Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-FP001 Handbook of Food Structure Development View Online Food Chemistry, Function and Analysis Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-FP001 Series editors: Gary Williamson, University of Leeds, UK Alejandro G Marangoni, University of Guelph, Canada Juliet A Gerrard, University of Auckland, New Zealand Titles in the series: 1: 2: 3: 4: 5: Food Biosensors Sensing Techniques for Food Safety and Quality Control Edible Oil Structuring: Concepts, Methods and Applications Food Irradiation Technologies: Concepts, Applications and Outcomes Non-extractable Polyphenols and Carotenoids: Importance in Human Nutrition and Health 6: Cereal Grain-based Functional Foods: Carbohydrate and Phytochemical Components 7: Steviol Glycosides: Cultivation, Processing, Analysis and Applications in Food 8: Legumes: Nutritional Quality, Processing and Potential Health Benefits 9: Tomato Chemistry, Industrial Processing and Product Development 10: Food Contact Materials Analysis: Mass Spectrometry Techniques 11: Vitamin E: Chemistry and Nutritional Benefits 12: Anthocyanins from Natural Sources: Exploiting Targeted Delivery for Improved Health 13: Carotenoid Esters in Foods: Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties 14: Eggs as Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals for Human Health 15: Rapid Antibody-based Technologies in Food Analysis 16: DNA Techniques to Verify Food Authenticity: Applications in Food Fraud 17: Advanced Gas Chromatography in Food Analysis 18: Handbook of Food Structure Development How to obtain future titles on publication: A standing order plan is available for this series A standing order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately on publication For further information, please contact: Book Sales Department, Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge, CB4 0WF, UK Telephone: ỵ44 (0)1223 420066, Fax: ỵ44 (0)1223 420247, Email: booksales@rsc.org Visit our website at www.rsc.org/books View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-FP001 Handbook of Food Structure Development Edited by Fotis Spyropoulos University of Birmingham, UK Email: f.spyropoulos@bham.ac.uk Aris Lazidis University of Birmingham, UK Email: a.lazidis@bham.ac.uk and Ian T Norton University of Birmingham, UK Email: i.t.norton@bham.ac.uk Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-FP001 View Online Food Chemistry, Function and Analysis No 18 Print ISBN: 978-1-78801-216-4 PDF ISBN: 978-1-78801-615-5 EPUB ISBN: 978-1-78801-905-7 Print ISSN: 2398-0656 Electronic ISSN: 2398-0664 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2020 All rights reserved Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research for non-commercial purposes or for private study, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry or the copyright owner, or in the case of reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of Chemistry at the address printed on this page Whilst this material has been produced with all due care, The Royal Society of Chemistry cannot be held responsible or liable for its accuracy and completeness, nor for any consequences arising from any errors or the use of the information contained in this publication The publication of advertisements does not constitute any endorsement by The Royal Society of Chemistry or Authors of any products advertised The views and opinions advanced by contributors not necessarily reflect those of The Royal Society of Chemistry which shall not be liable for any resulting loss or damage arising as a result of reliance upon this material The Royal Society of Chemistry is a charity, registered in England and Wales, Number 207890, and a company incorporated in England by Royal Charter (Registered No RC000524), registered oce: Burlington House, Piccadilly, London W1J 0BA, UK, Telephone: ỵ44 (0) 20 7437 8656 Visit our website at www.rsc.org/books Printed in the United Kingdom by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY, UK Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-FP005 Preface The importance of food structure for the development of products that meet consumer expectations in terms of being tasty, nutritious, pleasurable, and in many cases healthy, is nowadays well established This book aims to provide an extensive and thorough review of our current understanding on food structure It showcases how the latter can be developed through the interplay of formulation and processing elements, tailored to possess desirable performances, measured and/or characterized In terms of content balance, it focuses on the basic principles relating to food structure development but, where necessary, progresses to greater depths of detail to also encompass more specialized technological features We strongly feel that the target audience for this book includes both formulators/scientists working within the food industry as well as researchers/academics primarily concerned with exploring this area from a more fundamental perspective The book is therefore envisaged to act as a useful tool for product developers aiming to understand and address the challenges associated with current food structures and/or their performance, as well as those seeking inspiration for the creation of novel products and/or functionalities At the same time, it will be of great assistance to early career academics with scientific interests in this area and also to their more established colleagues who, despite being already research active within the food science and engineering arena(s), wish to be kept well connected with current industrial needs and the research developments within this continuously