Problem identification
Since 1995, English has been an optional subject in primary schools in Ho Chi Minh City, following the Ministry of Education and Training's Decision 2957/GD-ĐT issued on October 14, 1994 Over the years, various coursebooks have been utilized, including "Tieng Anh dung cho hoc sinh tieu hoc, quyen 1" by Pham Duy Trong, Pham Dang Binh, and Nguyen Quoc Tuan; "Tieng Anh dung cho hoc sinh tieu hoc, quyen 2" by Pham Dang Binh; and "Tieng Anh dung cho hoc sinh tieu hoc, quyen 3" by Nguyen Quoc Tuan, all published by Education Publishing.
The educational resources for primary students include "Tieng Anh 1," "Tieng Anh 2," and "Tieng Anh 3," authored by Nguyen Van Do, Ngo Thi Tuyen, and Hackner, B., and published by Education Publishing House Since 2005, "Let’s Go Book 1" and "Book 2," written by Nakata, R., Frazier, K., Hoskins, B., and Wilkinson, S., have also been integral to the curriculum, published by Oxford University Press.
On October 30, 2003, the Ministry of Education and Training issued Decision No 50/2003/QĐ-BGD&ĐT, establishing English as an optional subject in primary schools for Grades 3 to 5, with two class periods each week This significant development marks the integration of English into the curriculum, making its teaching a systematic practice in primary education Additionally, a new series of coursebooks has been created to support this initiative.
"Let's Learn English" is an engaging series designed for elementary school students, featuring three books tailored for different grade levels: Book 1 for Grade 3, Book 2 for Grade 4, and Book 3 for Grade 5 This educational series is collaboratively authored by Nguyen Quoc Tuan, Pham Dang Binh, and Phan, ensuring a comprehensive approach to English language learning for young learners.
In 2006, the book "Book 1," authored by Ha, Do Thi Ngoc Hien, Dao Ngoc Loc, and Lin, W M., was published by Education Publishing House in Vietnam in collaboration with Panpac Education Publishing House in Singapore During the 2006-2007 school year, this book is being tested in Nguyen Binh Khiem Primary School, located in District.
Giong Ong To Primary School in District 2 and Luong The Vinh Primary School in Thu Duc District, both located in Ho Chi Minh City, utilize a specific coursebook for teaching English While Giong Ong To is designated for experimental teaching, Luong The Vinh Primary School employs this coursebook as the primary resource for instructing its Grade 1 students.
Purpose of the study and overview of the thesis
The coursebook, designed for primary pupils and based on a theme-oriented approach, adheres to a new methodology as stated in its preface An in-depth evaluation is essential to determine how well the coursebook aligns with syllabus requirements and meets the interests and needs of primary schoolchildren.
This research will provide an overview of primary education in Vietnam, focusing specifically on the state of English language teaching in primary schools in Ho Chi Minh City Additionally, it will conduct an in-depth analysis of the current syllabus used in these institutions.
The upcoming chapter will outline essential principles that coursebook authors must adhere to in accordance with the syllabus, with a strong focus on the interests and needs of primary school children Additionally, it will review relevant literature on evaluation.
The third chapter will focus mainly on the set up of evaluation criteria and the design of questionnaires
Chapter four is for the carrying out of the evaluation process The results will be discussed after that
The last part of the thesis will make recommendations on how to use the coursebook effectively, mostly how to adapt it.
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
An overview of primary education in Vietnam
Primary education is carried out in 5 schoolyears, from grade 1 to grade 5
Children begin primary school at six years old, where primary education focuses on developing their moral, intellectual, physical, aesthetic, and essential skills This foundational learning is crucial for their ongoing education in junior secondary school.
Curricula and educational activities are as follows:
Subject and educational activities Grade
In primary schools, the weekly curriculum is structured around various subjects and educational activities, with each subject allocated a specific number of class periods Students are required to attend school for a minimum of 35 weeks each year, ensuring a comprehensive educational experience.
The total weekly duration of compulsory subjects and activities is indicated by the mark +, while the same mark also signifies the potential addition of optional subjects Optional subjects, denoted by the mark *, can be studied starting from grade 3, with foreign languages and informatics being two available options Schools that possess sufficient teaching staff and facilities, along with the consent of pupils' families, are able to offer these optional subjects.
Primary education is crucial for equipping students with essential knowledge about nature, society, and humanity, as well as fundamental skills in listening, speaking, writing, and mathematics It promotes physical fitness and adherence to sanitation practices while introducing children to the arts, including singing, dancing, and fine arts Additionally, it fosters a sense of patriotism and respect for family, teachers, and peers, encouraging positive attitudes towards learning and work, as well as a love for nature and awareness of environmental conservation.
1.2 An overview of the reality of English Language Teaching in primary schools in Ho Chi Minh City
Since 1995, English has been offered as an optional subject in Ho Chi Minh City, in accordance with Decision No 2957/GD-ĐT issued by the Ministry of Education and Training on October 14, 1994.
In 1998, Ho Chi Minh City's Service of Education and Training launched an experimental English teaching initiative known as the intensive English program for secondary and primary school students Currently, over a hundred primary schools offer intensive English courses, while more than four hundred primary schools provide English as an optional subject, including those that teach intensive English.
