INTRODUCTION
RATIONALE
Translation has become an essential discipline in today's globalized world, facilitating communication and the exchange of ideas between speakers of different languages The rise in international events, such as scientific workshops and business conferences, has led to a growing demand for translation and interpretation services While translation has been recognized by scholars since ancient times, significant research in the field only emerged in the latter half of the 20th century, with notable contributions from researchers like Goldman-Eisler, Barik, Gerver, Moser, and Chernov.
Despite the significance of translating specific sentence types between linguistically and culturally distinct languages like English and Vietnamese, there has been limited research in this area (Larmbert, 1984, cited in Russell, 2005) This study aims to be a pioneering effort in examining translation strategies for English-Vietnamese translation, focusing on three common sentence types: passive sentences, conditional sentences, and sentences containing relative clauses Due to a six-month timeframe, a comprehensive study is not feasible, necessitating a focused investigation on these selected sentence types.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study focuses on the translation of three specific sentence types—passive sentences, conditional sentences, and sentences with relative clauses—from English to Vietnamese The primary goal is to analyze how these sentence structures are rendered in the target language, providing insights into the translation process and its challenges.
1 To find out how English sentences containing relative clauses in the investigated presentations are translated into Vietnamese
2 To find out how English passive sentences in the investigated presentations are translated into Vietnamese
3 To find out how English conditional sentences in the investigated presentations are translated into Vietnamese
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Based on the aims of the study, the following questions are expected to be answered:
1 How are English sentences containing relative clauses in presentations at an ICISE’s international conference translated into Vietnamese?
2 How are English passive sentences in presentations at an ICISE’s international conference translated into Vietnamese?
3 How are English conditional sentences in presentations at an ICISE’s international conference translated into Vietnamese?
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study focuses on translation strategies for sentences containing relative clauses, passive sentences, and conditional sentences, utilizing data from presentations and their Vietnamese translations at international conferences held at the International Center for Interdisciplinary Science and Education (ICISE) in Vietnam The selection of ICISE is due to its accessible record system, the scientific context of the conferences, and the reliability of the translation provided by the director of the Vietnamese National Center for Translation and Interpretation With approximately 120 samples for each type of sentence, the study aims to analyze these specific structures within a six-month timeframe, contributing valuable insights into English-Vietnamese translation practices.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study aims to identify the challenges interpreters face during conference translation, particularly focusing on the translation of sentences with relative clauses, passive constructions, and conditional phrases from English to Vietnamese By analyzing the interpreter's performance, the research offers recommendations for improving poorly and moderately assessed translations Additionally, it provides general guidelines for translating these sentence types to enhance the effectiveness of English-Vietnamese conference interpretation.
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
This study consists of 5 chapters as follows:
Chapter 1, Introduction, includes the rationale, aim and objectives of the study, research questions, scope of the study, significance of the study, and organization of the study
Chapter 2, Literature Review and Theoretical Background, provides some previous relevant studies and relevant theoretical background for the study
Chapter 3, Research Methodology, outlines the data sources and samples utilized in the study, detailing the data collection techniques and research methods employed It also describes the approach to translation quality assessment, the research procedures followed, and discusses the reliability and validity of the findings.
Chapter 4, Findings and Discussion, presents the findings of the study which is followed by a discusion
Chapter 5 summarizes the key findings of the study, drawing important conclusions and outlining their implications It also addresses the limitations of the research, offering suggestions for future studies to build upon these insights.
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL
TRANSLATION AND RELEVANT ISSUES
Translation is a complex term that varies in definition among scholars, influenced by differing mentalities across time and perspectives According to Catford (1965), translation is an operation involving languages, specifically the process of substituting a text in one language with a corresponding text in another language.
Nida (1969), an American scholar, stated that translation was a science, he said:
Translating involves conveying the source language message in the receptor language by finding the closest natural equivalent, focusing primarily on meaning and secondarily on style However, this straightforward definition necessitates a thorough examination of various seemingly conflicting factors.
In 1984, Larson stated that translation involves conveying the meaning from the source language to the receptor language This process requires transforming the structure of the source language into the receptor language while maintaining semantic integrity.
In the translation process, the primary focus should be on preserving the meaning of the source text, as it is the most crucial element While the form of the text may change, the essence and significance must be accurately re-expressed in the target language This involves transferring, encoding, and recording the original meanings into the receptor language to ensure effective communication.
In 1988, Mary Snell-Horby, by focusing on the interaction process between the author, the translator and the reader, defined translation as follows:
Translation is a multifaceted communication process involving the original author (SL-author), the translator, and the target language reader (TL-reader) The translator begins with the source text and its linguistic elements, created by the author who relies on familiar scenarios Using this textual framework, the translator-reader constructs their own interpretations based on personal experiences and acquired knowledge of the subject matter.
