Efl undergraduate students’ perceptions of paraphrasing in academic writing = nhận thức của sinh viên tiếng anh bậc đại học về kỹ thuật diễn giải trong viết học thuật

Statement of the problem and rationale for the study

Utilizing source texts is essential in higher education, as students must gather information for various writing assignments, including evaluative essays, reports, and research papers This process of integrating content from source materials into writing is crucial for academic success and is often referred to as a "new literacy." Consequently, it has become a significant focus in academic writing instruction over the past decade.

Looking into the combination of reading and writing in academic contexts, Barks and Watts (2001) have proposed the term ‘‘triadic model’’ which includes

Paraphrasing is a fundamental skill for students to master when integrating source texts into their writing, alongside summarizing and quoting (Barks & Watts, 2001; Loranc-Paszylk, 2019; Shi, 2001) Its importance is underscored by its role as a key strategy for avoiding plagiarism in academic writing (Keck, 2006; Shi, 2004) Moreover, Campbell (1990) highlights that poor paraphrasing can result in the improper use of sources.

Paraphrasing is a complex tool for handling source material, requiring students to employ both cognitive and metacognitive strategies effectively (Hirvela & Du, 2013).

Effective writing requires not only understanding the material and selecting appropriate information but also knowing how to integrate that information seamlessly into one's own text to achieve the intended purpose (Khrismawan & Widiati, 2013; Hirvela, 2004) This challenge is particularly pronounced for second language (L2) writers who navigate multiple languages, cultures, and rhetorical systems (Hirvela, 2004; Howard, Serviss, & Rodrigue, 2010; Keck, 2014; Shi, 2004).

& Du, 2013, p.2) Both studies and classroom observation have indicated that L2 writers struggle with this activity (Hirvela & Du, 2013) and often commit either intentional or unintentional plagiarism when using source texts (Pecorari, 2003,

Research indicates that many students struggle with paraphrasing due to a limited understanding of the concept, as highlighted in studies by Hirvela and Du (2013) and Khairunnisa et al (2014) Effective paraphrasing instruction goes beyond teaching strategies; it requires an exploration of students' perceptions to establish a solid foundation for their practice (Hirvela & Du, 2013) However, there is a notable lack of research focused on students' perceptions in this area Consequently, the researcher aims to investigate "EFL undergraduate students’ perceptions of paraphrasing in academic writing."

Aims and objectives

The researcher aims to deepen understanding of students' perceptions of paraphrasing in academic writing, focusing on their conceptualization, the appropriateness of paraphrasing, and the challenges they face This study seeks to answer the central question: What do students think about paraphrasing in the context of academic writing? To explore this, three sub-questions have been formulated to guide the investigation.

1 How do students conceptualize paraphrasing?

2 How do students recognize appropriate paraphrasing?

3 What are students’ perceived difficulties in paraphrasing?

Scope of the study

This study examines fourth-year students' perceptions of paraphrasing, focusing on their understanding of the concept and the criteria for effective paraphrasing A total of 25 participants from a fast-track program were selected for this research.

Significance of the study

The study aims to enhance understanding of paraphrasing skills among Vietnamese university students, providing valuable insights for university policies and faculty guidance to support students in avoiding plagiarism It also offers pedagogical implications for educators to improve their teaching methods, addressing gaps in students’ knowledge of paraphrasing By clarifying previous misconceptions, the research encourages students to deepen their understanding of paraphrasing, enabling them to seamlessly integrate other authors' voices into their own writing, a crucial step towards becoming proficient academic writers.

Organization of the study

The rest of the paper consists of five chapters as follows:

Chapter 2: Literature review – presents definitions of the key terms and concise review of related studies

Chapter 3: Methodology – explains in detail the employed method and procedure of collecting and analyzing data

Chapter 4: Findings and discussions – delivers and discusses results about undergraduates’ understanding of paraphrasing

4 Chapter 5: Conclusions – summarizes the key points and conveys the implications, limitations and suggestions for future studies

This chapter is devoted to the theoretical foundation of the study, namely the concept of paraphrasing, appropriate and inappropriate paraphrasing, and past research concerning students’ perceptions about these matters.