1.2.1.1 Teaching staff: Teachers are recruited from those who have majored in English and graduated from any college or university Applicants have to pass a rather stiff selection examination They then attend a short training course which is often under the auspices of the British Council in Ho Chi Minh City to be trained to teach primary schoolchildren Most of these teachers become government employees afterwards The teaching staff are fairly qualified and stable
1.2.1.2 Pupils: Pupils are also recruited from the children who are going to enter Grade 1 Applicants have to pass a selection test for aptitude for languages Pupils studying intensive English study English from Grade 1 to Grade 5 Every week they study English 8 class periods
1.2.1.3 Coursebooks: Let’s Go series, published by Oxford University
The Press series offers tailored educational materials for each grade level, specifically Book 1 for Grade 1 through Book 5 for Grade 5 Each level comprises five essential components: the Student Book, Workbook, Teacher’s Book, Cassette or Compact Disc, Student Cards, and full-sized Teacher Cards For Grades 1 and 2, Wall Charts are also available Additional resources include Readers and the "Let’s Chant" series, enhancing the learning experience across all grades.
Sing, Picture Dictionary, CD-Rom There are also Grammar and Listening Activity Books for levels 1-3
1.2.1.4 Teaching facilities: Most schools have a language lab with multimedia equipment Other teaching aids such as cassette players, overhead projectors, opaque projectors, computers and projectors, etc, are also available Some schools even invite native speakers to teach their pupils part of the time allotted
1.2.2.1 Teaching staff: Teachers are those who have majored in English and graduated from any college or university and invited by each school itself In some schools, teachers who teach intensive English also teach optional English In general, the teaching staff are not stable
1.2.2.2 Pupils: Pupils are the children who voluntarily choose to study
English as an optional subject, often all the pupils in the school except the ones who study intensive English Pupils studying optional English study English from Grade
3 to Grade 5 Every week they study English two class periods There are also schools teaching optional English from Grade 2
1.2.2.3 Coursebooks: Most schools used Tieng Anh 1, Tieng Anh 2 written by Nguyen Van Do and Ngo Thi Tuyen and Tieng Anh 3 written by Ngo Thi Tuyen and Hackner B as main coursebooks : Tieng Anh 1 for Grade 3, Tieng Anh 2 for Grade 4, and Tieng Anh 3 for Grade 5 The coursebook package consists of the Student Book, the Workbook, the Teacher’s Book and the Cassette Since 2005 Let’s
Go Book 1 and Book 2 published by Oxford University Press have been used: Book
1 for Grade 1 and 2; and Book 2 for Grade 3 and 4
1.2.2.4 Teaching facilities: Most schools are equipped with cassette players Teachers have to spend much time making teaching aids In some schools, pupils studying optional English share teaching facilities with pupils studying intensive English
1.3 The syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools
On October 30, 2003, the Ministry of Education and Training released the syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools, outlined in Decision number 50/2003/QĐ-BGD&ĐT.
The syllabus begins with its aims:
1 To help pupils possess basic, simple communicative skills, especially listening and speaking skills used in everyday communication at school and at home
2 a To provide pupils with basic, simple knowledge of English b To help pupils gain knowledge about the people and culture of some English speaking countries
3 a To take part in shaping in pupils a positive attitude to the English language b To help pupils acquire more knowledge and love of the Vietnamese language through studying English c To take part in shaping in pupils a method of learning and developing pupils’ personality and intelligence
The syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools
On October 30, 2003, the Ministry of Education and Training released the syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools, as outlined in Decision number 50/2003/QĐ-BGD&ĐT.
The syllabus begins with its aims:
1 To help pupils possess basic, simple communicative skills, especially listening and speaking skills used in everyday communication at school and at home
2 a To provide pupils with basic, simple knowledge of English b To help pupils gain knowledge about the people and culture of some English speaking countries
3 a To take part in shaping in pupils a positive attitude to the English language b To help pupils acquire more knowledge and love of the Vietnamese language through studying English c To take part in shaping in pupils a method of learning and developing pupils’ personality and intelligence
The syllabus outlines essential content focused on developing four key language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing, alongside foundational knowledge in phonology, vocabulary, and grammar It revolves around four central themes: personal identity and relationships, family and daily routines, educational experiences, and the surrounding world The material is systematically organized and tailored to align with grade levels, specifically from grade 3 onwards.
After completing the optional English course in primary school, students acquire fundamental communication skills in English, focusing primarily on listening and speaking, along with basic reading and writing abilities at an elementary level.
The requirements for each skill are as follows
- To understand simple, short sentences relating to the themes studied
- To understand the main ideas of simple, short dialogues, and passages within the scope of the knowledge and themes studied
- Ask and answer questions using short, simple sentences relating to the themes studied
- Use words and basic sentences to talk about oneself, one’s family, school, learning activities and entertainment
- To understand the content of simple dialogues, and passages that contain about 40 to 50 words within the scope of the themes and linguistic items studied
- To understand the main ideas of simple readings relating to the themes and linguistic items studied
- To be able to write simple sentences relating to the themes and communicative situations within the scope of linguistic items studied
- To be able to fill in simple forms such as notebook labels, timetables, school schedules, envelopes, postcards, and personal records
As for knowledge, the syllabus refers to two types of knowledge: language knowledge and cultural understanding
After three years of English education, students should possess a foundational understanding of the language, enabling them to engage in age-appropriate communication This includes essential knowledge of phonology, vocabulary, and grammar relevant to the topics covered in their studies.
Students can accurately pronounce both vowel and consonant sounds, demonstrating proper stress and intonation Special attention is given to challenging sounds and those that are absent in the Vietnamese language.