According to Carbonell (2006), a scholar in Spanish language studies, translation is not just a method of communication but also a tool for accomplishing various objectives He emphasizes that the original act of communication is transferred to a new context, involving different participants and purposes, which introduces a level of mediation that influences the entire process at multiple stages.
In 2006, Marie Karlsson conducted a study on the translation of hedging, adjectives, and non-finite ing-participles in Margrit Coates' book "Horse Talking." She emphasized that translation involves conveying a message from one language to another, aiming to create a text that elicits the same response from the target reader as it does from the original audience This perspective highlights the significance of both the translation process and its impact on readers across different languages.
In "Introducing Translation Studies" (2001), Jeremy Munday, an expert in Spanish Studies and a seasoned translator, highlights that the term "translation" encompasses multiple meanings, including the subject field, the translated text, and the act of translating itself He emphasizes that the translation process involves transforming a written text from its original language into a different written language.
Researchers and practitioners have employed various methods to evaluate translation works, and while it's impossible to cover all approaches, this section highlights some of the most prominent ones.
Sonia Colina (2008) identified four primary translation approaches: experience-based and anecdotal, theoretical and research-based, reader-response, and textlinguistic and pragmatic approaches Experience-based and anecdotal approaches, such as those used by the American Translators Association and the Society of Automotive Engineers, are tailored for specific industries but often lack a solid theoretical framework or empirical support, making them difficult to apply universally This absence of a clear theoretical foundation hinders replicability and inter-rater reliability, as individual raters may have varying interpretations of translation errors In a culturally nuanced field like translation, the lack of defined criteria can lead to significant variability and subjectivity among raters, ultimately undermining the reliability of these approaches.
Theoretical and research-based approaches in translation are grounded in specific frameworks and assumptions, emphasizing the importance of the translation user However, these approaches face limitations that hinder their broader application and effectiveness Colina (2008) highlighted that their focus on quality aspects often neglects the interdisciplinary nature of translation, making them challenging to implement in various professional and educational contexts.
Reader-response approaches evaluate a translation's quality by examining whether readers react to it in the same way as they would to the original text This method emphasizes the importance of reader perception in assessing translation effectiveness, as highlighted by scholars such as Nida and Carroll.
In the realm of translation assessment, two main approaches have emerged: behavioristic and functionalist Influenced by behaviorism in the 1960s, Nida (1964) introduced response-based tests aimed at evaluating translation quality, including techniques like reading aloud, cloze tasks, and rating tasks Nida and Taber (1969) further proposed three criteria for assessing translations: the understanding of the source language (SL) message by target language (TL) readers, the comprehensibility of the translation, and the level of reader engagement However, these methods faced criticism for relying solely on reader responses, which were deemed insufficient for accurately gauging translation quality, and for neglecting the source text in the evaluation process (House, 2015; Hằng).
Functionalism, emerging from German scholars like Hans J Vermeer and Katharina Reiss, is a branch of reader-response theory known as "skopostheorie" or "skopos theory," where "skopos" translates to "aim" or "purpose" in Greek This approach emphasizes the purpose of translation, focusing on the intended receiver of the translated message, as translation is viewed as a purposeful activity Jensen (2009) highlights that functionalism redefines translation from a simple act of transcoding to a meaningful act of communication A key strength of skopos theory lies in its flexibility, allowing translators to employ various methods based on different translation purposes, thus granting them creative freedom in their strategies (Ân, 2017) However, skopos theory lacks the status of a formal scientific theory, as its prescriptions are not empirically tested and merely represent ideals rather than hypotheses (Schjoldager, 2008).
Reader-response approaches to translation are often seen as controversial due to their inability to effectively measure reader response and their limited applicability in non-reader-oriented contexts, such as legal texts These approaches focus primarily on the equivalence of effect on the reader, neglecting other critical factors like the translation's purpose and context Additionally, assessing whether reader responses are equivalent can be problematic, as different groups may react differently to the same text Evaluating translation quality based on reader response is also a time-consuming process that requires careful selection of readers to ensure they represent the intended audience Despite these challenges, reader-response theories are recognized for highlighting the audience's role in translation and for considering the effects on readers as a measure of translation quality.
INVESTIGATED TYPES OF SENTENCE
2.2.1 Sentences containing relative clauses, conditional sentences and passive sentences in English
This section classifies various types of sentences according to traditional English grammar, while also categorizing their Vietnamese equivalents based on Vietnamese grammar Specifically, it focuses on sentences that include relative clauses.
Thomson and Martinet (1986) identify three types of relative clauses: defining, non-defining, and connective A defining relative clause serves to specify a noun, distinguishing it from others in the same category, and is crucial for the noun's clear understanding Common relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses include those that help create these essential distinctions.
Table 1 Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses
For persons who whom/who whose that that
For things which which whose/of which that that
Non-defining relative clauses provide additional information about a noun that is already definite, without defining it These clauses are not essential to the sentence and can be removed without causing confusion Unlike defining relative clauses, they are separated from their noun by commas, and the pronoun cannot be omitted This construction is generally more formal and is more frequently used in written English than in spoken language Common relative pronouns used in non-defining relative clauses include who, which, and whose.
