the future, instead suggesting that it flows from the future to the past Despite this reversal, the model offers cognitive advantages by allowing us to anchor moving time to a fixed reference point: the human observer in a stationary world This self-centered perspective positions individuals at the center of their temporal experience, facilitating the conceptualization of time as dynamic, with the future transitioning into the present and the present into the past Furthermore, the model enables the independent measurement of time units, regardless of their placement on the timeline, as seen in terms like "the later week" and "the earlier week." Rooted in the physical world, the time-moving model posits that time continuously progresses in a straight motion, with the observer merely occupying a point on this timeline and witnessing the unfolding of events.
The observer transitions from the past through the present and into the future, with time itself remaining a constant backdrop This "moving-ego" model is evident in phrases like "we have left the 237 worst behind us." While this static view of time contrasts with our common perception of time as a moving entity, it also aligns with our cognitive motivations, as it reflects our understanding of time's flow, where the observer is an active participant in the world around them.
The ego-moving model conceptualizes time through our sensorimotor experiences of locomotion, illustrating how we perceive our journey from the past to the future This model emphasizes that when individuals choose to move to a destination, they do so with intention and purpose Similarly, our movement through time is often characterized by intentionality, reflecting our desire to engage with future experiences.
This chapter explores the spatial schemas of the prepositions "before" and "behind" within the frameworks of ego-moving and object-moving systems It highlights the correlation between spatial and temporal expressions, providing two temporal models that align with the spatial models for these prepositions The subsequent section will summarize the research findings, discuss limitations, and offer suggestions for future studies.
This concluding chapter of the research paper summarizes the key findings in relation to the research questions and existing literature It also addresses the implications and limitations of the study, followed by recommendations for future research endeavors.
Summary
The study explores the conceptual metaphor of space-time in English by examining the spatial particles "before" and "behind." It aims to reveal how these two prepositions represent and conceptualize the notion of time.
This article delves into cognitive linguistics, focusing on the conceptual metaphor of Time as Space It thoroughly examines the conceptualization of the particles "before" and "behind" through the lens of image schemas, highlighting their significance in understanding temporal relationships.
The researcher has developed two movement schemas for the spatial prepositions "before" and "behind," termed the Ego-moving and Object-moving models These schemas illustrate the relationship between space and time, allowing spatial schemas to influence temporal schemas in how individuals conceptualize time Consequently, the spatial schemas shape the understanding of time through the Ego-moving and Time-moving models People utilize different metaphorical models to conceptualize time, which in turn affects their choice of prepositions and sentence structures.
Implication
Mastering English spatial prepositions poses a significant challenge for learners, impacting both their understanding and teaching of the language Recent research highlights the importance of metaphor theory, emphasizing its role in enhancing learners' awareness of metaphors in English.
Conceptualizing time as space allows us to leverage the rich nuances of spatial understanding to enhance our perception of time By mapping spatial elements onto temporal concepts, we can interpret time as a dynamic entity that can move both backward and forward.
Languages often utilize spatial concepts that align with our everyday experiences to express ideas, including those related to time This paper explores how the English language draws on spatial meanings to conceptualize and articulate temporal notions, highlighting the varying cognitive approaches different languages may take in this regard.
This paper aims to offer a clearer framework for understanding English spatial prepositions, such as "before" and "behind," benefiting both second language learners and teachers It hypothesizes that spatial particles significantly influence how individuals think and conceptualize time, a concept that remains underexplored Consequently, this research can assist learners and educators in overcoming challenges in acquiring English from a cognitive perspective.
Limitations and suggestions for further studies
This study examines the influence of spatial schemas on time reasoning using only two prepositions, "behind" and "before." However, the limited scope of these prepositions highlights a significant shortcoming, suggesting the need for further research that encompasses a broader range of linguistic units.
This paper's reliance on data primarily sourced from a variety of English books and stories limits its strength To enhance the credibility of the research, it would be beneficial to gather data from more authoritative and authentic sources.
A notable limitation of the study is its focus on conceptual metaphors in English, with little comparison to other languages Future research would benefit from comparative analyses between English and other languages, including Vietnamese, to enhance understanding in this area.
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