- Pupils can use about 450 to 500 words
The number of words is distributed as follows :
Pupils can use the following grammatical items:
- Verbs denoting learning activities, everyday activities, and entertainment used in the simple present, the simple present continuous, the simple past and the structures denoting future activities
- Nouns denoting people, animals, objects, location, time, cardinal numbers, etc, singular / plural, countable / uncountable nouns, etc
- Pronouns: personal, interrogative, demonstrative, possessive
- Adverbs of time, place, manner, frequency
- Conjunction used in simple compound sentences
- Simple sentences and simple, basic compound sentences
Pupils should have initial knowledge about the people, the country, the culture of some English speaking countries
- They should know some common proper names of people, of some famous countries, cities, symbols and places
-Pupils should have initial knowledge about learning activities, everyday life activities, entertainment and amusements such as greeting, making acquaintance, introducing, etc, of people in some English speaking countries
The syllabus concludes with guidance on application and usage, emphasizing its design to facilitate communicative activities It is structured around themes that serve as the foundation for developing teaching content, adhering to essential principles.
The selected themes should foster interpersonal communication and align with the age group's characteristics, needs, experiences, and comprehension levels of students They must be engaging, visually appealing, and progressively expanded upon each year to enhance understanding.
To ensure effective language teaching, coursebook writers must prioritize authenticity, accuracy, and contextual relevance in their materials The content should be practical, engaging, and familiar to students, featuring high-frequency language use Additionally, the syllabus emphasizes the importance of integrating various lesson formats, exercises, and communicative activities that harmonize visual, auditory, and linguistic elements This approach should facilitate a gradual progression from simple to complex concepts, aligning with students' psychological and physiological characteristics and comprehension levels.
Effective teaching activities should prioritize the pupil as the central figure in the learning process, with the teacher acting as the organizer, guide, and monitor of their educational journey It is essential for the teaching content to align closely with the defined objectives and syllabus A diverse range of learning activities should be implemented, integrating various teaching methods and techniques while effectively utilizing the syllabus, coursebook, reference materials, and teaching aids Instruction should be structured around different formats, including individual work, pair work, group work, and moments of leisure, while also strategically incorporating Vietnamese to enhance positive language transfer to English.
Students must be trained in four essential language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing To enhance communicative abilities, linguistic components like phonology, vocabulary, and grammar are crucial Engaging communicative activities should be centered around relevant themes and situations that are both appealing in content and form Under the teacher's guidance, pupils actively and creatively participate in these activities, fostering a positive and conscious learning environment.
The syllabus emphasizes that testing and evaluation must align closely with the established objectives, content, and skill standards of the subject Assessment should encompass listening, speaking, reading, and writing activities, and must be grounded in the outcomes of the learning process A balanced approach that integrates regular and periodic testing is essential Additionally, the syllabus outlines specific requirements regarding time allocation, teaching staff, student numbers, teaching aids, and management practices to effectively meet its goals It is crucial to maintain manageable class sizes to facilitate optimal learning.
The following comments can be made on the syllabus
The syllabus is really what Nunan (1999: 305) and Richards, et al (1993: 368) call curriculum In general the syllabus is designed based on recent advances in applied linguistics and language teaching methodology
First, the syllabus is a theme-based syllabus It is organised around themes and topics
Second, the syllabus aims at helping pupils develop good communication skills in English through functional language
Third, the syllabus advocates learner-centered instruction which is effective, motivating and enjoyable
Fourth, the syllabus urges coursebook writers to pay full attention to satisfying the needs and interests of its intended users, Grade 3 pupils
However, the syllabus goes somewhat far into detail when listing the content pupils in each grade have to learn
According to Widdowson (1984, as cited by Nunan, 1999), a syllabus serves as a flexible framework for conducting learning activities rather than a rigid set of rules dictating what must be taught It becomes problematic only when treated as absolute guidelines Therefore, coursebook writers should adopt a flexible and appropriate approach to syllabus design to enhance the effectiveness of the learning process (Hutchinson and Waters, 1991).
This article provides an overview of primary education in Vietnam, focusing specifically on the current state of English language teaching in Ho Chi Minh City’s primary schools It also examines the syllabus for English as an optional subject within these institutions The following chapter will delve into a literature review.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of syllabus and different types of syllabuses
A syllabus is defined as a subcomponent of a curriculum that focuses on the selection, sequencing, and justification of linguistic and experiential content, as distinguished from methodology, which deals with tasks and activities According to Nunan (1999), the curriculum encompasses all elements involved in planning, implementing, and evaluating learning programs, including syllabus design, methodology, and evaluation processes As task-based and process approaches to curriculum development evolve, the distinction between syllabus and methodology is becoming increasingly challenging to maintain.
Nunan (1999) emphasizes the distinction between syllabus design and methodology, stating that syllabus design focuses on selecting and grading content, while methodology pertains to the selection of learning tasks and activities However, proponents of a broader perspective challenge this separation, suggesting that the rise of communicative language teaching blurs the lines between content and tasks, making it increasingly difficult to maintain a clear distinction.
According to Richards et al (1993), a curriculum is defined as an educational program that outlines its objectives (the ends), the necessary content, teaching methods, and learning experiences to achieve those objectives (the means), as well as assessment strategies to evaluate the attainment of these goals In contrast, a syllabus refers to a detailed description of the course content and the sequence in which it is delivered.
Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 80-83) redefine the syllabus as a document outlining what should be learned, emphasizing that this information undergoes various stages before being comprehended by the learner They also categorize different types of syllabuses, highlighting the complexity of conveying educational content effectively.
The evaluation syllabus is a crucial document issued by ministries or regulatory bodies, outlining the knowledge and skills a successful learner should possess upon completing a course This syllabus serves as the foundation for assessing student success or failure, clearly recording the criteria for evaluation.