Table 2 Relative pronouns used in non-defining relative clauses
For persons who whom/who whose
For things which which whose/of which
Connective clauses serve to advance the narrative rather than describe their nouns, employing commas similarly to non-defining relative clauses The pronouns used include who, whom, whose, and which, typically positioned after the object of the main verb While it can occasionally be challenging to distinguish between non-defining and connective clauses in this context, students need not worry about this differentiation, as both forms function similarly.
Restrictive relative clauses modify a head noun, identifying it as part of a class, while non-restrictive relative clauses indicate that the noun is unique or part of a previously identified class Sentential relative clauses, a subtype of non-restrictive clauses, refer not to a noun phrase but to an entire clause or sequence of sentences.
In his book "Practical English Usage," Michael Swan (2016) describes two types of relative clauses: identifying (or restrictive) clauses, which specify or classify nouns, and non-identifying (or non-restrictive) clauses, which provide additional information without classification Similarly, Betty S Azar and Stacy A Hagen in "Understanding and Using English Grammar" (2017) categorize adjective clauses into essential (restrictive) clauses, which do not require commas, and nonessential (nonrestrictive) clauses, which do Understanding these distinctions is crucial for clear and effective communication in English.
For the purpose of this study, sentences containing relative clauses are those having a clause following a noun phrase and modify it b Conditional sentences
Conditional sentences are structured with an if-clause that sets a condition for the main clause to occur (Swan, 2016) Thomson and Martinet (1986) categorize these sentences into three types: Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3, each using different tense pairs to convey distinct meanings Type 1 conditional sentences suggest a probable action in the present or future, utilizing the present tense in the if-clause In contrast, Type 2 also relates to the present or future but employs a subjunctive past tense in the if-clause, indicating unreality or improbability Finally, Type 3 conditional sentences reflect on past situations that did not happen, using the past perfect tense in the if-clause and the perfect conditional in the main clause, highlighting an unfulfilled condition.
According to Azar and Hagen (2017), there are three types of conditional sentences: those that convey real conditions in the present or future, those that express unreal conditions in the present or future, and those that indicate unreal conditions in the past.
In "A University Grammar of English" (1985), Quirk and Greenbaum categorize conditions into two types: real and unreal Real conditions leave the fulfillment of the condition and the truth of the main clause's proposition ambiguous In contrast, unreal conditions clearly indicate that the condition is unlikely to be fulfilled Unreal conditions are further divided into two sub-types: those referring to the present and those referring to the past, aligning with Thomson and Martinet’s conditional sentence types 2 and 3 (1986).
In 1985, alternatives to the traditional if-structure for expressing conditions were identified, including terms such as unless, provided that, and as soon as Additionally, grammarians agreed that these alternatives are not exhaustive, as mixed tense conditional sentences also exist that do not conform to these patterns.
In this study, conditional sentences are defined in accordance with Thomson and Martinet’s definition including some alternatives for the if-structure as mentioned in Quirk
Passive form of a verb is normally made by using tenses of the auxiliary “be” followed by the past participle of the verb (Swan, 2016; Thomson & Martinet, 1986; Azar
In passive voice constructions, the subject of the active verb becomes the "agent" of the passive verb, often omitted but occasionally included at the end of the clause, introduced by "by." Quirk and Greenbaum (1985) argue that the use of passive voice allows for a reversal of the typical order of "agentive" and "affected" elements, facilitating adjustments in clause structure that emphasize end-focus—placing new information at the end—and end-weight—reserving the final position for more complex components.
The passive voice is typically employed without a by-phrase, especially when the identity of the doer is unknown or irrelevant.
In certain instances, speakers may opt for passive voice with a by-phrase to emphasize the subject, even when the doer of the action is known (Azar & Hagen, 2017) It's important to note that not all verbs can be used in passive constructions; intransitive verbs, which lack an object, cannot form a passive sentence since there is no element to serve as the subject (Swan, 2016; Azar & Hagen, 2017) Therefore, a sentence can be identified as passive if it follows the structure "be + past participle."
Despite of the fact that the terms “relative clauses”, “conditional sentences” and
In Vietnamese, there are equivalent expressions for English "passive sentences," even though such structures do not exist in Vietnamese grammar One common method to convey similar meanings is through the use of relative clauses.