The concept of paraphrasing

Definition of paraphrasing

The Merriam-Webster online dictionary (n.d.) suggests that the word

‘paraphrase’ was first reported to be used in 1548 It stemmed from Latin

‘paraphrasis’ and Greek ‘paraphrazein’ which means ‘to point out’ (Loh, 2013, p

7) Since then, it has evolved into a concept that is widely used in academic writing Although there is no consensus on a single definition of paraphrasing (Hirvela &

Du, 2013; Shi, 2012; Yamada, 2003), some common elements have emerged from the work of different researchers

Paraphrasing involves using the writer's own words to restate a passage from a source, as defined by Howards et al (2010) and Akbar (2020) This process includes changing the form of the original text, with Driscoll and Brizee (2011) describing it as presenting essential information and ideas in a new form Uemlianin (2000) emphasizes that paraphrasing should reproduce both the content and structure of the source text Retaining the original meaning is crucial, as highlighted by Amoroso (2007) and others, who assert that the rewritten sentences must be equivalent in meaning to the original Additionally, proper citation is essential to acknowledge the original sources, as noted by Tabor (2013) and others.

6 act as “a signal” to readers that the information presented was borrowed from another source (p 13)

In this research, paraphrasing is defined as the process of rephrasing a source text through appropriate citations and modifications in vocabulary and grammar, while preserving the core meaning of the original material.

The role of paraphrasing in academic writing

The two main purposes of paraphrasing documented in literature are

Knowledge telling and knowledge transforming are two distinct writing processes identified in academic literature Knowledge telling involves the straightforward retelling of others' ideas without deeper interpretation or analysis, often characterized by item-by-item text generation In contrast, knowledge transforming occurs when writers engage with source material more substantively, allowing for a more nuanced understanding and application of the information This differentiation highlights the varying levels of cognitive engagement in writing practices.

Authorial intentions play a crucial role in how writers engage with original texts, allowing them to respond to the author, shift the focus, or draw inferred conclusions (Shi et al., 2018; Shanmugaraj et al., 2020) Knowledge telling highlights paraphrasing as a linguistic tool for integrating external sources into writing, while knowledge transformation emphasizes its function as a rhetorical tool for effectively conveying ideas (Na & Nhat Chi Mai, 2017; Shanmugaraj et al., 2020).

Paraphrasing plays a crucial role in academic integrity by enabling students to avoid plagiarism, which is the unauthorized use of someone else's ideas, processes, or words Studies have highlighted its effectiveness in fostering original thought and proper citation practices.

Academic misconduct, particularly plagiarism, is increasingly prevalent in higher education, largely due to the widespread availability of online writing resources for students Researchers have suggested various interventions to combat this issue, with a focus on teaching effective paraphrasing techniques Studies by Landau et al (2002) and Barry (2006) demonstrate that practicing paraphrasing not only improves students' comprehension of plagiarism but also enhances their ability to paraphrase correctly without committing academic dishonesty.

Effective paraphrasing enhances the quality of written work by facilitating knowledge transformation and mean-making (Na & Nhat Chi Mai, 2017) It allows writers to integrate the language of other authors while expanding on existing ideas to create new insights (Shi et al., 2018) Additionally, paraphrasing enables writers to support or challenge another author's viewpoint, identify misconceptions, and present contrasting arguments (Trupe, 2005) This practice enriches the depth, coherence, and persuasive impact of writing (Na & Nhat Chi Mai, 2017; Shanmugaraj et al., 2020; Shi et al., 2018), as evidenced by studies conducted by Keck (2010), Petrić (2012), Sun and Yang (2015), and Yamada.

Paraphrasing serves as a significant indicator of students' reading and writing abilities, highlighting their comprehension and skill in utilizing texts effectively (Li & Casanave, 2012; Mira & Fatimah, 2020; Keck, 2006; Wette, 2010) Teachers can leverage students' paraphrases as valuable evidence of their learning progress, as noted by participants in Mira and Fatimah's research (2020) Additionally, engaging in paraphrasing activities provides students with essential practice in close reading and writing, enhancing their overall academic skills (Hirvela and others).

