INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 1
Emotional Intelligence (EI), or Emotional Quotient (EQ), was introduced by psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer in 1990 and gained prominence through Daniel Goleman's 1995 book, "EI: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ." This concept has sparked significant interest among academics and practitioners across various fields, including psychology, education, and organizational behavior, particularly within the tourism and hospitality sector The industry has seen a surge in research exploring the importance of EI, despite ongoing debates regarding its definitions, models, and measurement methods This study aims to investigate how Vietnamese hotel workers utilize EI in their interactions with customers and colleagues, addressing the questions of why, how, and when EI is applied in the hotel environment.
This research addresses the Western-centric nature of emotional intelligence (EI) studies, which predominantly focus on populations from the USA, UK, and Australia (Emmerling and Boyatzis, 2012) Empirical evidence indicates that cultural differences significantly influence emotional experiences and expressions, with Western cultures prioritizing individual achievement and feelings, while Eastern cultures emphasize community interdependence (Markus and Kitayama, 1991; Eid and Diener, 2001; Scott-Halsell et al., 2013) Lincoln (2009) suggests the need for a cross-cultural perspective on EI, as globalized societies that value individualism differ markedly from those rooted in extended family and community models These cultural distinctions play a crucial role in shaping individual thoughts and behaviors across different cultures.
Therefore, this study will offer a different perspective on EI in relation to Vietnamese culture
Previous research on Emotional Intelligence (EI) has often overlooked the contextual processes that underpin it, despite extensive quantitative studies (Lindebaum, 2015) The validity of the EI construct remains contentious, with debates about whether it is based on ability, personality, or both, alongside concerns about the reliability of EI measurements (Smollan & Parry, 2011) There is a notable lack of understanding regarding the processes that explain how EI functions and how individuals engage with EI mechanisms (Lindebaum, 2015; Fiori, 2009) To address this gap, researchers should consider more naturalistic methods, such as interviews or focus groups, to capture a deeper understanding of emotionally intelligent behavior in workplace settings, as a singular approach does not fit all (Lincoln, 2009) This study employs a qualitative approach to explore EI practices from the perspectives of Vietnamese hotel workers, which is difficult to achieve through quantitative methods.
The third driver lies in the rapid growth of Vietnam’s tourism and hospitality industry and its considerable contribution to national employment A report published in June
In 2017, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) recognized Vietnam as the seventh fastest-growing tourism destination globally and the only Southeast Asian country in the top ten (Vu 2017) The implementation of an open-door policy in 1986 significantly boosted tourism growth, with Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) rising from USD 7.4 million (2% of total FDI) in 1988 to USD 1.9 billion (30.7% of total FDI) by 1995, reflecting a remarkable year-on-year growth of approximately 100% (Suntikul et al 2010) This surge indicates increasing investor confidence in Vietnam's tourism sector Furthermore, the tourism industry has become vital to the national economy, contributing around 5.5% to GDP from 2006 to 2010, with projections suggesting an increase to 6.5-7% by 2020 (UNWTO 2012) A national report from 2016 highlighted a significant rise in both domestic and international visitors from 2000 to 2015, with domestic arrivals increasing from 2,656,000 to 11,811,000 and international arrivals soaring from 7,674,000 to 102,200,000 (GSO).
The rise in foreign visitors to Vietnam has led to a growing demand for tourism services that cater to diverse cultural backgrounds, which poses challenges for the local labor market due to limited linguistic and cultural competencies (Solnet et al 2014) Workers are increasingly required to possess advanced operational, emotional, and aesthetic skills to meet the customization demands of the industry However, a significant training gap exists between the theory-driven university curricula and the practical needs of corporations (Cox and Warner 2013) Additionally, skill shortages in professional and technical qualifications underscore the necessity for better integration of Vietnam's education and training systems with industry stakeholders (Montague 2013) Despite these challenges, Eastern cultural practices, such as meditation and self-reflection, have historically equipped individuals with the ability to manage emotions in the workplace (Hosie et al 2016) This study aims to explore how Vietnamese hotel workers navigate their own emotions and those of their guests, contributing to a deeper understanding of emotional management in the tourism sector.
THE STUDY IN CONTEXT
Emotional Intelligence (EI) has been extensively researched across various professions, including teachers, bank employees, manufacturing workers, community nurses, and hotel staff, highlighting its impact on personal well-being, social relationships, and professional effectiveness Its significance in management studies is underscored by findings that EI can be developed through training at any age, leading to improved personal and professional outcomes, as well as enhanced organizational productivity.
(1998) claim that an emotionally intelligent employee can deal with angry customers effectively by reassuring them and resolving their complaints
There is also an established body of work that recognises the importance of EI in the hospitality industry with samples ranging from hospitality students (Walsh et al
2015), hotel managers (Wolfe and Kim 2013) or frontline hotel employees (Kim et al
Research on Emotional Intelligence (EI) primarily focuses on quantitative analysis to explore its relationship with various work-related factors, including burnout, job satisfaction, personality traits, socio-demographic factors, and service performance Critics argue that current literature often transforms observational data into statistics, which are then marketed as measures of EI within organizational settings.