In Vietnamese grammar, the term "cụm từ chủ vị" (subject-predicate phrase) is a component of the broader grammatical structure known as "phần phụ sau của cụm danh từ nêu đặc trưng miêu tả" (the noun phrase postmodification expressing descriptive features) (Ban, 1992, p 58) This phrase consists of a subject and a predicate, with the subject typically represented by terms like "người, thứ, cái, vật, đó," among others Additionally, it may include a "kết từ hạn định chỉ ý nghĩa quan hệ về mục đích, hoặc quan hệ về đặc trưng – mà" (restrictive connector indicating relative meaning about purpose or feature – mà), which is part of the "kết từ chính phụ" (subordinators) (Ban, 1991, p 154) For the purposes of this study, the "noun phrase postmodification which expresses descriptive features" will be referred to as the "Vietnamese relative clause."
PREVIOUS RELEVANT STUDIES
Despite significant scholarly interest in translation studies, research specifically focused on translating English conditional sentences, passive constructions, and relative clauses into other languages remains scarce One notable study by Jasim Khalifah Sultan (2011) explored the translation of English conditional clauses into Arabic from a pedagogical perspective Conducted with fourth-year translation students at the University of Basra, the study aimed to identify which conditional structures posed the greatest challenges in translation The results indicated that the coordinating conjunction "and" was the most problematic for students, while the use of "place and time clauses" to express conditions proved to be the least challenging.
In 1993, Aziz Khalil studied the Arabic translations of English passive sentences
A study was conducted involving 32 translators, including Arabic-speaking EFL college instructors and students, alongside 19 judges who were university-level instructors of Arabic language and literature The translators focused on providing Arabic translations for 25 English agentive passive sentences, of which 19 included passive verbs with agentive phrases and 14 featured animate agents Three types of agentive phrases were utilized: "by + NP," "at the hands of + NP," and "by means of + NP." The judges evaluated the translations, categorizing them as either "Modern" or "Classical," and subsequently rewrote each translation.
The distinction between "Modern" and "Classical" language highlights the differences in expression found in contemporary media and literature compared to the language of the Qur'an, prophetic traditions, and ancient texts Khalil identified that the primary challenge faced by the students studied was their tendency to literally translate English by-agentive phrases into Arabic, which stemmed from the influence of translations from European languages and the prevalent use of Arabic agentive passive constructions in modern literature and media.
Parisa Farrokh's 2011 study focused on the translation of English relative clauses, specifically examining the types of equivalence and shifts in the Persian translations of complex sentences containing wh-subordinate clauses The research analyzed 160 complex sentences extracted from the novels "The Old Man and The Sea" by Ernest Hemingway and "Animal Farm."
In his analysis of the Persian translations of Orwell and Joyce's "Dubliners," Farrokh examined works by Asha (2000), Hosseini and Saffariyan (2007), Balouch (2010), Daryabandari (2010), and Firouzbakht (2009) Utilizing Nida’s equivalence theory and Catford’s category of shifts, he employed a descriptive qualitative method Farrokh discovered that Persian translations of English complex sentences with wh- subordinate clauses frequently exhibited shifts rather than equivalence Furthermore, he noted that each instance of these complex sentences was translated using distinct approaches.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
DATA SOURCES AND SAMPLES
This study focused on three main concerns: sentences containing relative clauses, passive sentences, and conditional sentences Data were sourced from presentations at international conferences held at the International Center for Interdisciplinary Science and Education (ICISE) in Vietnam, along with their Vietnamese translations The selection of only these three sentence types was due to a six-month time constraint, which made a larger-scale study impractical Presentations at ICISE were chosen for three reasons: the accessibility of translation records, the scientific context of the conferences, which typically hosted 10 to 12 high-level international events annually across various scientific disciplines, and the reliability of translations provided by Mr Pham Binh Dam, director of the Vietnamese National Center for Translation and Interpretation Ultimately, the study collected a sufficient number of samples, comprising 120 English passive sentences and their translations, 117 English conditional sentences and their translations, and 120 relative clauses with their translations.
DATA COLLECTION
First, 9 English records and 9 Vietnamese records for 4 conference days (8-11 th May,
In 2018, with permission from the ICISE manager, records were collected and transcribed for analysis, with each recording lasting approximately 4 to 5 hours and totaling around 70,000 words across both languages The English transcripts were examined for passive sentences, conditional sentences, and relative clauses, which were then highlighted The translations of these highlighted items were selected without bias, based solely on their correspondence to the English sentences The determination of whether a Vietnamese sentence was an accurate translation relied on the context provided by neighboring sentences Instances where translations were missed or uncertain were excluded from the sampling to ensure accuracy.
RESEARCH METHODS
In this study, the qualitative method was used to analyze the collected data Assessment would be made for 120 English-Vietnamese translations of passive sentences,
This study presents 117 English-Vietnamese translations of conditional sentences and 120 translations of relative clauses, with recommendations provided for those assessed as "average" or "poor." Utilizing a descriptive method, the author gained insights into the translation of these sentence types, highlighting significant findings The study concludes with a discussion of specific cases, leading to the formulation of translation strategies tailored for each investigated sentence type.