evolving scientific field In order to meet its ambitious mandate, this book is structured in four discreet parts/themes The first part focuses on the role of key components such as hydrocolloids, proteins, and oils/fats and that of fundamental colloidal microstructures (emulsions, foams) in structure development across a wide range of food categories The interplay between processing Food Chemistry, Function and Analysis No 18 Handbook of Food Structure Development Edited by Fotis Spyropoulos, Aris Lazidis and Ian T Norton r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2020 Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org v View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-FP005 vi Preface routes and formulation elements is then further explored for confectionery and cereal food products The use of starch and proteins to ultimately provide the aerated solid microstructure of bread serves as a good example of the journey from specific ingredients to the development of a final food structure The second part of this book centers on the significant link between food structure and product performance/functionality Here, specific attention is given to structure development for rheological, tribological, and mechanical performance(s), along with the role of food’s microstructural design in terms of providing functionalities such as a desirable sensorial experience and the delivery of a range of species of nutritional/dietary significance The important relationship between food performance/ functionality and food structure heavily relies on our capacity to accurately, reliably, and repeatably assess such complex microstructures This is the focal point of the third part of this book, which examines in detail the most important approaches/methods for analyzing, characterizing, and predicting food structure (and its development) across a broad spectrum of length- and timescales In its final part, this book attempts to examine some of the specific challenges that the food industry is presently faced with and the opportunities that these challenges are creating in terms of rethinking or rebalancing conventional food structure development While some of these challenges have been long-standing (yet still very much relevant) items of scrutiny within the industrial and academic arenas (for example, the development of healthy or healthier food structures), others have more recently emerged (or are still emerging) to encompass themes ranging from the sustainability and flexibility of food processing approaches to food structure design that addresses the dietary needs of specific population groups To end, we would like to acknowledge all our friends and colleagues who have contributed with passion and expertise to this book We are grateful for their tremendous efforts and humbled by the wealth of knowledge that they have so generously trusted upon us Needless to say, this book would not have been realized without them Finally, we would also like to thank the editorial staff in the Royal Society of Chemistry for their great support and endless patience throughout the preparation of this book FS would like to dedicate this book to Jasbir, Maiya and Solon, and AL to ˆ Elena and Ale Fotis Spyropoulos Aris Lazidis Ian T Norton Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-FP007 Contents Part A: Food Structure Development: The Interplay Between Processing Routes and Formulation Elements Chapter The Role of Hydrocolloids in the Development of Food Structure H Douglas Goff and Qingbin Guo 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Introduction and Hydrocolloid Applications in Food Systems Hydrocolloid Functionality in Food Systems 1.2.1 Solubility 1.2.2 Viscosity 1.2.3 Gelation Molecular Structures of Hydrocolloids and Structure–Function Relationship 1.3.1 Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution 1.3.2 Charged and Neutral Polysaccharides 1.3.3 Branched and Linear Polysaccharides 1.3.4 Functional Groups 1.3.5 Molecular Conformation Unique Examples 1.4.1 Sodium/Calcium Alginate 1.4.2 High-/Low-methoxyl Pectin 1.4.3 Methyl Cellulose 1.4.4 Carrageenan (Milk Reactivity) Food Chemistry, Function and Analysis No 18 Handbook of Food Structure Development Edited by Fotis Spyropoulos, Aris Lazidis and Ian T Norton r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2020 Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org vii 3 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 18 21 22 23 View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-FP007 viii Chapter Contents 1.4.5 Gum Arabic 1.4.6 Xanthan 1.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 24 26 26 27 The Role of Proteins in the Development of Food Structure Vale´rie Gagnaire, Valerie Lechevalier, Marie-Hele`ne Famelart, Thomas Croguennec and Saăd Bouhallab 29 2.1 2.2 29 32 33 34 Introduction Characteristics of Milk and Egg White Proteins 2.2.1 Caseins 2.2.2 Globular Proteins 2.3 Diversified Supramolecular Assemblies from Processed Globular Proteins and Potential Applications in Food 2.3.1 Assemblies Obtained by Tuning the Protein Environment 2.3.2 Assemblies Obtained on Heating Protein Solution 2.4 Examples of Food Matrices 2.4.1 Egg White Protein-based Gels 2.4.2 Casein-based Gels: Case of Yogurt 2.4.3 Casein-based Gels: Case of Cheeses 2.5 Conclusion and Future Trends References Chapter Food Structure Development in Emulsion Systems Ernesto Tripodi, Aris Lazidis, Ian T Norton and Fotis Spyropoulos 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Introduction The Emulsion Microstructure 3.2.1 Conventional Emulsion Microstructure 3.2.2 Complex Emulsion Microstructures Thermodynamic Aspects Processing