Du, 2013; McCarthy et al., 2009) Research by Branch and Safashahr (2011), Ilter

Research by Setiawati (2011), Stevens et al (2019), and Stevens et al (2020) demonstrates that paraphrasing interventions significantly enhance reading skills among participants, including those with reading disabilities These studies indicate that students experience improvements in identifying main ideas and understanding text structure, as well as in recalling information from the text.

Appropriate and inappropriate paraphrasing

A topic of controversies

Researchers have explored what constitutes appropriate paraphrasing, with Howard's concept of patch-writing being a significant milestone She defines patch-writing as the practice of copying from a source text, then deleting certain words, altering grammatical structures, or substituting synonyms one-for-one (Howard, 1993, as cited in Howard, 1999, p 89).

In 1995, a simplistic approach to writing was closely associated with plagiarism Years later, Pecorari (2003, 2008) expanded on this by examining patch-writing among L2 writers in postgraduate programs She defined patch-writing as a form of paraphrasing, emphasizing that it involves editing the source material rather than independently formulating ideas to convey the original message (Pecorari, 2008).

Since the initial discussions, there has been a lack of consensus on a clear operational definition of appropriate paraphrasing, including the standards for rewording and the acceptable number of consecutive word strings Researchers in academic writing have differing opinions on how to identify acceptable paraphrases, with some adopting a stringent stance against any remnants of the original source text.

Plagiarism concerns arise from the duplication of words and phrases, as noted by Benos, Fabres, and Farmer (2005), who state that even brief repetitions can indicate plagiarism Shi (2004) defines a total paraphrase as one that does not borrow two or three consecutive words from the original text Glenn and Gray (2007) support this, emphasizing that paraphrasing should predominantly be in the writer's own words However, some researchers, like Pecorari (2003) and Keck (2006), argue that a certain percentage of borrowed words can be acceptable, with Pecorari suggesting that writings with less than 40% borrowed words are free of plagiarism, while Keck identifies 50% as a threshold for failed paraphrasing The American Psychological Association (2010) views paraphrasing as rearranging sentences and changing words, highlighting the nuanced nature of appropriate paraphrasing.

Paraphrasing poses significant challenges for L2 learners, making it more practical to assess their paraphrasing efforts based on percentage similarity to the original text rather than expecting complete originality This approach has been effectively utilized in prior research, including studies by Pinjaroenpan and Danvivath (2017) and Shi et al (2018).

Classification of paraphrasing

Several methods of classifying paraphrasing have been developed Shi (2004) identified three distinct types: "exactly copied," "modified slightly," which involves adding or omitting words or using synonyms for key content words, and "closely paraphrased."

10 paraphrased” - changing syntax or wording of the original text (p 178) As for Keck

(2006) and Roig (1999), there are two types: “superficial” and “substantial” paraphrasing While superficial paraphrasing entails minor modifications, namely word substitutions, deletions or reordering of sentence structures (Keck, 2006; Roig,

Substantial paraphrasing requires significant alterations to the original text, as noted by Keck (2006) However, the classifications proposed by Marzec-Starwiazska (2019) and Keck (2006) exhibit a degree of subjectivity, lacking definitive boundaries To address this issue, Keck developed the Taxonomy of Paraphrase Types (2014), which establishes clear criteria for distinguishing between various forms of paraphrasing (refer to Appendix A).

In her 2006 study, Keck developed a taxonomy by analyzing the paraphrasing attempts of 165 L1 and L2 undergraduate students at a US university Two independent coders, including Keck and an experienced graduate student, meticulously traced each sentence in the students' summaries back to the original source text using line number annotations on computers This analysis method, as highlighted by Keck, was previously utilized by Sherrard in 1986 and Shi.

In the study conducted by Winograd (1984) and further explored in 2004, each paraphrase was analyzed based on specific linguistic characteristics: word length, the presence of a reporting phrase, unique links, and general links (Keck, 2006, p 266) The unique links variable was particularly significant, as it was utilized to establish four distinct categories of paraphrasing: “Near Copy,” “Minimal Revision,” “Moderate Revision,” and others.