TRANSLATION QUALITY ASSESSMENT APPROACH
The study opted against using experience-based, theoretical, reader-response, and textual approaches for translation assessment due to their limitations Instead, a new analytical rating scale was developed specifically for this research This decision was influenced by two key factors: the lack of widespread success among existing analytical rating scales and the necessity for tailored scales depending on the translation type, such as literary versus technical The details of the newly constructed rating scale are outlined below.
This study selected three key criteria for translation assessment: "message," "context," and "language norm," after reviewing various scale categories suggested by scholars, including content, delivery, language quality, accuracy, pronunciation, grammar, intelligibility, informativeness, logic, purpose, and context.
The "message" criterion in translation focuses on the content, accuracy, and informative purpose of the original sentence, assessing how effectively the message is conveyed to the target audience It evaluates whether the translation maintains the same idea as the original or transfers adequate information Many scholars emphasize the significance of the "message" criterion, asserting its critical role in interpretation (Gile, 1999; Llewellyn-Jones, 1981; Strong & Rudser, 1985; cited in Han, 2018).
The "context" criterion evaluates the suitability of words in translation based on the situation in which the original sentence was spoken, considering both the meaning and the formality of the context For example, translating "haircut can be traded here" as "cắt tóc có thể được buôn bán ở đây" misinterprets the term "trade," which should convey "kinh doanh," or operating a business, rather than simply "buôn bán," meaning to sell Similarly, translating "that problem is concerned" as "vấn đề đó được ngó đến" uses "ngó" (look) accurately for the meaning of "concern," but fails to capture the intended nuance, highlighting the importance of context in translation.
In a scientific conference, the use of inappropriate language, such as the term "ngó," constitutes a violation of context However, it's important to note that incorrect translations do not always lead to context violations When a translated word carries a meaning that diverges significantly from its original, this results in a message violation rather than a context violation Understanding the criteria of "context" is crucial, as it allows for the evaluation of translation quality, even when different translations maintain the same literal meaning.
The "language norm" criterion evaluates the translator's adherence to standard syntactical and grammatical structures in the target language It distinguishes between translations that are clear and easily understandable, which meet the criteria, and those that are awkward and difficult to comprehend, which violate the criteria Adhering to language norms is essential, as translations that utilize familiar and comprehensible structures are deemed superior to those that do not.
In this study, the assessment focused on sentences rather than entire passages, making it impractical to use a broad range of scale bands Consequently, three distinct scale bands were established for evaluation: "good," "average," and "poor."
This study focused on the results without employing scalar descriptors, as it was not intended to assess the translator's competence and therefore did not require descriptions across various scale bands.
Following was the trigger table for the analysis of this study
“Good” assessment was given upon the observation of all the three criteria, while
A "poor" assessment occurs when the critical criterion of message conveyance is violated, as delivering the original sentence's message to the target language audience is the primary goal of interpretation If a translation fails to maintain the same message as the original, it is deemed a failure in interpretation Conversely, translations are rated as "average" when the message criterion is met, but at least one of the other two criteria is not satisfied The decision not to further divide "average" and "poor" assessments stems from the time-consuming nature of such categorization and the study's focus on developing a "good" translation for each sentence type, rather than emphasizing error identification.
RESEARCH PROCEDURES
The study was carried out as follows:
First, data was collected under the form of recording files from the manager of the ICISE There were 9 English recording files and 9 corresponding Vietnamese translation recording files
Second, those files were transcripted into written texts after which the English texts were scanned to identify English conditional sentences, passive sentences and sentences containing relative clause
Next, the Vietnamese translations of those types of sentence were identified
After that, each of those translations was analyzed and given recommendation translation in the case of average- and poor-assessed translations
Then, the findings were synthesized to draw the conclusions
Finally, certain implications were stated for the sake of those interested in the field of translation and recommendation for further research were made.
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
In this study, the reliability and validity were ensured from the initial stage of collecting data to the final stage of producing the research results
The data for this study was sourced from the International Center for Interdisciplinary Science and Education, a renowned institution that hosts conferences attended by Nobel laureates, scientists, and researchers globally throughout the year The conference investigated in this study featured Pham Binh Dam, the Director of the Vietnamese National Center, as the interpreter.
Translation and interpretation play a crucial role in providing reliable samples, serving as a general reference for English-Vietnamese translation across three specific sentence types.
This study's translation quality assessment approach was developed through a comprehensive review and synthesis of various methodologies Unlike existing approaches, it was specifically tailored to address the unique characteristics and objectives of the research, focusing on the translation of specific sentence types rather than entire texts or speeches.