Routes for Emulsion Structure Development 3.4.1 Mechanical Methods 3.4.2 Nonmechanical Methods Emulsion Microstructure Characterization 3.5.1 Visualization of the Emulsion Microstructure 35 35 37 41 41 44 47 52 53 59 59 60 60 66 69 69 70 77 77 77 View Online Contents ix Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-FP007 3.5.2 Characterization of the Emulsion Microstructure and Its Components 3.5.3 Assessing Emulsion Flow and Thermal Behavior 3.6 Emulsion Microstructure and Performance 3.6.1 Emulsion Microstructure and Rheology 3.6.2 Emulsion Microstructure and Oral Processing 3.6.3 Emulsion Microstructure for Encapsulation and Release 3.6.4 Fat, Salt, and Sugar Reduction 3.7 Conclusions and Future Perspective References Chapter The Role of Bubbles in the Development of Food Structure Arpita Mondal and Keshavan Niranjan 4.1 4.2 Introduction Bubble Structures in Milk 4.2.1 Process Parameters 4.2.2 Foam Processing Methods 4.3 Bubble Structures in Chocolate 4.3.1 Bubble Inclusion Methods 4.3.2 Influential Factors in Bubble Inclusion 4.3.3 Operational Variables 4.4 Bubble Structures in Dough and Bread 4.4.1 Bubble Inclusion Steps 4.4.2 Physical and Chemical Controlling Factors 4.4.3 Characterization of Bubbles in Bread 4.5 Conclusions References Chapter Food Structure Development in Oil and Fat Systems R A Nicholson and A G Marangoni 5.1 5.2 Introduction Characterizing the Structure of Fats 5.2.1 Wide-angle X-ray Scattering and Polymorphism 5.2.2 Small-angle X-ray Scattering and Scherrer Analysis 5.2.3 1H Spin Diffusion NMR 78 79 79 80 80 81 82 84 84 93 93 94 95 98 101 102 103 105 105 106 108 109 111 112 115 115 116 116 117 119 View Online x Contents Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-FP007 5.2.4 Cryogenic Transmission Electron Microscopy 5.2.5 Microstructure 5.2.6 Ultra-small-angle X-ray Scattering 5.2.7 Fractal Dimension 5.3 Factors Affecting the Fat Structure 5.3.1 TAG Composition 5.3.2 Crystallization Temperature and Cooling Rate 5.3.3 Crystallization Under Shear 5.3.4 Addition of Emulsifiers 5.4 Relating Structure to Functional Properties 5.4.1 Oil-binding Capacity 5.4.2 Rheological Properties 5.5 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Chapter Food Structure Development in Chocolate Emma J McLeod and Peter J Fryer 6.1 6.2 6.3 Introduction Developments in Chocolate Formulation Chocolate Manufacturing and Structure Control 6.3.1 Liquid Chocolate Mass Making 6.3.2 Tempering and Forming 6.4 Polymorphism in Cocoa Butter 6.4.1 Chocolate Cooling Model 6.5 Mechanisms for Bloom Formation 6.6 Conclusions and Future Needs References Chapter Food Structure Development in Cereal and Snack Products G Della Valle, H Chiron, A Le-Bail and L Saulnier 7.1 7.2 7.3 Introduction Products and Materials 7.2.1 Wheat Components 7.2.2 State Diagrams Processing 7.3.1 Operations and Development of Cellular Structure 119 120 121 124 126 126 127 128 129 130 130 131 132 132 132 134 134 135 137 137 139 139 141 145 148 149 151 151 153 153 156 159 159 View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 484 cooling rate, effect on fat structure, 127–128, 127 core-(multi-)shell colloidal delivery systems, 280 core-shell-type encapsulates coated melt extrudates for flavours, 276–277, 276, 277 core-(multi-)shell colloidal delivery systems, 280 fish oil, complex coacervates of, 277–280, 278, 279 CPD See critical point drying (CPD) creaming, 69 critical concentration of hydrocolloids, 9, 10 critical micelle concentration (CMC), 64 critical point drying (CPD), 368 crowding effect, 207 cryogenic scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM), 147, 368, 369, 373, 374 dehydration, 368–369, 369 cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), 119, 272 of bread dough, 201–202, 202 of colloidal lipids, 268 fat structure, characterization of, 119–120, 120, 127, 129 cryo-SEM See cryogenic scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM) cryo-TEM See cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) crystallization under shear, 128–129, 129 temperature, effect on fat structure, 127–128, 127 CSLM See confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) cup geometry, 178, 179 CZM See cohesive zone model (CZM) DH See dry-heating (DH) DIC See differential interference contrast (DIC) Subject Index Diet Dysphagia Food Texture Descriptors, 467 differential interference contrast (DIC), 289 differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), 79, 140 of cereal/snacks products, 156–157, 157 diffusion-limited cluster–cluster aggregation (DLCA), 125 dispersed phase volume fraction, 80 DLCA See diffusion-limited clustercluster aggregation (DLCA) DLS See dynamic light scattering (DLS) DMA See dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) docking simulations, 386–387 double emulsions, 67, 82, 83 dough, 295–296, 295, 296 See also dough, bubble structures in dough, bubble structures in, 105–111 inclusion steps baking, 108 mixing, 106–107 proving and fermentation, 107–108 physical and chemical controlling factors flour, types of, 108 gluten, 108–109 water absorbance, 109 yeast/non-yeast, 109 droplets breakup versus droplet coalescence, 70–72 o/w emulsions, 450 w/o emulsions, 450–451 w/o/w emulsions, 451–452 w/w emulsions, 452 dry-heating (DH), 40–41 drying, scanning electron microscope, 368 DSC See differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 Subject Index duplex emulsions, 67, 82, 83 dynamic light scattering (DLS), 78 dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), 162, 164 dysphagia, 459, 462–463, 467 See also Diet Dysphagia Food Texture Descriptors; texture standardization of diets eating capability surface electromyography, 463 videofluoroscopy, 