- The organisational syllabus: “As well as listing what should be learnt, a syllabus can also state the order in which it is to be learnt.”
The materials syllabus emphasizes that the author incorporates various assumptions regarding language and its usage, determining the contexts for language application, the balance and integration of different skills, the quantity and variety of exercises dedicated to specific language aspects, and the extent of recycling or revision involved.
- The teacher syllabus: “Like the materials writer, the teacher can influence the clarity, intensity and frequency of any item, and thereby affect the image that the learners receive.”
- The classroom syllabus: “The classroom, too, creates conditions which will affect the nature of a planned lesson.”
- The learner syllabus: “It is the network of knowledge that develops in the leaner’s brain and which enables that learner to comprehend and store the later knowledge.”
Hutchinson and Waters (1991) outline various types of syllabuses to illustrate the evolution from the evaluation syllabus to the learner syllabus They caution that there is no direct correlation between the initial evaluation syllabus and the final learner syllabus, highlighting the complexity of syllabus development.
According to Johnson (1990), the term 'curriculum' encompasses all decision-making processes involving participants, resulting in tangible products such as policy documents, syllabuses, teacher-training programs, and teaching materials These outcomes can be observed and described, highlighting the comprehensive nature of curriculum development Johnson further illustrates this definition with a detailed table.
Developmental stages Decision-making roles Products
1.curriculum planning policy makers policy document needs analyst
2.specification: ends means methodologists syllabus materials writers teaching materials
3.programme implementation teacher trainers teacher-training programme teacher teaching acts
4.classroom implementation learner learning acts
Table 2.1: Johnson’s (1990: 3) Stages, Decision-making roles and Products in Curriculum development
These definitions are cited to supply the basis for identifying the nature of the syllabus under consideration Different types of syllabus are mentioned now
Richards (1990: 9) identifies various types of syllabuses frequently utilized in contemporary English as a Second Language (ESL) courses and materials, especially those focused on enhancing speaking and listening skills.
“1 Structural (organised primarily around grammar and sentence patterns)
2 Functional (organised around communicative functions, such as identifying, reporting, correcting, describing)
3 Notional (organised around conceptual categories, such as duration, quantity, location)
4 Topical (organised around themes or topics, such as health, food, clothing)
5 Situational (organised around speech settings and the transactions associated with them, such as shopping at the bank, at the supermarket)
6 Skills (organised around skills, such as listening for gist, listening for specific information, listening for inferences)
7 Task or activity-based (organised around activities, such as drawing maps, following instructions).”
Richards (1910) highlights that, despite the growing body of literature on syllabus design, there remains a lack of empirical evidence supporting any specific approach to syllabus development Consequently, practitioners often employ a mix of different methodologies in their syllabus design processes.
Hutchinson and Waters (1991) identify several types of syllabi used in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) courses, including: a) topic syllabus, b) structural/situational syllabus, c) functional/notional syllabus, d) skills syllabus, e) situational syllabus, f) functional/task-based syllabus, g) discourse/skills syllabus, and h) skills and strategies.
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 89), effective teaching materials must simultaneously address multiple syllabuses While one syllabus may serve as the main organizing principle, other syllabuses remain relevant, even if they are not explicitly considered in the material's structure.
Cunningsworth (1995: 55) only pays attention to content-based syllabus
According to Cunningsworth, “White (1998) identifies four types of content base in syllabus design These are:
- function (with a notional/ functional basis)
- topic (with an informational focus).”
Cunningsworth has the same idea, “ it should be borne in mind that the actual content of coursebook will be based on a combination of these factors.”
These classifications help recognize the type of the syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools
The syllabus incorporates the latest developments in applied linguistics and language teaching methodologies It provides a concise overview of key theories, including communicative language teaching, theme-based instruction, and learner-centered instruction, highlighting their relevance to modern education practices.
Theories of communicative language teaching, theme-based instruction and learner-centered instruction
The Ministry of Education and Training has established a syllabus aimed at facilitating communicative activities, with themes serving as the basis for selecting teaching content.
What is communicative approach then ?
The communicative approach, as noted by Celce-Murcia (1991:8), emerged from the contributions of anthropological linguists like Hymes (1972) and Firthian linguists such as Halliday (1973), who emphasize that language primarily serves as a means of communication This approach is defined by several key characteristics.
The primary goal of language teaching is to enable learners to communicate effectively in the target language, emphasizing not only linguistic structures but also semantic concepts and social functions Students frequently collaborate in pairs or groups to negotiate meaning, particularly in scenarios where information is unevenly distributed Engaging in role play and dramatization helps students adapt their language use to various social contexts Classroom materials are designed to be authentic, mirroring real-life situations and demands Skills such as reading, speaking, listening, and writing are integrated from the outset, assuming learners possess a certain level of education and literacy The teacher's main role is to facilitate communication, with error correction being a secondary focus, and teachers should demonstrate fluency and appropriateness in the target language.
Celce-Mercia (1991) identifies key characteristics associated with language teaching goals, course content, classroom activities, and the roles of both learners and teachers In contrast, Nunan (1999: 246) outlines distinct characteristics that further define effective language instruction.
“Theory of language interaction: Language is the systems for the expression of meaning: primary function - and communication
Theory of learning: Activities involving real communication, carrying out meaningful talks, and using language that is meaningful to the learner promote learning
Objectives: Objectives will reflect the needs of the learner, they will include functional skills as well as linguistic objectives
Syllabus: Will include some or all of the following: structures, functions, notions, themes, and tasks Ordering will be guided by learner needs
Activities: Engage learners in communication, involve processes such as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction
Learner role: Learner as negotiator,interactor, giving as well as taking
Teacher role: Facilitator of the communication process, needs analyst, counselor, process manager
Role of materials: Primary role of promoting communicative language use; task-based, authentic.”