The assessment criteria for the selected approach were clearly defined, providing a comprehensive guide on evaluating sentence translations This clarity facilitated decision-making for assessors regarding translation quality, ensuring consistent results even when different raters conducted the evaluations.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
FINDINGS
Following are details of occurrence times and occurrence rate of different assessment types in translating passive sentences
Table 4 Occurrence times and occurrence rate of different assessment types in the translation of passive sentences
Use of Vietnamese passive structure with the same verb
Transformation of the main verb into active form without role swap between subject and object
Transformation of the main verb into active voice with the role swap between subject and object
* times = number of times that the assessment type occurs for each strategy
* rate = occurrence times/total times that the strategy is used
The interpreter predominantly employed Vietnamese passive structures for translating passive sentences, accounting for 47 out of 120 translations Additionally, translating passive sentences into active voice was another frequently used strategy, with 46 instances noted Among these, 22 cases maintained the original subject-object roles, while 24 cases involved swapping these roles, a common practice in English Furthermore, the interpreter demonstrated versatility by utilizing various other strategies for passive sentence translation, with 27 instances identified in the analyzed sentences.
The analysis reveals that the most effective strategies for translating passive sentences are the use of Vietnamese passive structures with the same verb, achieving an 80.9% success rate, and transforming the main verb into active voice through a role swap between subject and object, with an 81.8% success rate These strategies not only garnered high positive assessments but also recorded the lowest rates of poor evaluations, at 0% and 4.5%, respectively.
A total of 83 out of 120 passive sentences, representing 69.2%, were successfully translated from English to Vietnamese with high-quality assessments This indicates that the interpreter effectively conveyed the author's message while maintaining the appropriate context and language standards of the target language Additionally, 28 cases were noted for further evaluation.
In the assessment of translation quality, "average" ratings accounted for 23.3% of cases, indicating that while the interpreter maintained the author's intention, they struggled with contextual accuracy and adherence to the target language norms Conversely, "poor" assessments were noted 9 times, representing 7.5% of cases, where the translations failed to convey the author's intended message Notably, good translations significantly outnumbered both poor and average assessments, with a total of 83 cases classified as good, highlighting a strong performance in translation quality.
A total of 37 cases were identified as average or poor, indicating that the interpreter faced minimal challenges when translating passive sentences from English to Vietnamese.
Following is the occurrence times and occurrence rate of different violation types in the translation of passive sentences
Table 5 Occurrence times and occurrence rate of different violation types in the translation of passive sentences
Use of Vietnamese passive structure with the same verb
Transformation of the main verb into active form without role swap between subject and object
Transformation of the main verb into active voice with the role swap between subject and object
* times = number of times that the violation type occurs for each strategy
* rate = occurrence times/total times that the strategy is used
The analysis reveals that language norm violations were the most prevalent in the translation of passive sentences, occurring 29 times Notably, these violations were primarily linked to the use of alternative strategies, which accounted for 37% of their overall application Message and context violations were recorded 9 times each, with message violations most frequently arising from other strategies (18.5%) Interestingly, no violations were noted when the Vietnamese passive structure was employed Context violations were predominantly associated with the transformation of the main verb into an active form without a role swap, occurring 4 times out of 22 instances Conversely, this violation occurred only once in 24 cases when the main verb was transformed into active voice with a role swap Overall, the strategies of transforming the main verb into active form without role swap and using other strategies exhibited the highest violation rates at 63.6% and 62.9%, respectively, while the use of Vietnamese passive structure with the same verb demonstrated the lowest violation rate at 19.2%.
Following are details of occurrence times and occurrence rate of different assessment types in translating conditional sentences
Table 6 Occurrence times and occurrence rate of different assessment types in the translation of conditional sentences
Use of Vietnamese conditional structure without time indicators
Use of Vietnamese conditional structure with time indicators
* times = number of times that the assessment type occurs for each strategy
* rate = occurrence times/total times that the strategy is used
In translating conditional sentences, the predominant strategy employed was to maintain the conditional structure, with 92 out of 117 cases following this approach Among these, time indicators were utilized in only 26 instances, while the remaining 66 translations omitted such indicators Although the interpreter primarily relied on the Vietnamese conditional structure, other strategies were occasionally employed, totaling 25 instances, but these could not be further categorized.
The analysis of the data reveals that the "use of Vietnamese conditional structure without time indicators" emerged as the most effective strategy for addressing conditional sentences, achieving a commendable good assessment rate of 43.9% and a low poor assessment rate of 25.8% In contrast, the "other strategies" category proved to be the least effective, with only 36% receiving a good assessment and a significantly higher poor assessment rate of 48%.
A study of 117 conditional sentences translated from English to Vietnamese revealed that 41% were rated as good quality, while 28.2% were deemed average and 30.8% were classified as poor quality Although good translations represented the highest proportion, their numbers were only marginally greater than those of average and poor translations Notably, 59% of the translations fell into the average or poor categories, indicating significant challenges faced by interpreters in translating conditional sentences effectively.