Substantial revision involves unique links, which are specific words or phrases found only in the original text, as opposed to general links that appear elsewhere in the same text (Keck, 2006) Among the four types of revisions, "Near Copy" denotes paraphrases that closely resemble the original, while "Minimal Revision" refers to paraphrases that show only slight differences from the source material.

11 the original Paraphrases with moderate differences from the original are called

“Moderate Revision” “Substantial Revision” is to categorize paraphrases with substantial differences from the original

In his research, Keck (2010, 2014) expanded the taxonomy of paraphrases by conducting qualitative analyses on 124 L1 writers and L2 students He discovered that unique links alone are insufficient for differentiating various types of paraphrases Consequently, he identified common characteristics and introduced additional linguistic criteria, including the average length of copied strings and the structural changes applied to the original text.

This study utilizes the Taxonomy of Paraphrase Types for two primary reasons: it is recognized by researchers as the most detailed and objective classification of paraphrase types (Loranc-Paszylk, 2019) and serves as a reliable method for evaluating paraphrases (Badiozaman, 2014) Additionally, this taxonomy has been widely adopted in various studies, including those by Almunawarah (2019), Badiozaman (2014), Choi (2012), and Injai (2015) For the purposes of this research, the criteria for "Near Copy" and "Minimal Revision" will be used to assess Inappropriate Paraphrasing, while "Moderate Revision" and "Substantial Revision" will be applied to evaluate Appropriate Paraphrasing.

Past research on paraphrasing in academic writing

Students’ perceptions of paraphrasing in academic writing

Perception is a complex psychological process through which individuals select, organize, and interpret sensory information to create a coherent understanding of their environment (Berelson & Steiner, 1964) According to Barber and Legge (1976), this process involves receiving, selecting, acquiring, transforming, and organizing the information provided by our senses.

7) As there is a close link between one’s perceptions and their decision-making as well as the output (de Oliveira et al., 2009; Hablemitoglu & Yildirim, 2008; Rogers

In academic writing, researchers examine students' perceptions of paraphrasing to understand its impact on their performance This section will review previous findings regarding students' views on paraphrasing, both globally and within the Vietnamese context.

A review of literature indicates that students generally have a solid understanding of paraphrasing (Khrismawan & Widiati, 2013; Mira & Fatimah, 2020; Ngan, 2018; Pinjaroenpan & Danvivath, 2017; Thadphoothon, 2019) However, many students lack awareness regarding the importance of maintaining the original meaning while altering sentence structures For example, all participants in the study by Mira and Fatimah exhibited this gap in understanding.

In Indonesia, a 2020 study revealed that paraphrasing involves using one's own words to restate paragraphs while preserving the original meaning, although only two out of 59 participants fully grasped this definition Similarly, research by Pinjaroenpan and Danvivath (2017) indicated that Thai university students defined paraphrasing as the "transferring of another's idea" using their own words, reflecting their understanding of the text Advanced EFL students in Indonesia, according to Khrismawan and Widiati (2013), echoed this sentiment, emphasizing the importance of maintaining meaning Thadphoothon (2019) found that Thai university students recognized paraphrasing as employing different words and structures while keeping the original meaning intact Additionally, a study by Ngan (2018) showed that English-majored students in Vietnam demonstrated a clear understanding of paraphrasing, acknowledging the lexical and structural differences along with semantic similarities to the original text.

Research indicates that students recognize the importance of paraphrasing primarily for meeting academic standards, rather than for enhancing their argumentation skills Studies by Badiozaman (2014), Hirvela & Du (2013), Khrismawan & Widiati (2013), Na & Nhat Chi Mai (2017), and Sun (2009) support this finding, highlighting a limited understanding of paraphrasing's role in argument development.

Hirvela and Du (2013) studied two undergraduate Chinese students using think-aloud protocols and text-based interviews to explore their decision-making processes while paraphrasing in an ESL composition program The findings revealed that instruction focusing solely on the linguistic aspects of paraphrasing led students to adopt a superficial understanding of its value, viewing it primarily as a means to enhance the linguistic and stylistic diversity of their research papers Consequently, the students preferred direct quoting as a less risky and less demanding method to utilize source texts, avoiding concerns about plagiarism.