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), as defined by Nunan (1999), encompasses various methods aimed at enabling learners to communicate effectively in a target language While early CLT approaches minimized the role of grammar, some even suggested neglecting form entirely, recent methodologies recognize the importance of grammar and emphasize teaching the connection between grammatical structures and their communicative meanings.
Brown (2003: 266) offers the following four interconnected characteristics as a definition of communicative language teaching:
“1 Classroom goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence and not restricted to grammatical or linguistic competence
2 Language techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes Organizational language forms are not the central focus but rather aspects of language that enable the learner to accomplish those purposes
3 Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use
4 In the communicative classroom, students ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts.”
Brown (2003) adds the notions of fluency and accuracy to make the definition more comprehensive
Communicative language teaching (CLT) is defined by Richards (2006) as a framework that encompasses principles regarding the objectives of language education, the process of language acquisition, effective classroom activities, and the roles of both teachers and learners According to Richards, there are ten fundamental assumptions that underpin modern CLT practices, highlighting its significance in language instruction.
“1 Second language learning is facilitated when learners are ingaged in interaction and meaningful communication
2 Effective classroom learning tasks and exercises provide opportunities for students to negotiate meaning, expand their language resources, notice how language is used, and take part in meaningful interpersonal exchange
3 Meaningful communication results from students processing content that is relevant, purposeful, interesting, and engaging
4 Communication is a holistic process that often calls upon the use of several language skills or modalities
5 Language learning is facilitated by activities that involve inductive or discovery learning of underlying rules of language use and organisation, as well as by those involving language analysis and reflection
6 Language learning is a grsdual process that involves creative use of language, and trial and error Although errors are a normal product of learning, the ultimate goal of learning is to be able to use the new language both accurately and fluently
7 Leaners develop their own routes to language learning, progress at different rates, and have different needs and motivation for language learning
8 Successful language learning involves the use of effective learning and communication strategies
9 The role of the teacher in the language classroom is that of a facilitator, who creates a classroom climate conductive to language learning and provides opportunities for students to use and practice the language and to reflect on language use and language learning
10 The classroom is a community where learners learn through collaboration and sharing.”
According to Richards (2006), the application of teaching principles varies based on several factors, including the teaching context, the age and level of the learners, as well as their specific learning goals.
The syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools decides that its content centers on four themes selected beforehand The next section will examine theme-based instruction
Theme-based instruction is one of the five integrated skills approaches identified by Brown (1994), which include content-based teaching, experiential learning, the episode hypothesis, and task-based teaching Unlike content-based teaching, which prioritizes subject matter over language, theme-based teaching equally values both content and language objectives According to Brown, this approach offers an innovative alternative to traditional language classes by organizing the curriculum around specific themes or topics.
According to Brown (1994: 222), theme-based instruction and content-based instruction are based on effective learning principles Brown (1994: 222) notes,
“The major principles underlying both theme-based and content-based instruction are:
Snow (1991) identifies five models of content-based instruction: immersion education, content-enriched foreign language instruction in elementary schools, the theme-based model, the sheltered model, and the adjunct model Among these, the theme-based model stands out as it utilizes selected topics or themes to shape the curriculum for ESL/EFL classes In this approach, teachers derive language activities that naturally align with the chosen content, enhancing the learning experience.
The syllabus for English as an optional subject in primary schools effectively embodies the principles of theme-based and topic-based teaching, as outlined by Brown (1994) and Snow (1991).
Some characteristics of pupils’ way of learning
Scott and Ytreberg (1991) highlight key characteristics of young children that are essential for effective language teaching They categorize children into two primary age groups: five to seven years old and eight to ten years old, emphasizing the need to tailor teaching strategies to these developmental stages.
Five to seven year olds
“What five to seven year olds can do at their own level:
• They can talk about what they are doing
• They can tell you about what they have done or heard
• They can argue for something and tell you why they think what they think
• They can use logical reasoning
• They can use their vivid imaginations
• They can use a wide range of intonation patterns in their mother tongue
• They can understand direct human interaction
• They know that the world is governed by rules and so on
• They understand situations more quickly than they understand the language used
• They use language skills long before they are aware of them
• Their own understanding comes through hands and eyes and ears The physical world is dominant at all times
• They are very logical What you say first happens firs and so on
• They have a very short attention and concentration span
• Young children sometimes have difficulty in knowing what is fact and what is fiction and so on
• Young children are often happy playing and working alone but in the company of others and so on
• The adult world and the child’s world are not the same and so on
• They will seldom admit that they don’t know something either and so on
• Young children cannot decide for themselves what to learn and so on
Young children thrive in playful environments where learning is intertwined with enjoyment They engage deeply in activities, often perceiving their play as meaningful and akin to 'real' work, which enhances their learning experience.
Young children exhibit a natural enthusiasm and positivity towards learning, thriving on success and the encouragement they receive This innate desire for praise and recognition is particularly pronounced in early childhood development, fostering a love for education and exploration.
Scott and Ytreberg (1991) continue with children from eight to ten years old
“General characteristics of children from eight to ten years old
• Their basic concepts are formed They have very decided views of the world
• They can tell the difference between fact and fiction
• They ask questions all the time
• They rely on the spoken word as well as the physical world to convey and understand meaning
• They are able to make some decisions about their own learning
• They have definite views about what they like and don’t like doing
• They have a developed sense of fairness about what happens in the classroom and begins to question the teacher’s decisions
• They are able to work with others and learn from them.”