Effective emotional regulation is crucial for hospitality workers during face-to-face customer interactions, as it significantly influences the overall customer experience (Karatepe, 2011; Langhorn, 2004) The attitudes and emotions of employees during service encounters directly shape customers' perceptions of the company (Lee and Ok, 2012) Research indicates that emotional labor and workload are key contributors to staff burnout among front-line hotel workers (Hsieh et al., 2016) To manage the stress associated with constant customer engagement, hotel employees often seek support from colleagues, which positively affects their work environment and overall attitudes (Limpanitgul et al.).
Emotional Intelligence (EI) has gained significant attention from both academics and practitioners as a key factor for enhancing work performance and customer service It enables customer-facing employees to effectively listen to clients, understand their needs, and encourage them to articulate their desires and expectations.
Research on emotional intelligence (EI) should consider contextual sensitivity, as both service providers and customers contribute their cultural traits to service interactions and emotional expressions, shaping the overall experience For example, in Vietnam, providing constant attention and significant assistance to foreign visitors is seen as culturally essential, while American guests may perceive this behavior as intrusive, overly aggressive, and untrustworthy (Truong and King 2010a).
Research on the effects of culture on emotional intelligence (EI) remains limited, yet understanding EI in multicultural contexts is essential Sung (2010) underscores the significant role culture plays in shaping an individual's emotional intelligence, particularly in relation to parenting practices.
Therefore, the impact that Vietnamese culture exerts on Vietnamese hotel workers is undeniable in terms of EI performance and development
A review by Chen et al (2012) highlights that Asia accounts for 29% of hotel management research, with China leading at 9%, followed by Taiwan (7%), Hong Kong (2%), Japan (2%), Korea (2%), and others (7%) This indicates that research on hotel culture in Vietnam falls into the under-researched category, suggesting a significant gap in the literature The study also references six major national culture models, including those by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) and Hofstede, emphasizing the need for further exploration in this area.
(1980, 2001), Hall (1976), Trompenaars (1993), Schwartz (1992, 1994), and GLOBE
Hofstede's model, established in 2004, is unique in offering numerical scores for various cultural dimensions, highlighting the implications for Vietnamese culture in relation to other countries The inadequate comprehension of Vietnamese culture has resulted in unsuccessful early business collaborations, as foreign leaders often tried to implement Western human resource management practices in Vietnam (Nguyen, 2003; Bartram et al.).
Success in international joint ventures in Vietnam hinges on building strong relationships, mutual understanding, and shared values (Truong et al., 1998) Trust and the concept of saving face are vital for retaining Vietnamese employees (Kamoche, 2001) The influence of Vietnamese culture significantly shapes interpersonal interactions, particularly in the hospitality sector, where human contact is essential for service delivery Therefore, prioritizing cultural awareness in Vietnamese hospitality is crucial to improving hotel staff's ability to engage effectively with customers and colleagues.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY
The contributions of the study are built upon three main aspects: theory, methodology, and management
The research provides valuable insights into the practice of Emotional Intelligence (EI) from the perspectives of Vietnamese hotel workers Despite extensive studies over the years, current literature on EI is primarily quantitative and often relies on definitions set by researchers, as noted by Lincoln (2009) This study adopts an interpretive approach to explore EI in a more nuanced manner.
6 approach allows for in-depth insights into Vietnamese hotel workers’ practice of EI in their workplace
Furthermore, Delcourt et al (2016) identify the gap in research regarding interpersonal
In the hospitality sector, intrapersonal emotional intelligence (EI), which focuses on managing one's own emotions, is intricately linked to emotional labor (EL), defined by Hochschild (1983) as the required emotional displays in the workplace Despite the growing interest in EL among academics and practitioners in tourism and hospitality (e.g., Chu and Murrmann 2006; Hofmann and Stokburger-Sauer 2017), Cruz (2008) views EL as a component of EI This perspective aligns with Lee and Ok's (2012) assertion that EI encompasses the ability to regulate emotions, while EL represents the manifestation of that ability This study aims to explore how Vietnamese hotel employees navigate their own and others' emotions, shedding light on both intrapersonal and interpersonal aspects of EI.
In addition, previous research shows that Buddhist teachings rooted in collectivist cultures provide practices towards happiness, one of the positive emotions (Hofmann
Research on emotional intelligence (EI) has predominantly centered on Western perspectives, often overlooking the significant practices of self-reflection, contemplation, and meditation found in Eastern cultures Studies indicate that individuals from collectivist societies, such as Vietnam, may suppress personal emotions for the sake of group harmony and prioritize co-worker support over individualistic approaches This study aims to explore the interactions of Vietnamese hotel workers with both customers and colleagues, addressing a gap in existing literature that primarily focuses on customer interactions.
This study employs the Critical Incident Technique (CIT) to examine emotionally intense situations experienced by hotel workers and how they utilize their emotional intelligence (EI) in interactions with customers and colleagues While CIT has been extensively utilized in service quality research from the customer's perspective, this research is pioneering in its focus on hotel workers' viewpoints regarding EI Through CIT, the study gathers insights into the emotionally charged scenarios faced by hotel staff.
The study explores hotel workers' interactions with customers and colleagues, highlighting both positive and negative incidents from their perspective By utilizing Critical Incident Technique (CIT) alongside semi-structured interviews, the research provides in-depth insights into real-life experiences that are often overlooked in quantitative studies on emotional intelligence.