Following is the occurrence times and occurrence rate of violation types
Table 7 Occurrence times of different violation types and their occurrence rate in the translation of conditional sentences
Use of Vietnamese conditional structure without time indicators
Use of Vietnamese conditional structure with time indicators
* times = number of times that the violation type occurs for each strategy
* rate = occurrence times/total times that the strategy is used
The analysis reveals that the most prevalent violation in the translation of conditional sentences was the breach of language norms, occurring 57 times This was primarily due to the strategy of employing Vietnamese conditional structures without time indicators, which accounted for 31 instances (47%) Notably, this strategy exhibited the highest occurrence rate within the "other strategies" category at 52% The second most frequent violation was related to message integrity, recorded 36 times, with the highest frequency again linked to the use of Vietnamese conditional structures without time indicators, totaling 17 occurrences However, similar to language norms, it also had a significant occurrence rate of 48% in "other strategies." In contrast, context violations were the least common, demonstrating the lowest occurrence rate among the criteria assessed.
The study reveals that the use of Vietnamese conditional structures without time indicators accounts for 6% of occurrences, while other strategies have a higher occurrence rate of 12% Overall, the conditional structure demonstrates a lower violation rate of 78.8%, contrasting with the significantly higher violation rate of 112% observed in other strategies.
Following are details of occurrence times and occurrence rate of different assessment types in translating sentences containing relative clauses
Table 8 Occurrence times and occurrence rate of different assessment types in the translation of relative clauses
Use of Vietnamese relative clause without relative pronouns
Use of Vietnamese relative clause with relative pronouns (người/ thứ/ cái/ vật
Use of an independent clause 9 (64.3%) 4 (28.6%) 1 (7.1%) 14
* times = number of times that the assessment type occurs for each strategy
* rate = occurrence times/total times that the strategy is used
The analysis of the data reveals that the interpreter predominantly favored retaining relative structures in translations, utilizing this strategy in 83 out of 120 instances Among these, relative pronouns were used in 28 cases, while 55 translations omitted them entirely Additionally, the interpreter employed independent clauses, resulting in 9 high assessments, 4 average assessments, and only 1 poor assessment Furthermore, the interpreter implemented various “other strategies” to address relative structures, accounting for a total of 23 cases.
The analysis reveals that the use of Vietnamese relative clauses with relative pronouns emerged as the most effective strategy, achieving an impressive 82.1% rate of positive assessments and only 3.6% poor assessments In contrast, the category labeled "other strategies" demonstrated the least effectiveness, with a mere 54.1% of translations rated positively and a concerning 16.2% receiving poor evaluations.
Out of 120 translations featuring relative clauses, 82 were rated as "good," representing 68.3% of the total Additionally, 26 translations received an "average" assessment, accounting for 21.7%, while only 12 translations, or 10%, were deemed "poor."
The data indicates that the translation of sentences with relative clauses was predominantly successful, with 82 instances of good translations compared to only 38 cases of average and poor translations This suggests that English-Vietnamese translations involving relative clauses are generally manageable for interpreters However, challenges primarily stem from contextual nuances and adherence to the language norms of Vietnamese, as well as accurately conveying the author's intended message from the original text.
Following is the occurrence times and occurrence rate of violation types for the translation of this sentence type
Table 9 Occurrence times of different violation types and their occurrence rate in the translation of relative clauses
Use of Vietnamese relative clause without relative pronouns
Use of Vietnamese relative clause with relative pronouns
(người/ thứ/ cái/ vật (mà), đó, mà)
Use of an independent clause 1 (7.1%) 0 (0%) 4 (28.6%) 5 (35.7%)
* times = number of times that the violation type occurs for each strategy
* rate = occurrence times/total times that the strategy is used
DISCUSSION
The interpreter demonstrated a high success rate in translating passive sentences and relative-structure sentences, achieving good assessment rates of 69.2% and 68.3%, respectively, while maintaining low poor assessment rates of 7.5% and 10% In contrast, the translation of conditional sentences yielded a lower good assessment rate of 41%, with a notable poor assessment rate of 30.8% These statistical findings highlight significant variances in the interpreter's performance across different sentence structures.
“language norm” was always the most violated criterion, “message” always came next and
“context” was always the least violated one Possible reasons for such outcomes are discussed in details as follows
The study found that the translation of passive sentences was largely successful, with 83 assessments rated as good, 28 as average, and 9 as poor The interpreter employed several strategies, with the most common being the retention of passive voice, used 47 times The second strategy involved transforming the main verb into active voice while swapping the roles of the subject and object, utilized 24 times The third strategy, which transformed the main verb into active form without changing the roles, was used 22 times Additionally, the interpreter applied various other strategies to effectively translate passive sentences.
The interpreter successfully conveyed the message in 111 out of 120 cases, likely due to the simplicity and clear structure of the passive sentences analyzed This clarity helped the interpreter easily grasp the original ideas Additionally, the passive voice's characteristic of prominently positioning the action recipient and main verb at the beginning of the sentence allowed for effortless identification of the subject and action being discussed.