462–463 controlling mechanisms of orofacial muscle activities, 461 tongue capability, 460–461 edible foam food products, manufacturing methods of, 209–210 edible oils, 336 EDTA See ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) egg white protein-based gels, 41–44, 43 electric field processing, 422–435 novel perspectives toward food structure, 432–434, 433 research needs, 434 thermal and nonthermal processing, 426 high-pulsed electric technologies, 425–428 ohmic heating, 428–432 electromyography (EMG), 232 electron microscopy (EM) emulsion microstructure, visualization of, 77 EMG See electromyography (EMG) Emmental or Swiss-type cheeses, 50–51 EM See electron microscopy (EM) emulsification, 72–73 microchannel, 74 485 emulsifiers in fats, addition of, 129 influence on chocolates, 104 emulsion microstructure characterization of components, 78 flow and thermal behavior, assessment of, 79 visualization, 77–78 complex, 66–69 duplex emulsions, 67 gelled emulsions, 67 nanoemulsions, 66 water-in-water emulsions, 67–68 conventional, 60–66, 61 continuous phase, 60–62 dispersed phase, 62 interface, 62–66 for encapsulation and release, 81–82 fat, salt and sugar reduction, 82–84 and oral processing, 80–81 and performance, 79–84 and rheology, 80 emulsion air-filled emulsions, 68, 83 -based delivery systems, 265, 267, 268 double emulsions, 67, 82, 83 filled-hydrogel particle emulsions, 68, 82, 83 -filled protein gels, property studies of, 206–207 food structure development in, 59–84 gelled emulsions, 67, 81–82 microstructure See emulsion microstructure multiple emulsions, 273 nanoemulsions, 66 pickering emulsions, 65–66 processing routes, 69–77 View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 486 emulsion (continued) mechanical methods, 70–76, 75, 76 nonmechanical methods, 77 scanning electron microscope of, 373 small-angle scattering analysis of, 334–335 systems, food structure development in, 59–84 future perspective, 84 thermodynamic aspects, 69 encapsulation, 340–341 emulsion microstructure and, 81–82 energy density, 72–73 energy efficiency, 72–73 environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM), 369–371, 370, 371 of bloom formation mechanisms, 146, 147 ESEM See environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), 330 extruded foam foods, 210–212, 211 extrusion, 103 fat, 448 in chocolate, 103–104 crystallization, 335 lubrication, control of, 191–192, 192 reduction bubbles as tastantexcluding fillers, 450 droplets, 450–452 emulsion microstructure and, 82–84 gelled particles, 453, 454 oleogels, 453 particles with designed morphology, 448–449 Subject Index replacement in product categories, 449 -rich foods, light and confocal microscopy of chocolate, 301–303, 302, 303, 304 mayonnaise, 303–305, 304 See also fat systems fat systems, 115–132 characterization cryogenic transmission electron microscopy, 119–120, 120 fractal dimensions, 124–125 H spin diffusion NMR, 119 microstructure, 120–121, 122 polymorphism, 116–117 Scherrer analysis, 117–119 small-angle X-ray scattering, 117–119, 118 ultra-small-angle X-ray scattering, 121, 123–124, 124 wide-angle X-ray scattering, 116–117 factors affecting cooling rate, 127–128, 127 crystallization temperature, 127–128, 127 crystallization under shear, 128–129, 129 emulsifiers, addition of, 129 TAG composition, 126–127 structure to functional properties, relating oil-binding capacity, 130–131 rheological properties, 131–132 fermentation, 45, 47, 106, 107–108, 159 FFA See free fatty acid (FFA) View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 Subject Index fibers in foods, adding, 214 fibrils, 39–40 fibrous vegetable proteins, 296–297, 297, 298 filled-hydrogel particle emulsions, 68, 82, 83 finite element modeling of bread dough, 202, 203 of brittle baked wafer fracture, 213, 213 fish oil, complex coacervates of, 277–280, 278, 279 flavours, coated melt extrudates for, 276–277, 276, 277 FLIM See fluorescence lifetime microscopy (FLIM) flocculation, 69 fluid flow rate, 105, 208 fluorescence lifetime microscopy (FLIM), 306 fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), 292, 303 foaming temperature of milk, 97–98 foam processing methods agitation, 99 cold aeration, 99 steam injection, 98–99, 99 supersaturation, 100 Food for Special Dietary Uses (FOSDU), Japan, 468 Food Hydrocolloids Trust, food oral processing (FOP), 169 physiology, 231–234, 233 foods, as time-dependent stimuli, 237 biochemical stresses, 240–241 mechanical stress, 239–240 thermal stresses, 241 food structure design control of viscosity, 185–190, 187, 188, 189 fat lubrication, control of, 191–192, 192 yield stress, 190–191 FOP See food oral processing (FOP) FOSDU See Food for Special Dietary Uses (FOSDU) 487 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy of oleogels, 390 fractal aggregates of heating protein solution, 38–39 fractal dimensions, 124–125 FRAP See fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) free choice profiling, 236 free fatty acid (FFA), 96 FTIR See Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy functional groups of hydrocolloids, 16–17 gas flow rate, 100, 105 gas-free dough density, 110 gas sparging under pressure, 102 gas volume fraction, 110–111 GDL See glucono-delta-lactose (GDL) gelatine gels, 192, 208–209, 208, 209 gelation of hydrocolloids, 11–13, 11, 11, 13 gelled emulsions, 67, 81–82 gelled particles, 453 gels, property studies of, 205–209, 208, 209 globular proteins, characteristics of, 34–35 glucono-delta-lactose (GDL), 44 gluten, 108–109 tensile test, 201, 202 GPCRs See G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) G-protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs), 227 gum arabic, 24–25, 25 