This study makes a significant managerial contribution by exploring hotel work and workers in Vietnam, highlighting instances of emotional intelligence (EI) in their interactions with customers and colleagues, revealing both positive and negative experiences that can serve as valuable references for hotel staff Additionally, it addresses gaps in higher education and hotel training from the perspective of hotel workers, providing insights that can benefit educators and industry professionals Lastly, the research findings offer guidelines for foreign hoteliers on effectively collaborating with Vietnamese hotel workers.
RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The research aims to explore how Vietnamese hotel workers practise EI in interactions with customers and colleagues
To achieve the aim, five objectives are established:
Objective 1 – To investigate cultural factors that influence the workers’ emotions in the workplace
Objective 2 – To explore the sources of their knowledge of emotional management
Objective 3 – To explore their EI practice through examples of favourable and unfavourable incidents
Objective 4 – To discover strategies the workers use in managing their own emotions and the emotions of their customers and colleagues
Objective 5 – To suggest ways to improve hotel workers’ practice of EI
This article aims to explore various aspects of emotional intelligence (EI) among Vietnamese hotel workers Firstly, it examines the cultural factors that can positively or negatively impact their emotions in the workplace Secondly, it investigates the sources from which these workers acquire knowledge on managing their own emotions and understanding others’ emotions, serving as a foundation for their EI practice The third objective compiles examples of both positive and negative incidents that highlight the application of EI in specific situations Furthermore, it analyzes the strategies employed by Vietnamese hotel workers to enhance their intrapersonal and interpersonal emotional intelligence Lastly, the article reflects on the workers' suggestions for improving their EI practices, offering insights that can inform the development of tailored training programs and curricula for the hospitality industry in Vietnam.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
The thesis consists of the following chapters:
Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the research in terms of its drivers, contributions, and research aim and objectives
Chapter 2 is the first chapter of literature review presenting the origin of the EI concept, theoretical approaches to EI and the controversy surrounding EI The second part of the chapter reviews EI and the other two constructs related to EI, ER, and EL Thirdly, the chapter provides an overview of research on EI in the hospitality sector
This chapter offers a theoretical framework for understanding emotional intelligence (EI), examines the current landscape of EI research, particularly within the hospitality industry, and underscores the importance of investigating EI's role in enhancing service quality and customer satisfaction in this sector.
Chapter 3 is the second chapter of literature review which offers insights into the impacts of Vietnamese culture on hotel workers’ EI practice The chapter starts with six leading theories of national culture comprising those developed by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961), Hofstede (1980, 2001), Hall (1976), Trompenaars (1993), Schwartz (1992, 1994), and GLOBE (2004) The divergence and convergence of these theories are discussed to explain the rationale behind the adoption of Hofstede’s cultural model for interpreting Vietnamese culture The second part of the chapter is dedicated to understanding the relationship between national culture and EI The third part of the chapter offers insights into Vietnamese culture by exploring how the
Vietnamese daily life is deeply influenced by a blend of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, which shapes the cultural landscape of the country This cultural framework is further examined through Hofstede’s cultural model and existing research on Vietnam, providing a foundation for understanding the impact of Vietnamese culture on the emotional intelligence practices of hotel workers The chapter concludes by addressing issues related to the misinterpretation of Vietnamese culture, highlighting the importance of accurate cultural understanding.
Chapter 4 outlines the methodology and the methods adopted in this study Firstly, the research philosophy is presented in terms of the chosen paradigm and philosophical assumptions with respect to ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology The second part of the chapter discusses the research strategy involving the rationale for adopting the qualitative approach and its methods, sampling and the data analysis carried out for each method Three methods adopted in the research include focus group interview, Critical Incident Technique (CIT), and semi-structured interview The third part reviews the research evaluation and ethics considerations Finally, limitations of the entire study and each research method are reviewed
Chapters 5, 6, and 7 of the research report present findings aligned with specific methodologies and contextualize them within existing literature Chapter 5 highlights insights from focus group interviews, identifying three key themes: cultural influences on Vietnamese hotel workers' emotions, their sources of customer service knowledge and emotional management, and their understanding of customer behaviors and emotional expressions based on cultural backgrounds Chapter 6 categorizes incidents collected through Critical Incident Technique (CIT) into four groups: favorable and unfavorable incidents with customers, as well as with colleagues, illustrating the practice of emotional intelligence (EI) across these scenarios Chapter 7 delves into semi-structured interviews, offering in-depth perspectives on the recognition and regulation of emotions among hotel workers, both for themselves and their interactions with customers and colleagues It also explores cultural factors affecting their emotional experiences and knowledge sources, concluding with suggestions for enhancing EI practices in the hospitality sector.
Chapter 8 presents the conclusion and implications The first part reviews key findings from secondary research The second part is a summary of key findings from primary
This article presents ten research studies that demonstrate how each research objective was successfully met, integrating discussions with existing literature By combining findings from both focus group interviews and semi-structured interviews, the research effectively addresses its objectives and enhances the overall understanding of the topic.
The chapter achieves its objectives through the adoption of CIT for objective 3 and semi-structured interviews for objectives 4 and 5 It also explores the implications for theory, methodology, and management, while addressing the limitations of the research Additionally, the researcher shares personal reflections, culminating in a final conclusion that encapsulates the study's findings.