And “By the age of ten children can:
• understand symbols(beginning with words)
According to Scott and Yterberg (1991), children aged eight to ten possess a certain level of language awareness and readiness that they carry into the foreign language classroom This intrinsic linguistic foundation can significantly enhance their learning experience in acquiring a new language.
Scott and Ytreberg (5-7) then give some implications for teaching children of those two age groups.
To effectively engage students, a variety of objects and images will be utilized, maximizing the resources available within the school and its surroundings Prior to any activities, demonstrations will be conducted to guide the children in their tasks.
This means let the children experiment with words and sounds, make up rhymes, sing songs, tell stories.
This means reading and writing are extremely important for the child’s growing awareness of language and for their own growth in the language
This means lots of variety will be needed : variety of activity, variety of space, variety of organization, variety of voice etc
This means it is necessary to have systems, routines in everything, lessons should be organized and planned carefully and so on
This means other forms of encouragement than reward and prizes should be used
Scott and Ytreberg suggest that introducing basic grammar concepts is most effective when a student specifically requests clarification or when the teacher believes that the student would gain from understanding grammar.
Scott and Ytreberg (1991) emphasize the importance of a positive approach to assessment, suggesting that it should focus on students' successes rather than their shortcomings They argue that highlighting achievements fosters a more encouraging learning environment, reinforcing the idea that "nothing succeeds like success."
What Scott and Ytreberg have mentioned provide a general frame on which a deeper understanding can be built
Holden (1992: 8) emphasizes that children's attention spans are typically short, highlighting the importance of incorporating variety in the classroom By dividing lessons into numerous activities, teachers can present diverse challenges, allowing students to engage in whole class, pair, and group work This approach enables children to collaborate with different peers, from close friends to those they may not prefer, while also accommodating mixed-ability groupings Alternating between energetic activities like 'Simon says' and quieter tasks such as puzzle-solving fosters a dynamic learning environment.
Brumfit, et al (1991: ii) lists some of the characteristics which primary schoolchildren share and which can be their advantages:
Young learners, at the onset of their educational journey, present a unique opportunity for teachers to shape their expectations of school life This age group is often more diverse than secondary or adult learners, as they are still connected to their varied home cultures while adapting to the school's conformity Their enthusiasm for learning is typically unencumbered by the inhibitions that older children may experience Additionally, their learning is closely tied to the development of ideas and concepts, stemming from their initial experiences in formal education To optimize their learning, it is essential to incorporate physical movement and activity alongside cognitive stimulation, as the integration of both enhances their overall educational experience.
According to Brumfit et al (1991), children's language learning is more closely linked to real communication, as it relies heavily on their immediate physical environment, unlike adult language acquisition.
Rixon (1991: 33) realizes “It is a commonplace that young children learn better through play or at least can be induced to go along with teaching that is tempered by ‘fun’ activities.”
According to Khan (1991), play is essential for children as it not only fulfills their desire to engage but also serves as a vital medium for learning Through interactive play, children enhance their language skills, as games create meaningful contexts, motivations, and structured routines for their play activities.
Vale and Feunteun (2000: 142-143) give a very helpful example of the needs of children and how a teacher can take these needs into consideration within an EFL classroom
Table 2.3: Vale and Feuteun’s ‘needs’ spidergram and action spidergram
Vale and Feunteun (2000: 66-77) discuss the following points for a balanced teaching diet very carefully:
“A Teaching a second language is not an isolated educational issue
B A child needs a change of pace and a flexible variety of activities within a lesson
C Most authentic communication requires the teacher to adapt classroom space
~ ~ NEEDS OF CHILDREN interest confidence/gain self-value learn new things security motivation success fun socialization/friendsh ip
Vale and Feunteun (2000) give a ‘needs’ spidergram and an action spidergram display the children’s work provide a friendly learning environment provide child- centered activities encourage and praise
Teachers should approach criticism with sensitivity, avoiding constant corrections of mistakes It's important to incorporate a variety of activities and frequently change the grouping of students throughout the lesson to enhance engagement and learning outcomes.
D A child needs a lot of opportunity for review, recycling and consolidation of language
E A child needs to assimilate language at his or her pace
F It is very important to recognize the value of errors and risk taking in the process of learning of a language.”
Lawday (1998: 3) lists the following assumptions about the way young children learn:
Young pupils often struggle with abstract concepts, making it essential to use tangible objects in the classroom To enhance understanding, educators should incorporate real items, pictures, and drawings when introducing new vocabulary.
Young children thrive in their learning when they engage in hands-on activities Encouraging them to participate actively through movement, drawing, coloring, singing, playing games, and using mimes enhances their educational experience.
Young children typically have short attention spans, so it's best to keep activities to around 10 minutes If they start to become restless, switch to a different activity, knowing you can always revisit the original one later or in the next lesson.
• Young children need to constantly revise and recycle the language they have learned Do this at the beginning of each lesson, or when pupils become restless
• Young children need praise and encouragement They also need to feel a sense of progress and achievement.”
Needs analysis
2.4.1 Needs analysis in course design Needs analysis has been considered very important in course design Pratt (1980: 79 as cited by Richards, 1990: 1) defines needs analysis or needs assessment as “an array of procedures for identifying and validating needs, and establishing priorities among them.”
Nunan (1999: 311) defines needs analysis as “sets of tools, techniques, and procedures for determining the language content and learning process for specified groups of learners.”