gums, small-angle scattering analysis of, 324–327 HCA See Hospital Caterers Association (HCA) hedonic testing, 237 hemicellulose polysaccharides, 394 heteroprotein complex coacervates (HPCC), 35–37 View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 488 high-energy mechanical methods, 73 high-methoxyl pectins, 21–22 high-molecular-weight emulsifiers, 64–65 high-pressure homogenizers, 73 high-pressure processing (HPP), 407–408, 408 and food structure, 412–414 high-pulsed electric technologies high-voltage electrical discharge, 425–427 pulsed electric fields, 427–428 high-shear mixers, 73 high-voltage electrical discharge (HVED), 425–427 HLB See hydrophilic lipophilic balance (HLB) homogeneous core systems colloidal lipid and proteinbased particles, 267–270, 269, 270 emulsion-based delivery systems, 265, 267, 268 micronutrient and nutraceutical-based colloidal particles, 264–265, 266, 267 particles based on associative complexes, 270–272, 271, 272 Hospital Caterers Association (HCA), 467 HPCC See heteroprotein complex coacervates (HPCC) HPP See high-pressure processing (HPP) H spin diffusion NMR, 119 HVED See high-voltage electrical discharge (HVED) hydrocolloids, 3–27 branched and linear polysaccharides, 15–16, 15, 16 charged and neutral polysaccharides, 14 definition, examples Subject Index carrageenan, milk reactivity of, 23–24 gum arabic, 24–25, 25 high-/low-methoxyl pectins, 21–22 methyl cellulose, 22–23 sodium/calcium alginate, 18–21, 19, 21 xanthan, 26 functional groups, 16–17 functionality, 5–13 future perspectives, 26–27 gelation, 11–13, 11, 11, 13 molecular confirmation, 17–18 molecular weight, 13–14 molecular weight distribution, 13–14 solubility, 6–7, viscosity, 8–10, 8, 10 See also interpenetrating hydrocolloid networks (IHNs) hydrophilic lipophilic balance (HLB), 63 ice cream, 99, 274–275, 445–446, 449 IDDSI See International Dysphagia Diet Standardisation Initiative (IDDSI) IGBT See insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) pulses IHNs See interpenetrating hydrocolloid networks (IHNs) inherent viscosity See intrinsic viscosity insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) pulses, 432 interfacial-driven flow regime, 70 interfacial rheology, 79 intermediate-energy mechanical methods, 74, 75, 76 International Dysphagia Diet Standardisation Initiative (IDDSI), 468–470, 469 interpenetrating hydrocolloid networks (IHNs), 327–328 intrinsic viscosity, 9, 10 View Online Subject Index Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 ionic surfactants, 64 iron-fortified bouillon cube, 261 Japanese Modified Diet for Dysphagic Persons, 468 jelly formulation, 13 JND See just noticeable sensorial difference ( JND) just noticeable sensorial difference (JND), 235 kinetic jaw movement (KJM), 232 KJM See kinetic jaw movement (KJM) Kraft Foods, 101 Krieger–Dougherty model, 189 laminar flow regime, 70 LAOS See large amplitude oscillatory shear rheology (LAOS) large amplitude oscillatory shear rheology (LAOS), 180–181 lens aberrations, 367, 367 light microscopy (LM) cereal-based foods bread, 293, 294, 293–295 dough, 295–296, 295, 296 fibrous vegetable proteins, 296–297, 297, 298 emulsion microstructure, visualization of, 77 fat-rich foods chocolate, 301–303, 302, 303, 304 mayonnaise, 303–305, 304 food structure analysis using, 287–306 characterization methods, 288–290 future perspective, 305–306 plant-based foods, 297–301, 299, 300, 301 linear polysaccharides, 15–16, 15, 16 lipids, 115 atomic force microscopy of, 377 small-angle scattering analysis of 489 emulsions and emulsion gels, 334–335 fat crystallization, 335 oleogels, 336 oxidation of edible oils, 336 liquid chocolate mass making, 137–138, 138 LM See light microscopy (LM) long spacings, 117 low-methoxyl pectins, 21–22 low-molecular-weight surfactants, 63–64 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 154–155 Maillard reaction, 331 matrix-type encapsulates, 272–275 colloidal particle systems, 275, 275 multiple emulsions, 273 spray-dried and melt extrudated flavours, 273–274, 273 mayonnaise, 303–305, 304, 334 MC See methyl cellulose (MC) MD See molecular dynamics (MD) simulations meat proteins, small-angle scattering analysis of, 331–332 mechanical performance, food structure development for, 199–221 cellular structures baked and extruded foam foods, mechanical testing of, 210–212, 211 brittle baked wafer fracture, finite element modeling of, 213, 213 edible foam food products, manufacturing methods of, 209–210 foam foods using XMT, microstructural characterization of, 212–213, 212 colloids, 201–205, 202, 203, 204 future trends, 219–221 View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 490 mechanical performance, food structure development for (continued) gels, 205–209, 208, 209 particulate composites, 201–205, 202, 203, 204 short fiber composites fibers in foods, adding, 214 mechanical characterization of, 215–218, 215, 216, 217, 218 oral breakdown, stimulation of, 218–219, 219 mechanical stresses foods as time-dependent soft matter systems under, 239–240 MEF See moderate electric fields (MEF) melt extrudated flavours, 273–274, 273 membrane emulsification, 74 membrane processing, 411–412, 412 and food structure, 417 methoxyl pectins, 21–22 methyl cellulose (MC), 22–23, 393–394 microbubbles, 472 microchannel emulsification, 74 microgels, 38, 190–191 micronutrient-based colloidal particles, 264–265, 266, 267 microparticulated whey protein (MPWP), 193, 194 microstructure of fat, 120–121, 122 microwave processing See radiofrequency and microwave processing milk foaming temperature, 97–98 pH, 97 proteins, 96 resonant soft X-ray scattering (RSoXS), 329 small-angle scattering analysis of, 328–331 See also milk, bubble