SUMMARY
This chapter introduces the thesis by providing essential background knowledge that situates the study within the current research landscape of emotional intelligence (EI) and hospitality It discusses the significant contributions of the research in three key areas: theory, methodology, and management Additionally, the chapter outlines the research aim and objectives, which will guide and unify all aspects of the study Finally, it concludes with a summary of the thesis structure, detailing the purpose of each chapter.
LITERATURE REVIEW: RESEARCH ON EI AND ITS STATE IN THE
INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE REVIEW CHAPTERS
The literature review of the thesis is divided into two chapters, each addressing distinct aspects of emotional intelligence (EI) within the hospitality sector The first chapter provides an overview of EI research, emphasizing its connection to related concepts such as Emotion Regulation (ER) and Emotional Labour (EL) It further explores the significance of EI in the hospitality industry, underscoring the necessity for focused research in this area The second chapter delves into Vietnamese culture and examines its impact on the emotional intelligence practices of hotel workers in Vietnam.
INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 2 – RESEARCH ON EI AND ITS STATE IN THE
This chapter reviews the current state of Emotional Intelligence (EI) research within the hospitality sector, beginning with an examination of its origins and development over time.
This article explores the concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and its theoretical approaches, delving into the ongoing debate surrounding EI to clarify the theoretical framework utilized in this research Additionally, it examines the relationship between EI and other related constructs, providing a comprehensive understanding of its significance in the broader context of emotional and social competencies.
This chapter highlights the unique characteristics of the hospitality sector that set it apart from other industries, underscoring the critical role of Emotional Intelligence (EI) in this context It reviews current research on EI within hospitality, categorizing various research topics to provide a comprehensive overview Additionally, the chapter concludes with a comparison of qualitative research on EI in hospitality versus other sectors, emphasizing its significance in enhancing service quality and customer satisfaction.
REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON EI
Originating from Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) proposed definition, EI has become a prosperous area of multidisciplinary research and practice (Ybarra et al 2014) A
12 growing body of research shows EI increases with age (Van Rooy and Viswesvaran
Emotional Intelligence (EI) can be enhanced through brief training, leading to improved well-being, social relationships, and employability (Nelis et al., 2011) Lopes (2016) highlights that EI has become increasingly important in organizations, as managers prioritize behavioral changes for better work outcomes over the academic distinctions of various mental abilities This focus has spurred extensive research on EI across various professions, including hotel staff (Darvishmotevali et al., 2018), educators (Mérida-López and Extremera, 2017), fitness trainers (Lee and Woo, 2017), banking professionals (Salami and Ajitoni, 2016), public sector workers (Lindebaum, 2015), community nurses (Karimi et al., 2014), physicians (Mintz and Stoller, 2014), tour guides (Min, 2014), travel agency personnel (Tsai and Lee, 2014), and social workers (Ingram, 2013) These roles typically require a high level of human interaction, which will be further explored.
A search for the term ‘Emotional Intelligence’ on SCOPUS in March 2018 yielded
Between 1994 and 2018, there were 12,454 documents published on emotional intelligence (EI), with Ackley (2016) identifying 11,183 publications on APA's PsycNET Additionally, searches on public platforms like Google and Amazon yielded 3,410,000 and 6,000 results, respectively This significant volume of information highlights the growing popularity of EI, reflected in its acceptance by human resource professionals in business contexts and its integration into everyday language (Furnham 2006).
Spector and Johnson (cited by Murphy 2006, p.325) comment “there is perhaps no construct in the social sciences that has produced more controversy in recent years”
Emotional Intelligence (EI) has been widely recognized for its role in predicting job success and enhancing personal growth while reducing psychological harm However, the extravagant claims surrounding EI have faced significant criticism due to its overlap with other psychological constructs To fully grasp the significance of EI, it is essential to explore its origins and theoretical frameworks.
2.3.1 Origin of the EI concept
The term "Emotional Intelligence" (EI) was first introduced by Peter Salovey and John Mayer in their 1990 publication While their earlier work with Maria DiPaolo presented a more restricted view of EI, it is noted that the concept originally appeared in literary criticism and psychiatry, as indicated by Van Ghent in 1953 and Leuner in 1966 This historical context highlights the evolution of EI over nearly two decades.
EI was used in an unpublished doctoral thesis by Wayne Payne (1986)
The notion of EI was then popularised by Daniel Goleman in his first book entitled
Emotional Intelligence (EI), often referred to as EQ, gained significant attention in 1995 when it was featured as the cover story of Time Magazine and recognized as the most useful new phrase of the year While EI is the correct terminology, EQ is more commonly used in the marketplace due to its emphasis on contrasting with IQ and its greater familiarity among the public.
Reuven Bar-On, inspired by Goleman's work and having completed his doctoral thesis on psychological well-being, adapted his scale to measure emotional intelligence (EI), which he termed emotional and social intelligence (ESI) and launched in 1997 This initiative paved the way for various definitions and measurement tools proposed by other researchers in the field (McCleskey 2014).