Despite the overall accuracy, there were 9 instances where the interpreter failed to convey the original message effectively, resulting in poor assessments These inadequate translations stemmed from two primary issues: first, the mistranslation of content words, such as noun and verb phrases, which altered the intended meaning of the sentences; second, a misunderstanding of the relationships between ideas in the original text.
In this study, the most common violation in passive sentence translation was the breach of language norms, accounting for 29 cases (24.2%) This violation stemmed from various factors, including inappropriate subjects for both passive and active sentences, the use of complex or awkward structures, and redundancy in wording Instances were noted where interpreters produced passive sentences with ambiguous nouns followed by general verbs, leading to audience confusion Additionally, some active sentences lacked necessary objects, obscuring the intended meaning Excessive redundant information also contributed to significant misunderstandings in the translated sentences.
Violations of contextual criteria occurred when interpreters used words that were either inappropriate for the conference setting or inaccurate within the sentence context These violations were noted nine times, particularly in the translation of passive sentences, and stemmed from various factors One primary cause was the incorrect selection of a word's meaning, especially in sentences containing multiple-meaning words, which often appeared at the beginning of a sentence Additionally, even when interpreters selected the correct meaning, they sometimes chose terms that were unsuitable for the formal context of a scientific conference.
The two most effective strategies for handling English passive sentences in Vietnamese are the use of the Vietnamese passive structure with the same verb and the transformation of the main verb into active voice by swapping the roles of the subject and object These strategies are successful because they are present in both English and Vietnamese, allowing interpreters to either maintain the passive structure or easily convert the original sentence into an active form This approach not only aligns with English sentence structure but also ensures that the content remains familiar to Vietnamese audiences.
To understand the translation of passive sentences, we present detailed analyses and typical examples of various translation strategies employed by interpreters One effective approach is the use of Vietnamese passive structures that maintain the same verb, ensuring clarity and coherence in the translated text.
The predominant strategy employed by the interpreter in translating passive sentences from English to Vietnamese involved utilizing the Vietnamese passive structure: Subject + “bị”/“được” + verb Diep Quang Ban (1992) referred to “bị” and “được” as “động từ không độc lập ở cương vị thành tố chính cụm động từ” (dependent verbs serving as the main element in verb phrases) This strategy was used 47 times, making it the most frequently applied and effective approach, achieving a remarkable 80.9% "good" assessment rate, with no instances of "poor" evaluations.
One key advantage of this strategy is that the interpreter can follow the speaker's order of ideas without needing to reorganize them, allowing for quicker processing of information and improved synchronization with the speaker's pace Additionally, while there is no consensus on the existence of a "passive sentence" in Vietnamese, the use of "bị" and "được" serves as an equivalent to the passive voice in English This structural similarity facilitates comprehension for Vietnamese listeners, enabling them to easily grasp the intended message conveyed by the interpreter.
In well-assessed translations, the subjects predominantly consisted of concrete nouns, with abstract nouns appearing infrequently The abstract nouns used were familiar in Vietnamese and often accompanied by modifiers, such as demonstrative adjectives, which facilitated the interpreter's understanding of the action's recipient Additionally, the verbs employed were common and easily translated into Vietnamese As a result, the intended message of all passive sentences in this study was effectively conveyed from the source language to the target language.
This strategy resulted in seven violations of language norms and two violations of context To understand the factors influencing the assessment of translations as good or average, we will examine each case in detail.
Effective assessments maintain the integrity of the original message while ensuring appropriate context and adherence to language norms, avoiding awkward expressions that could lead to misunderstandings.
Following are two examples of good translation using this strategy:
42 These guidelines were formulated to provide a framework for promoting debate on ethics
-> Hướng dẫn này được đưa ra để tạo khuôn khổ cho các cuộc thảo luận về các chuẩn mực đạo đức
[This guideline is formulated to make a framework for discussions on ethics]
87 Some of these relationships will be presented today as well by our panelists -> Một số mối quan hệ sẽ được chúng ta thảo luận trong ngày hôm nay bởi các vị diễn giả
The panelists discussed various relationships today, using simple sentences that facilitated the interpreter's understanding The subjects in these sentences were easily identifiable due to the use of the demonstrative adjective "these," which helped the audience and interpreter grasp the topics being addressed Additionally, the verbs used were familiar to Vietnamese speakers, as they had direct equivalents in Vietnamese, ensuring effective communication Furthermore, all other words in the sentences also had Vietnamese counterparts, and there were no culturally unfamiliar nouns, resulting in a seamless contextual alignment.
SUMMARY
In summary, maintaining the original structure in translations is the most effective strategy, yielding the highest quality translations and the lowest incidence of errors When translating passive sentences, utilizing the Vietnamese passive structure with the same verb proves beneficial, enhancing overall translation accuracy.
Transforming the main verb into active voice involves swapping the roles of the subject and object When translating conditional sentences, using Vietnamese structures to convey English conditions yields the highest success rate; however, this rate remains relatively low This may be attributed to the inherent complexity of conditional sentences.