structures in Subject Index milk, bubble structures in, 94–100, 95 foam processing methods agitation, 99 cold aeration, 99 steam injection, 98–99, 99 supersaturation, 100 process parameters, 95–98 change of pH, 97 foaming temperature, 97–98 free fatty acid, 96 influence of milk heat treatment, 98 milk protein/lipid, 96 skim milk versus whole milk, 97 mini traction machine (MTM), 183, 183, 186 mixing, in dough and bread, 106–107 MM See molecular modelling (MM) moderate electric fields (MEF), 430–432 molecular confirmation of hydrocolloids, 17–18 molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, 387–388 molecular modelling (MM), 384–385, 384 force fields, 385–386, 386 molecular weight of hydrocolloids, 13–14 distribution of, 13–14 mozzarella cheeses, 48–50 MPQ model, 188, 189, 189 MPWP See microparticulated whey protein (MPWP) MRI See magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) MTM See mini traction machine (MTM) mucilages, 324–327 multiple emulsions, 273 nanoemulsions, 66 nanoparticles, 65–66 View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 Subject Index nanostructured carriers, 471–472 nanotubes, 37 NA See numerical aperture (NA) National Food Texture Scale, 465 National Nurses Nutrition Group (NNNG), 467 National Viscosity Scale, 466 NDD See U.S National Dysphagia Diet (NDD) neutral polysaccharides, 14 neutron magnetic resonance (NMR), 78 neutron scattering (NS), 78 NMR See neutron magnetic resonance (NMR) NNNG See National Nurses Nutrition Group (NNNG) nonionic surfactants, 64 non-yeast, 109 nosespace proton transfer reaction– mass spectrometry (PTR-MS), 243 NS See neutron scattering (NS) numerical aperture (NA), 288–289, 292 nutraceutical-based colloidal particles, 264–265, 266, 267 ohmic heating (OH), 409–410, 410, 428–432 equipment, 424 and food structure, 416 moderate electric fields, 430–432 pulsed, 432 OH See ohmic heating (OH) oil-binding capacity of fats, 130–131 oil–water interfacial tension, 78 oleogels small-angle scattering analysis of, 336 structure and complexation, 389–393, 390, 391, 392, 393 sugar, salt and fat reduction in, 453 olfaction, 227 491 optimal sensory performance, 225–248, 226 chemosensory perception, 241–243, 242 complex design structure, mechanical perception of, 244–246, 247 foods, as time-dependent stimuli biochemical stresses, 240–241 mechanical stress, 239–240 thermal stresses, 241 future avenues, 246, 248 oral cavity food oral processing physiology, 231–234, 233 olfaction, 227 sensory physiology, 226–227 taste, 228 trigeminal and texture, 228–231, 229, 230 quantification and product performance, 235–239, 235, 238 reverse engineer sensory performance, 234–239 oral processing, 80–81, 176, 182, 240–241, 460, 463 physiology, 231–234 orofacial muscle activities, 461 oscillatory rheology, 179–181 Ostwald ripening, 69 o/w emulsions, 450 oxidation of edible oils, 336 packaging materials, 341 PALM See photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM) partial coalescence, 69 particulate composites, 200–205, 202, 203, 204 PCW See plant cell wall (PCW) polysaccharides View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 492 PDMS See polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) PEF See pulsed electric field (PEF) pendant drop technique, 78 phase inversion, 69 phase inversion temperature (PIT) method, 77 pH of milk, 97 photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM), 306 pickering emulsions, 65–66 PIT See phase inversion temperature (PIT) method plane geometry, 177 plant-based foods atomic force microscopy of, 378 light and confocal microscopy of, 297–301, 299, 300, 301 scanning electron microscope of, 373–374, 374 plant cell wall (PCW) polysaccharides, 322–324, 323 plant proteins, 205, 332–333 PLM See polarized light microscopy (PLM) PNA See protein network analysis (PNA) POH See pulsed ohmic heating (POH) polarized light microscopy (PLM) of fat-rich foods, 303, 303 fat structure, characterization of, 120 polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), 182–183 polymorphism in cocoa butter, 139–145, 140 effects on fat structure, 116–117 polyphenol–polysaccharide interactions, 337–338 polysaccharides atomic force microscopy of, 376–377 branched, 15–16, 15, 16 cellulose, 322–324, 323 charged, 14 gums, 324–327 Subject Index interpenetrating hydrocolloid networks, 327–328 linear, 15–16, 15, 16 mucilages, 324–327 neutral, 14 plant cell wall, 322–324, 323 seaweed, 326–327, 327 small-angle scattering analysis of, 317–318, 318 texture modification, functional ingredients for, 471 processed meat, 447 protein gels molecular modelling and computer simulation approaches to gelation, 396–397, 397 property studies of, 205–206 protein network analysis (PNA), 155 protein-polysaccharide coacervates, 338–339 proteins, 29–53 atomic force microscopy of, 378, 378 food matrices, examples casein-based gels, 44–52, 45, 46 egg white protein-based gels, 41–44, 43 functional properties, factors affecting, 31 future trends, in food structure development, 52–53 as high-molecular-weight emulsifier, 64–65 milk and egg white proteins, characteristics of, 32–35, 32 caseins, 33–34 globular proteins, 34–35 small-angle scattering analysis of meat proteins, 331–332 milk proteins, 328–331 other proteins, 333–334 plant proteins, 332–333 View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 Subject Index supramolecular assemblies obtained from protein environment, 36, 37 heteroprotein complex coacervates, 35–37 nanotubes, 37 supramolecular assemblies obtained on heating protein solution, 37–41 fibrils, 39–40 fractal aggregates, 38–39 microgels, 38 multistranded ribbons, 39–40 protein microparticles, 40–41 spherulites, 39–40 PTR-MS See nosespace