Research on emotional intelligence (EI) reveals three primary approaches to its conceptualization and measurement The first approach, rooted in the foundational work of Salovey and Mayer (1990), views EI as an ability The second approach, known as trait-based EI, asserts that emotional intelligence is influenced by an individual's personality Lastly, the mixed EI perspective combines elements of both ability and personality to define emotional intelligence This section highlights significant contributions to each approach, offering a comprehensive theoretical understanding of the EI concept.
Emotional Intelligence (EI), as introduced by Salovey and Mayer in 1990, is defined as a component of social intelligence that encompasses the ability to recognize and understand one's own emotions and those of others This definition emphasizes the importance of discerning feelings and utilizing this emotional awareness to inform thoughts and actions, positioning EI as a crucial aspect of social intelligence.
Edward Thorndike on three intelligences including mechanical intelligence, social intelligence, and abstract intelligence in as early as 1920 According to Thorndike
Social intelligence, defined as the ability to understand and manage people effectively, has its roots in Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, which includes interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence Interpersonal intelligence focuses on understanding others to improve work effectiveness, while intrapersonal intelligence emphasizes self-awareness and the ability to regulate one's own life.
Salovey and Mayer's early concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI) emphasized factors like empathy, planning, and motivation, which are closely linked to personality traits rather than skills or abilities (Kim and Agrusa, 2011) They later acknowledged that their initial definitions primarily focused on the perception and regulation of emotions, overlooking the cognitive aspects of feelings To address this, they proposed a more comprehensive definition of EI, which includes the ability to accurately perceive, appraise, and express emotions; generate feelings that enhance thought; understand emotional knowledge; and regulate emotions to foster both emotional and intellectual development (Mayer and Salovey, 1997, p.10).
In 1997, Mayer and Salovey introduced a four-branch model of Emotional Intelligence (EI), which outlines the progression from basic to advanced psychological processes This model emphasizes the abilities to perceive emotions, utilize emotions to enhance thinking, comprehend emotions, and effectively manage emotions For a detailed explanation of each branch, refer to the work of Mayer and Salovey (1997).
According to Mayer and Salovey's ability model of emotional intelligence (EI), Joseph and Newman introduced a cascading model comprising three sequential dimensions: emotion perception, emotion understanding, and emotion regulation, which are linked to job performance They excluded the emotion facilitation aspect due to its conceptual overlap with other EI dimensions and insufficient empirical backing.
Research by Newman and colleagues (Joseph and Newman, 2010; Newman et al., 2010) identifies emotional regulation (ER) as a key mediator of emotional intelligence (EI) effects on job performance, highlighting EI as a significant predictor for roles requiring high emotional labor (EL) Further insights into the relationship between these three constructs—EI, ER, and EL—are elaborated in section 2.4.
16 Figure 1 Four-branch model of ability EI
Taking a different perspective on the EI construct, Petrides and Furnham (2000b; 2000a, 2001) propose the concept of trait EI to highlight the distinction between trait
EI and Salovey and Mayer’s (1997) ability EI, or they call it information-processing
Trait Emotional Intelligence (EI) is defined as the consistent behavioral patterns and self-perceptions related to emotions, distinct from ability EI, which focuses on actual emotional processing skills According to Petrides and Furnham (2000b), trait EI is integrated within the personality framework, encompassing variables such as empathy, optimism, and impulsivity, alongside related constructs like motivation and self-awareness The key distinctions between trait and ability EI are: (1) trait EI reflects self-perceived emotional capabilities rather than actual skills, (2) it should be examined within a personality context, while ability EI relates to psychometric intelligence, and (3) trait EI can be assessed through self-report methods, unlike ability EI, which requires performance-based testing.
Daniel Goleman, a science reporter, discovered Salovey and Mayer's seminal 1990 article on Emotional Intelligence (EI), which inspired him to popularize the concept in mainstream literature His groundbreaking book, "Emotional Intelligence," brought widespread attention to the importance of EI, shaping public understanding and appreciation of emotional skills in personal and professional contexts.
EI AND RELATED CONSTRUCTS
A review of emotional intelligence (EI) literature reveals the significance of related theoretical constructs, specifically emotional regulation (ER) and emotional literacy (EL) Understanding ER and EL is essential for exploring their theoretical connections to the concept of EI.
Emotional regulation (ER) is defined by Gross (1998, p.275) as the processes through which individuals manage their emotions, determining which feelings they experience, the timing of these emotions, and the manner in which they express them This concept is further illustrated in Figure 2, which explains Gross's theory of ER.
Gross (1998) identifies five families of emotion regulation (ER) strategies, categorized into two groups based on their timing: antecedent-focused and response-focused The first four strategies—situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, and cognitive change—are antecedent-focused, aimed at influencing emotions before they arise In contrast, response modulation is a response-focused strategy that occurs after the emotion has been generated (Gross and Barrett, 2011, p.12).
Situation selection involves choosing actions that increase the likelihood of experiencing desired emotions while minimizing exposure to unwanted ones Situation modification aims to alter a scenario to change its emotional impact Attentional deployment focuses on redirecting attention within a situation to influence emotional responses Cognitive change entails adjusting one’s perceptions to modify the emotional significance of a situation or one’s ability to cope with it Lastly, response modulation refers to managing emotional, behavioral, or physiological reactions after they have already begun, such as concealing feelings by suppressing typical emotional expressions.