Graves (2000: 98) elaborates on Nunan's definition, stating that needs assessment is a systematic and continuous process aimed at collecting information regarding students' needs and preferences This involves interpreting the gathered data and making informed course decisions to effectively address those needs.
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 54), as early as 1978 needs analysis was presented thoroughly in John Munby’s Communicative Syllabus Design
In 1978, Munby introduced the Communication Needs Processor (CNP), a method for identifying target situation needs Later, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) expanded on this concept by emphasizing the importance of learning needs in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) They likened an ESP course to a journey, highlighting the necessity of understanding both the starting point (lacks) and the destination (necessities), while also acknowledging potential disputes regarding the final goal (wants) Importantly, they pointed out the need to consider the route to achieve this destination, thereby introducing the concept of learning needs as a crucial element in the process.
From different point of views, different aspects about needs analysis have been presented
Richards (1990: 2) differentiates between two approaches
“The first approach may be referred to as situation analysis, and involves focusing on the following kinds of questions:
What are the learners’ goals and expectations?
What learning styles do the learners prefer ?
How proficient are the teachers in the target language?
What training anf experience do the teachers have?
What teaching approach do they favor?
What do teachers expect of the program?
What is the administrative context of the program?
What constraints ( e.g., time, budget, resources ) are present?
What kinds of tests and assessment measures are needed?
The second approach, communicative needs analysis (Munby 1978), is concerned with gathering information about the learners’ communicative needs in the target language, and so on.”
Nunan (1999) identifies two key types of needs analysis for language syllabus designers: learner analysis, which focuses on the characteristics and information about the learner, and task analysis, aimed at determining the skills and knowledge necessary for learners to perform real-world communicative tasks Building on this, Brindley (1984) expanded on Richterich's (1972) distinctions between "objective" and "subjective" needs, as well as initial and ongoing needs, which are crucial for educators engaged in continuous needs assessment Additionally, Nunan differentiates between "content" needs, related to what learners must know, and "process" needs, concerning how learners acquire that knowledge.
Content needs involve choosing and organizing elements like topics, grammar, functions, notions, and vocabulary, which are typically associated with syllabus design In contrast, process needs focus on the selection and arrangement of learning tasks and experiences, a realm usually linked to methodology.
According to Berwick (1990: 55), there is a crucial difference between "felt" needs and "perceived" needs in education Felt needs refer to the needs that learners themselves recognize, while perceived needs are the assessments made by qualified experts regarding the educational deficiencies in others' experiences.
Brindley (1990: 67-69) presents a table (It is after Trimby, 1979 as Brindley informs) which classifies the definitions of needs under three headings: the
“language proficiency” view of needs, the “psychological humanistic” view and the
Masuhara (1998: 240-241) summarizes the needs which are identified in the literature in a table entitled “List of needs identified in needs analysis literature”
Masuhara also concludes “ most of what has been written has focused on learners’ communicative needs.”
Richards (1990: 1) refers to the role of needs analysis in language curriculum development, “In language curriculum development, needs analysis serves the purposes of:
1 Providing a mechanism for obtaining a wider range of input into the content, design, and implementation of a language program through involving such people as learners, teachers, administrators and employers in the planning process
2 Identifying general or specific language needs that can be addressed in developing goals, objectives, and content for a language program
3 Providing data that can serve as the basis for reviewing and evaluating an existing program.”
This confirms the importance of needs analysis in language curriculum development and materials evaluation.
2.4.2 Needs analysis in General English
Needs analysis is crucial for designing both English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and General English programs However, Hutchinson and Waters (1991) argue that the needs of General English learners are often seen as indefinable This belief stems more from institutional inertia and tradition than from actual circumstances, leading to a lack of effort in identifying learners' genuine needs.
Hutchinson and Waters (1991) emphasize that any course should be grounded in an analysis of learner needs, highlighting the beneficial impact of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) on General English They advocate for a unified approach, noting that while the answers to the analysis may vary, the essential questions to be addressed remain consistent.
Numerous methods for conducting needs analysis have been proposed, including those outlined by Nunan (1999), who provides various forms for information collection Additionally, Nunan highlights a nine-element model for needs analysis developed by Munby, further enhancing the understanding of this essential process.
Harmer (1992) outlines a procedure for profiling students and assessing suitable materials, while Richards (1990) provides essential questions for communicative needs analysis Graves (2000) elaborates on the needs assessment process and offers ten items for gathering information about current and future needs, along with a framework for designing Needs Assessment Activities However, Hutchinson and Waters (1991) present a more comprehensive and learning-centered approach to analyzing target and learning needs, making their frameworks particularly applicable in the context of needs analysis.
This research aims at evaluating a coursebook thouroughly, so the next section is about evaluation.
Evaluation
According to Worthen and Sanders (1973), as cited by Richards (1990) and Brown (1990), evaluation is defined as the process of determining the worth of a program, product, procedure, or object This process involves gathering information to assess the value and effectiveness of various approaches aimed at achieving specific objectives.
Richards (1990) distinguishes between summative evaluation, which assesses a course's effectiveness upon completion, and formative evaluation, conducted during a program's development to enhance its efficiency In contrast, Brown (1990) defines evaluation as the systematic collection and analysis of relevant information aimed at improving curriculum effectiveness, efficiency, and participant attitudes within specific institutional contexts.
Brown (1990) outlines various approaches to program evaluation, including product-oriented, static characteristic, process-oriented, and decision facilitation approaches He also distinguishes between different evaluation dimensions, such as formative versus summative, product versus process, and qualitative versus quantitative Additionally, Brown presents a particularly useful evaluation procedure that enhances the effectiveness of these approaches.