proton transfer reaction–mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) pulsed electric field (PEF), 427–428 equipment, manufacturers of, 424 processing, 410–411, 411 and food structure, 416–417 pulsed ohmic heating (POH), 432 QCM See quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) QDA See quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) QM See quantum mechanics (QM) quantification of sensory perceptions, 235–239, 235, 238 quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA), 236, 237 quantum mechanics (QM), 385 quartz crystal microbalance (QCM), 186 radiofrequency and microwave processing, 408–409, 409 and food structure, 414–416 reaction-limited cluster–cluster aggregation (RLCA), 125 493 reedings, 210 relative viscosity, resonant soft X-ray scattering (RSoXS), 314–315, 329 restructured foods, 20 retrogradation, 16 reverse phase aeration, 103 rhamno-galactorunans I (RG-I), 395 rheological properties of cereal/snacks products, 162–164, 165 of fats, 131–132 rheology definition of, 175 dynamic measurement, 177–179, 178, 179 emulsion microstructure and, 80 future prospects of, 195 interfacial, 79 model of concentrated dispersions, 206 oscillatory, 179–181 in sensory perception, 192–195, 194 theory, 176–177 thin film, 79, 181–182 See also rheological properties rheometry, 240 RLCA See reaction-limited clustercluster aggregation (RLCA) Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists (RSCLT), 465, 467 RSCLT See Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists (RSCLT) RSoXS See resonant soft X-ray scattering (RSoXS) salt in baked products, 447–448 in cheese, 446–447 in processed meat, 447 reduction bubbles as tastantexcluding fillers, 450 View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 494 salt (continued) droplets, 450–452 emulsion microstructure and, 82–84 gelled particles, 453, 454 oleogels, 453 particles with designed morphology, 448–449 SAOS See small amplitude oscillatory shear rheology (SAOS) SasView, 317 SAXS See small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) scanning electron microscope (SEM) imaging of bloom formation mechanisms, 146, 147 of coated melt extrudates, 276 components of, 362 cryo-SEM, 147, 368, 369, 373, 374, 368–369, 369 electron-specimen interactions, 365–366 foam foods, microstructural characterization of, 212 future perspective of, 378–379 high-resolution imaging, compromises of, 362–364, 363, 364 image formation, 365–366, 365, 366 lens aberrations, 367, 367 limitations imposed by vacuum, overcoming, 367–374 cryo-SEM, 368–369, 369 drying, 368 environmental SEM, 369–371, 370, 371 examples, 371–374 of parmesan cheese, 204 of protein gels, 206 of short fiber composites, 216, 218 Scherrer analysis of fat structure, 117–119 seaweed polysaccharides, 326–327, 327 Subject Index sedimentation, 69 SE-HPLC See size exclusion highperformance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC) sEMG See surface electromyography (sEMG) SEM See scanning electron microscope (SEM) sensory perception, 192–195, 194 sensory performance definition of, 225–226 optimal, design structures for, 225–248 See also optimal sensory performance sensory physiology, 226–227 SESANS See spin-echo small-angle neutron scattering (SESANS) SHI See strain-hardening index (SHI) short fiber composites fibers in foods, adding, 214 mechanical characterization of, 215–218, 215, 216, 217, 218 oral breakdown, stimulation of, 218–219, 219 short spacings, 116 sitosterol–oryzanol gels, 391 size exclusion high-performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC), 154 skim milk versus whole milk, 97 SLM See solid lipid microparticles (SLM) SLS See static light scattering (SLS) small amplitude oscillatory shear rheology (SAOS), 179–180 small-angle scattering, food structure characterisation using, 309–342 complex systems, 336–339 polyphenol–polysaccharide interactions, 337–338 protein-polysaccharide coacervates, 338–339 View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 Subject Index starch-lipid complexes, 337 encapsulation, 340–341 future perspectives of, 341–342 lipids emulsions and emulsion gels, 334–335 fat crystallization, 335 oleogels, 336 oxidation of edible oils, 336 methods, 312–317, 314 packaging materials, 341 polysaccharides, 317–318, 317 cellulose, 322–324, 323 gums and mucilages, 324–327, 327 interpenetrating hydrocolloid networks, 327–328 plant cell wall polysaccharides, 322–324, 323 starch, 318–321 proteins meat proteins, 331–332 milk proteins, 328–331 other proteins, 333–334 plant proteins, 332–333 techniques, 310–312, 311, 312 whole foods, 339–340 small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), 123, 312, 320–341 fat structure, characterization of, 117–119, 118 sodium/calcium alginate, 18–21, 19, 21 solid lipid microparticles (SLM), 207 solubility of hydrocolloids, 6–7, specific viscosity, specific volume of dough, 110 spherulites, 39–40 spin-echo small-angle neutron scattering (SESANS), 335 spray-dried flavours, 273–274, 273 starch-lipid complexes, 337 495 starch, small-angle scattering analysis of, 318–321 static light scattering (SLS), 78 steam injection, 98–99, 99 STED See stimulated emission depletion (STED) stimulated emission depletion (STED), 306 stirred yogurt, 47 strain-hardening index (SHI), 163 Stribeck curves, 183–185, 184 sugar, 441–446 in biscuits, 442–443, 443, 444 in cakes, 443, 445 in chocolate, 104, 445 in ice cream, 445–446 reduction bubbles as tastantexcluding fillers, 450 droplets, 450–452 emulsion microstructure and, 82–84 gelled particles, 453, 454 oleogels, 453 particles with designed morphology, 448–449 supersaturation, 100 supramolecular assemblies obtained by tuning the protein environment, 36, 