Figure 2 Process model of Emotion Regulation
Antecedent-focused ER Response-focused ER
2.4.1.2 Relationship between EI and ER
The relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and emotional regulation (ER) is supported by both theoretical and empirical research According to Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) ability model, the emotion management dimension of EI involves understanding the regulation and expression of emotions, with researchers often using the terms "emotion management" and "emotion regulation" interchangeably This highlights the importance of revisiting the conceptualization of EI Mayer and Salovey (1997) defined the highest branch of their EI model as the "reflective regulation of emotions," which they describe as the conscious regulation of emotions They further clarified that "managing emotions" pertains to regulating emotions in oneself and others, emphasizing the complexity of emotional processes.
Mayer and Salovey conceptualised the EI construct upon the ER theory and ER is included as the fourth dimension in the model of ability EI
Wranik et al (2007) analyze Mayer and Salovey's (1997) Emotional Intelligence (EI) model, highlighting that the fourth branch, which focuses on managing emotions, connects emotionally intelligent skills with effective emotional regulation (ER) They also emphasize that the third branch, understanding emotions, serves as a foundation for predicting intelligent ER Essentially, an individual's emotional knowledge, both of themselves and their social environment, shapes their perceptions, selected regulation strategies, and the motivations behind their emotional responses.
In a similar vein, Joseph and Newman (2010, p.58) suggest their cascading model of
Emotional Intelligence (EI) is defined as a conscious process of regulating emotions, where the ability to perceive emotions is connected to the capacity to manage them, facilitated by an understanding of emotions This framework highlights the importance of emotion and emotion regulation theories in the study of EI, underscoring their foundational role in understanding emotional competencies.
Emotional Intelligence (EI) is distinct from Emotional Regulation (ER), as highlighted by Lindebaum (2015), who suggests that the processes defining EI are more accurately captured by the ER construct While EI focuses on abilities and potential behaviors, ER emphasizes actual behaviors (Cote et al., 2006) This distinction forms the theoretical basis for the current research, which examines how Vietnamese hotel workers utilize their EI in specific situations and how they develop their emotional knowledge.
Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Emotional Leadership (EL) are closely related concepts that have garnered significant attention in research While scholars have sought to empirically validate the connection between EI and EL, the results have been inconsistent, highlighting the complexity of their relationship (Yin et al.).
Table 1 Definitions of EL proposed by key authors in the field
Hochschild (1983, p.7) The management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display
The act of displaying the appropriate emotion (i.e., conforming with a display rule)
The effort, planning, and control needed to express organisationally desired emotion during interpersonal transactions
Mann (1997, p.5) The work involved in managing emotions in the workplace by either displaying appropriate emotions or suppressing inappropriate ones
Grandey (2000, p.97) The process of regulating both feelings and expressions for the organisational goals
Table 1 collects definitions of EL from key authors in the field to highlight the similarities and differences amongst these conceptualisations Despite minor
28 differences, the common conceptualisation of EL is concerned with the way an individual manages his own emotions to meet organisationally desired emotions
Emotional labor (EL), a term introduced by Hochschild (1983) in her influential study on flight attendants, is rooted in Goffman's (1969) dramaturgical perspective, where workers act as performers and customers serve as the audience Hochschild identifies two key strategies for managing emotions: surface acting, which involves controlling emotional expressions, and deep acting, which entails altering one's feelings to genuinely convey the desired emotion.
Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) offer a contrasting view to Hochschild by defining emotional labor (EL) as an observable behavior that can become routine and effortless They introduce a third strategy beyond surface and deep acting: the expression of spontaneous and genuine emotions Grandey (2000) highlights two key distinctions in their approach to EL: first, it focuses on observable behaviors rather than feelings, making emotional displays either effortless or authentic; second, it connects the impacts of EL to task effectiveness instead of the employee's health or stress levels Additionally, Grandey builds on Gross’s (1998) emotion regulation theory to incorporate the display of genuine emotion as a valid form of EL.
(2000) definition of EL is considered as the most influential approach for successive theoretical and empirical research on EL (Diefendorff et al 2008)
Emotional labor (EL) is commonly defined by scholars as the adjustment of emotional expressions to align with workplace expectations, a concept that is generally simpler than emotional intelligence (EI) Most theorists concur that EL can be categorized into two main types: surface acting and deep acting Additionally, there are numerous reliable and validated scales available for measuring emotional labor effectively (Wang et al 2011).
2.4.2.2 Relationship between EI and EL
Alicia Grandey is a significant contributor to the theoretical connection between emotional intelligence (EI), emotional labor (EL), and emotional regulation (ER) In her 2000 work, she introduces a conceptual framework for understanding how emotional regulation is enacted in the workplace, integrating the theories of emotional regulation and emotional labor.
The revised model of Emotional Labor (EL) as Emotional Regulation (ER) proposed by Grandey and Melloy in 2017 introduces Emotional Intelligence (EI) as a key individual difference factor While this model extends beyond the scope of the current study, it draws upon earlier theories related to EI.