Brown really gives a deep insight into different aspects of evaluation
Hargreaves (1990: 45) goes further into summative and formative evaluation by giving a checklist of factors
Educational evaluation encompasses two main approaches: the 'objectives model' and 'responsive evaluation' (Ellis, 1998) Additionally, evaluations can be categorized by timing into 'formative' evaluations, which occur during the development and teaching of a program, and 'summative' evaluations, which are conducted at the program's conclusion (Ellis, 1998).
Ellis provides a concise interpretation of Brown's (1990) concepts, though not as extensively He offers a useful checklist for task evaluation, outlines the steps for conducting a task assessment, and presents an example of task evaluation design, all of which are valuable for a thorough analysis of coursebooks.
Two aspects of materials evaluation will be explored then: the purposes for carrying out an evaluation, and the process of evaluation
Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 96) say; “Evaluation is a matter of judging the fitness of something for a particular purpose.”
And as for why evaluate materials, Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 96-97) write,
A thorough evaluation can prevent costly mistakes and frustration by guiding significant investments in educational resources, whether in published courses or customized materials Once such an investment is made, its consequences will likely be felt for an extended period, even if the decision turns out to be unfavorable.
Hutchinson and Waters (1991) highlight the importance of financial and time investments in the evaluation of coursebooks, while Cunningworth (1995) emphasizes the need for book adaptation and substitution He notes that the desire to adopt a new coursebook often drives evaluations, alongside the goal of identifying strengths and weaknesses in existing materials This process allows educators to maximize the effective aspects of their current resources while addressing and improving weaker areas through adaptations or supplementary materials from other sources.
According to Ellis (1998: 223), evaluations serve two main purposes: accountability and development Accountability focuses on assessing whether the program's goals have been achieved, while development aims to enhance the curriculum and promote teacher development Both aspects are essential for ensuring the effectiveness of educational programs.
Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 96-97) point out, “Evaluation is basically a matching process: matching needs to available solutions.”
Hutchinson and Waters (1991: 97-98) suggest a process of evaluation of four major steps:
This process is illustrated by the following figure
What realisations of the criteria do you want in your course?
OBJECTIVE ANALYSIS How does the material being evaluated realise the criteria?
MATCHING How far does the material match your needs?
On what bases will you judge materials? Which criteria will be more important?
Table 2.5a: Hutchinson and Waters’ materials evaluation process
Hutchinson and Waters (1991) provide a comprehensive checklist of criteria for both objective and subjective analyses, focusing on aspects such as audience, aims, content, and methodology While their primary focus is on English for Specific Purposes (ESP), the insights from their discussion are valuable and applicable to a broader context.
Cunningsworth (1995: 14) identifies three distinct types of evaluation based on timing: pre-use evaluation, in-use evaluation, and post-use evaluation These evaluations occur before, during, and after the use of a coursebook, tailored to the specific circumstances and objectives of the evaluation process.
Cunningsworth emphasizes the importance of evaluating coursebooks for both potential and suitability Evaluating for potential involves assessing the effectiveness of a coursebook in specific contexts, determining its strengths and the situations in which it is likely to succeed.
Evaluating for suitability is carried out to match the coursebook against a specific requirement including the learners’ objectives, the learners’ background, the resources available, ect
Cunningsworth (1995: 15-18) puts forward four guidelines for evaluation, and especially emphasizes the role of the coursebook:
“Coursebooks should correspond to learners’ needs They should match the aims and objectives of the language learning programme.”
Coursebooks must align with the current and future language needs of learners, ensuring that they are equipped to use the language effectively for their personal goals Choose coursebooks that facilitate practical language application tailored to students' specific purposes.
“Coursebooks should take account of students’ needs as learners and should facilitate their learning processes, without dogmatically imposing a rigid method.” Guideline four
“Coursebooks should have a clear role as a support for learning Like teachers, they mediate between the target language and the learner.”
Cunningsworth (1995) then not only suggests a practical quick reference checklist for evaluation and selection, he also discusses thoroughly specific criteria for evaluation
Skierso (1991: 444-453) created an Evaluation Checklist that incorporates a comprehensive list of criteria derived from multiple checklists This list was developed by adapting and adopting evaluative criteria proposed by various educators in foreign and second language teaching.
Naturally, the checklist of criteria for evaluating Let’s Learn Eglish book 1 should be drawn up based on these valuable materials
Littlejohn’s (1998: 191) concern is, “to enable a close analysis of materials themselves, as a support to designing materials, and as a preliminary step to materials evaluation and classroom research.”
Littlejohn (1998: 192-204) proposes a general framework for analysing materials, a three-level analysis of language teaching materials Each level is discussed thoroughly Example analyses are also given
Littlejohn’s (1998: 204) preliminary framework for materials analysis, evaluation and action is somewhat similar to Hutchinson and Walters’ (1991: 98) materials evaluation process
Analysis of the target situation of use
The course (proposed aims, content, methodology and means of evaluation)
1 What is their explicit nature?
2 What is required of users?
3 What is implied by their use?
To description Aspects of design Aspects of publication
How appropriate are aspects of design and the aspects of publication to the target situation of use?
Adopt the materials Reject the materials Adapt the materials Supplement the materials Make the materials a critical object
Table 2.5b: Littlejohn’s preliminary framework for materials analysis,
This chapter explores the foundational theories underpinning the evaluation process, examining the characteristics of students' learning styles and the principles of needs analysis It concludes by discussing various facets of evaluation, providing a comprehensive understanding of the subject.