37 heteroprotein complex coacervates, 35–37 nanotubes, 37 obtained on heating protein solution, 37–41 fibrils, 39–40 fractal aggregates, 38–39 microgels, 38 multistranded ribbons, 39–40 protein microparticles, 40–41 spherulites, 39–40 surface electromyography (sEMG), 463 View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 496 sustainable food processing systems, 405–418 food structure high-pressure processing and, 412–414 membrane processing and, 417 ohmic heating and, 416 pulsed electric field processing and, 416–417 radiofrequency and microwave processing and, 414–416 future perspectives of, 417–418 high-pressure processing, 407–408, 408 membrane processing, 411–412, 412 ohmic heating, 409–410, 410 overview of, 406–407 pulsed electric field processing, 410–411 radiofrequency and microwave processing, 408–409, 409 swallowing capability, assessments and grading of surface electromyography, 463 videofluoroscopy, 462–463 controlling mechanisms of bolus formation prior to swallowing, 461 orofacial muscle activities, 461 tongue capability, 460–461 disorders, 462 See also dysphagia tracks and breathing, temporospatial coordination between, 461 TAGs See triacylglycerols (TAGs) Task Force of Modified Diet for Dysphagic Persons, 468 taste sensing, 228, 242 Subject Index TCATA See temporal check-all-thatapply (TCATA) TDS See temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) TEM See transmission electron microscopy (TEM) tempering, chocolate manufacturing, 104, 139 temporal check-all-that-apply (TCATA), 237 temporal dominance of sensations (TDS), 237 texture modification, microbubbles, 472 nanostructured carriers, 471–472 polysaccharides, 471 whey proteins, 470–471 texture-modified diet, needs of, 463–464 texture sensations, 228–231, 229, 230 texture standardization of diets published national standards Australian Texturemodified Foods and Fluids, 467 International Dysphagia Diet Standardisation Initiative, 468–470, 469 Japanese Modified Diet for Dysphagic Persons, 467–468 UK National Descriptors for Texture Modification in Adults, 465, 467 U.S National Dysphagia Diet (NDD), 464 texture-modified diet, needs of, 463–464 theobromine in lipid particles, 274–275, 274 thermal stresses foods as time-dependent soft matter systems under, 241 View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 Subject Index thermotransient receptor potential (TRP) channels, 230 thermotropic gels, 41 thin film rheology, 181–182 tongue capability, 460–461 transmission electron microscopy (TEM), 36, 45 of colloidal lipids, 269, 270 See also cryo-TEM triacylglycerols (TAGs), 115–117, 128–131, 388 composition, 126–127 tribology, 79, 240 definition of, 175 future prospects of, 195 methods, 182–185 in sensory perception, 192–195, 194 Stribeck curves, 183–185, 184 theory, 182–185 tribometry, 240 trigeminal sensations, 228–231, 229, 230 triglycerides, 115, 388–393 TRP See thermotransient receptor potential (TRP) channels turbulent flow, 71 UK National Descriptors for Texture Modification in Adults, 465, 467 ultra-small-angle X-ray scattering (USAXS), 121, 123–124, 124, 127, 312, 335 ultrasonic homogenization, 73 uniaxial compression tests, 211, 211 USAXS See ultra-small-angle X-ray scattering (USAXS) U.S National Dysphagia Diet (NDD), 464 vacuum application, for bubble inclusion in chocolates, 102 vane geometry, 178, 179 vibration, effect on bubblecontaining chocolates, 105 videofluoroscopy, 462–463 497 viscosity apparent, of chocolates, 104–105 control of, 185–190, 187, 188, 189 of hydrocolloids, 8–10, 8, 10 intrinsic, 9, 10 relative, specific, void fraction, 110–111 WA See water absorbance (WA) of flour wafer See brittle baked wafer water absorbance (WA) of flour, 109 water-in-water (w/w) emulsions, 67–68 water jelly formulation, 13 Wattle blossom model of gum arabic, 25 WAXS See wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) Weber–Fechner law, 235, 235 Weber’s law, 235 wheat components, in cereal/snacks products, 153–156 whey protein microparticles (WPM), 41 whey proteins (WP), 34, 36, 37, 40–41, 45–46, 194, 454 in moderate electronic fields, 431 texture modification, functional ingredients for, 470–471 whole foods, small-angle scattering analysis of, 339–340 whole milk versus skim milk, 97 wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS), 116–117, 335 w/o emulsions, 450–451 w/o/w emulsions, 451–452 WP See whey proteins (WP) WPM See whey protein microparticles (WPM) w/w emulsions, 452 View Online Published on 17 October 2019 on https://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00480 498 xanthan, 26 X-ray diffraction (XRD), 117, 140 chocolate cooling, validation of, 141, 143, 143 X-ray microtomography (XRT), 159–160, 274, 277 of brittle baked wafer fracture, 213 of coated melt extrudates, 277 foam foods, microstructural characterization of, 212–213, 212 Subject Index XRD See X-ray diffraction (XRD) XRT See X-ray microtomography (XRT) xyloglucan, 394–395 yeast, 109 yield stress, 190–191 yogurt, 44–47, 45 manufacture, 45–47, 46 stirred yogurt, 47 zwitteronic surfactants, 64 ... (emulsions, foams) in structure development across a wide range of food categories The interplay between processing Food Chemistry, Function and Analysis No 18 Handbook of Food Structure Development Edited... doi:10.1039/9781788016155-00001 View Online CHAPTER The Role of Hydrocolloids in the Development of Food Structure H DOUGLAS GOFF*a AND QINGBIN GUOb a Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1,... doi:10.1039/9781788016155-FP007 Contents Part A: Food Structure Development: The Interplay Between Processing Routes and Formulation Elements Chapter The Role of Hydrocolloids in the Development of Food Structure H Douglas