ER, and EL; there exists a close theoretical relationship between these three constructs
This research investigates how Vietnamese hotel workers practice emotional intelligence (EI) in their interactions with customers and colleagues, following Mayer and Salovey's four-branch model of EI The first branch, emotion perception, focuses on the ability to recognize personal and others' emotions during face-to-face interactions The study explores how these workers perceive their own emotions and those of others The second branch, emotion facilitation, examines how they generate feelings to enhance their thoughts, considering different perspectives The third branch involves understanding emotions and applying emotional knowledge, highlighting the need to explore sources of their emotion management skills Additionally, the research aims to identify training programs that could help improve these competencies in the workplace.
EI RESEARCH IN THE HOSPITALITY SECTOR
The experience economy has transformed the entertainment industry, placing experience at its core Each interaction between customers and employees creates a personalized experience tailored to individual needs (Pine and Gilmore, 1998) In the hospitality sector, employees play a crucial role in shaping these experiences (Lundberg, 2011) Carlzon (1989) introduces the concept of 'moments of truth,' highlighting the significance of these interactions in determining a business's success or failure.
Hospitality workers are crucial for improving service quality, which leads to higher customer satisfaction and loyalty Their contributions help businesses gain a competitive edge, boost profitability, and enhance overall organizational performance.
The hotel industry recognizes the crucial role of human resources, prompting both practitioners and researchers to adopt effective HRM practices (Riley 1996; Nickson 2007; Boella and Goss-Turner 2013) However, a review by Lucas and Deery (2004) reveals that most HRM studies in hospitality are adaptations of mainstream HRM, with limited focus on the unique context of the industry Madera et al (2017) highlight the significance of frontline employees in shaping the service experience, underscoring the workforce's distinction in the hospitality sector compared to other industries (Davidson et al 2011) This section emphasizes the importance of understanding the human element in hospitality, particularly the emotional intelligence (EI) practices of workers, which are essential for enhancing service quality.
This section establishes the foundation for Emotional Intelligence (EI) research in the hospitality industry by first highlighting the key characteristics of hospitality work It then reviews existing EI research in this field, categorizing various topics related to Emotional Intelligence Through this analysis, significant accomplishments in the area of EI within hospitality are discussed.
33 and gaps in the research area are identified and discussed The last part of the chapter presents how EI is researched qualitatively in hospitality and the contribution it makes
2.5.1 The characteristics of hospitality work
Employment in the hospitality industry is marked by high labor intensity, job instability, and significant turnover rates, often involving unskilled and semi-skilled positions within small to medium-sized organizations Key characteristics include long working hours, irregular schedules, and low pay, alongside a weak internal labor market and low unionization levels In the context of Vietnamese hospitality, four critical aspects warrant attention: the perception of hotel work, the gendered nature of employment, the prevalent turnover culture, and the distinction between low-skilled and high-skilled jobs These factors underscore the necessity for emotional intelligence (EI) research in this sector, particularly as Vietnamese cultural influences shape workplace dynamics.
2.5.1.1 The image of hotel work
The perception of hotel work encompasses both positive and negative aspects On the positive side, it is often linked to glamour, offering travel opportunities, the chance to meet diverse individuals, and the use of foreign languages, along with a variety of tasks (Szivas et al 2003) According to Ladkin (2011), the appeal of hotel jobs also includes flexible hours, job opportunities for minorities and women, and opportunities for skill development Notably, the allure of hotel work has been recognized since 1941, when American writer Ludwig Bemelmans depicted it in his book 'Hotel Splendide.'
Bemelmans, described as a "supreme optimist" (Baum 2007, p.1386), offers a romanticized view of hotel work based on his experiences in luxury establishments like the Ritz during his youth (Bemelmans 1942) While his autobiography chronicles his journey from waiter to restaurateur, it is important to note that his perspective may not accurately reflect the broader realities of hotel employment.
In contrast, hotel work can be associated with manual and dirty tasks, repetition, and low pay (Adler and Adler 2004) Completely opposed to Ludwig Bemelmans, George
In "Down and Out in Paris and London," George Orwell vividly illustrates the harsh realities of hotel work through his experience as a plongeur in Paris He portrays himself as "one of the slaves of the modern world," emphasizing the servile nature of the job, where workers are barely compensated and lack freedom, with their only respite being termination (Orwell 1949, p.122) Despite being written during the 1930s Great Depression, Orwell's depiction highlights the physically demanding, low-paid, low-status, and low-skilled nature of hotel jobs, characterized by long hours and poor working conditions (Szivas et al 2003; Lindsay and McQuaid 2004; Lai and Baum 2005) This aligns with Westwood’s observations on the challenges faced by workers in the hospitality industry.
Service work is often characterized as a "low-pay, low-prestige, low-dignity, low-benefit, no-future job" (2002, p.3), highlighting the challenges faced by employees in this sector Additionally, issues such as split shifts and alcoholism are noted as significant social and practical consequences affecting hospitality workers (Wood 1997).
The hospitality sector is often criticized for its long hours, difficult and monotonous tasks, and poor working conditions, as highlighted by Baum (2006) and Coupland (1992), who describes service jobs as low-paying and lacking dignity Despite calls for improvement since Wood's (1997) recommendations, little progress has been made, as noted by Baum (2007) These negative perceptions of hotel work are prevalent worldwide, with studies from Israel, the UK, New Zealand, and Dubai confirming similar sentiments In China, Kong (2011) points to a shortage of skilled workers in the hospitality industry due to these negative views To combat this, implementing training and development programs can show organizational support for employees, fostering positive feelings and enhancing retention Given Vietnam's current vocational and skill shortages in the service sector (Montague 2013), adopting similar strategies could significantly improve worker morale and job satisfaction.
In the early 1990s, Adkins’s (1995) pioneer book on tourism and female work shed some light on the gendered nature of tourism employment The topic of gender and
Tourism has increasingly attracted scholarly attention, particularly regarding gender issues, as highlighted by Pritchard et al (2007) The rise of female workers in tourism, especially in developing countries (Shah and Gupta 2000), has led to significant benefits for women, including empowerment and increased independence within their families and communities However, Pritchard et al (2007) also address the dual nature of tourism's impact on women, noting both economic and social advantages as well as potential threats like ghettoisation and inequality While gender discrimination falls outside the scope of this thesis, it has been extensively studied in relation to female workers in hospitality (e.g., Purcell 1993; Kinnaird and Hall 1994; Woods and Kavanaugh 1994; Crafts and Thompson 2007; Ineson et al 2013).
According to Janta (2011), most hospitality jobs are socially constructed and often categorized by gender and nationality Notably, the tourism and hospitality industry is experiencing a gradual shift in its workforce demographics.
“feminised” (Nickson 2007, p.71) Reviewing previous gender-based studies (e.g
Research by Spradley and Mann (1975), Hochschild (1983), Cockburn (1985), LaPointe (1992), and Korczynski (2002) highlights that gender significantly influences the experiences of front-line employees, particularly in the hospitality industry Kim and Agrusa (2011) point out the lack of gender-focused studies, despite the industry's heavy reliance on female workers, indicating a need for greater academic and practical attention to the gendered dynamics within hospitality Furthermore, work-based research into interactions among hotel staff and customers is crucial, as it often uncovers the darker aspects of the workplace, such as sexual harassment, which can be perpetrated by colleagues, managers, and customers, as noted in Mkono's (2010b) study on the Zimbabwean hospitality sector.
Labour turnover in the hospitality industry presents two contrasting perspectives While some experts, like Johnson (1981), highlight the negative impact of high turnover on profitability and service quality, others, such as Bowey (1976), argue that it can promote staff mobility and skill development Wood (1997) notes these opposing views, emphasizing that turnover can be seen as both a challenge and a necessary aspect of the industry Additionally, Deery and Iverson (1996) point out the potential effects of high turnover on employee morale In support of a more positive interpretation, Riley (1992) suggests that turnover can serve as a management tool, offering flexibility within the workforce.
Tourism employment is often seen as a fallback option during economic transitions, a notion still relevant in today's labor market The hospitality sector is marked by a 'turnover culture,' where high staff turnover is normalized within workgroups This raises the question of why the tourism industry faces such significant turnover rates Research indicates multiple factors, including working hours, pay, interpersonal relationships, job nature, and personal circumstances Studies on hotel employees highlight issues like job stress, threats to work-life balance, and the physical demands of the job, alongside low wages and limited promotion opportunities, leading to a lack of commitment among more qualified employees Consequently, the negative perceptions surrounding hotel work have exacerbated labor turnover, with these challenges remaining largely unaddressed.
Davidson et al (2010) found high staff turnover rate is putting more pressure on training to maintain service quality Empirical research (Tews et al 2013; Kang et al
2015) suggests support from co-worker and supervisor is particularly important for hospitality workers to recharge and decrease the effort in EL, through which turnover
SUMMARY
This chapter of the literature review offers a comprehensive overview of Emotional Intelligence (EI), exploring its origins, theoretical frameworks, and the ongoing debates surrounding the concept By examining EI across various disciplines, the review aims to establish a robust theoretical foundation for the current study It also highlights the research's position amidst conflicting viewpoints by analyzing existing literature on EI The study adopts Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) definition of ability EI, which includes four key processes: emotion perception, emotion facilitation, emotion understanding, and emotion regulation Additionally, it is essential to reference Gross's (1998) Emotion Regulation (ER) theory, as the fourth component of the EI ability construct is derived from this framework This connection clarifies the interchangeable use of emotional management and emotion regulation in EI literature, which often leads to confusion.
Emotional Intelligence (EI) is intricately connected to Emotional Labor (EL), highlighting the importance of examining EI within the context of EL, particularly in high EL occupations where individuals often demonstrate their EI capabilities (Joseph and Newman, 2010) To gain a comprehensive understanding of EI, researchers are encouraged to explore theories related to emotion and emotion regulation (Lindebaum, 2015) This theoretical relationship between EI and EL underscores the relevance of studying EI in environments that require significant emotional engagement (Lawrence et al., 2011).
The concluding section of the chapter emphasizes key characteristics of the hospitality industry, with a specific focus on hotel work While the impact of culture on emotional intelligence (EI) and Vietnamese culture is explored in a dedicated literature review, it is integrated into the selection of relevant features for this research These features include perceptions of hotel work, the gendered nature of the industry, turnover culture, and the ongoing discussion surrounding low-skilled versus high-skilled jobs This analysis underscores the unique aspects of the hospitality sector and informs the approach to EI research within it.