Khrismawan and Widiati's research (2013) on Indonesian students reveals that all four advanced participants recognize the significance of paraphrasing, rating its usefulness on a scale from "very beneficial" to "not beneficial." However, when asked about the purposes of paraphrasing, they primarily identify basic functions such as avoiding plagiarism, clarifying content, and rephrasing ideas.

A study conducted among ten second-year English major students at a public university in Vietnam highlighted their limited understanding of paraphrasing While students recognize its significance in preventing plagiarism, they often overlook the potential of paraphrasing to engage meaningfully with original authors and to express their own viewpoints more effectively (Na & Nhat Chi Mai, 2017).

2.3.1.2 Students’ recognition of appropriate paraphrasing

Previous research indicates that students often have unclear or inadequate understandings of proper paraphrasing (Chandrasegaran, 2000; Hu & Lei, 2012; Khairunnisa et al., 2014; Khrismawan & Widiati, 2013; Roig, 1997, 1999, 2001; Sun, 2009) Roig (1997) found that U.S L1 students primarily rely on citation inclusion to assess the adequacy of a paraphrase In one study, a verbatim version without quotation marks but with a correct citation was deemed acceptable by 57% of participants In another instance, a paraphrase with only surface-level modifications and proper citation was considered legitimate by 65% of students, highlighting the significant role citations play in their evaluation of paraphrasing quality.

In Sun's 2009 study, which utilized a two-layer paraphrasing survey with nine scenarios, it was found that Taiwan university students predominantly favor patch-writing strategies They prioritize maintaining the accuracy of meaning relative to the source text over other considerations To preserve the integrity of the original source, these students tend to reuse language, opting for superficial alterations like using synonyms and rearranging sentences, rather than making significant changes such as altering syntax or combining ideas.

Khrismawan and Widiati (2013) found that Indonesian university students lack a clear understanding of effective paraphrasing, leading to diminished confidence in their work, as evidenced by their self-reports on the paraphrasing process and their use of meta-cognitive strategies Similarly, Khairunnisa et al (2014) attributed the poor performance of Indonesian tertiary students in paraphrasing tests to their unclear concept of what constitutes good paraphrasing.

2.3.1.3 Students’ perceived difficulties in paraphrasing

Paraphrasing presents significant challenges for writers, as highlighted by various studies (Howard et al., 2010; Keck, 2014; Na & Nhat Chi Mai, 2017; Shi, 2004) These difficulties stem from both internal factors, such as the writer's language proficiency and personal traits, and external factors, which include the characteristics of the source text itself.

Paraphrasing involves the intricate skills of reading and writing, with language competence being essential for success (Wolfersberger, 2013) Research indicates that L2 learners face challenges in paraphrasing compared to L1 learners due to their lower language proficiency (Bloch, 2009; Hirvela & Du, 2013; Keck, 2006, 2014; Liao & Tseng, 2010; Milićević & Tsedryk, 2011; Pecorari, 2003; Shi, 2004) Among various language issues, lexical problems are frequently reported, including difficulties in understanding certain words, finding appropriate synonyms, and misusing synonyms (Abasi & Akbari, 2008; Badiozaman, 2014; Bloch, 2009; Flores & Lopez, 2019; Hidayat, 2017; Liao & Tseng, 2010; Na & Nhat Chi Mai, 2017; Pecorari, 2003; Shi, 2012; Wati, 2018) Additionally, limited comprehension abilities further hinder students' paraphrasing efforts (Badiozaman, 2014; Flores & Lopez, 2019).

Research indicates that students often misinterpret texts and struggle to understand them thoroughly, which complicates their ability to identify the main ideas (Howard et al., 2010; Loh, 2013; Hyytinen et al., 2016; McInnis, 2009) Additionally, grammar challenges further hinder comprehension (Badiozaman, 2014; Liao & Tseng, 2010; Wati, 2018).

(2013) and Wati (2018) found that there are a lot of grammatical mistakes in students’ paraphrasing

Students often struggle with paraphrasing due to the features of a text, particularly its topic and difficulty level A study by Badiozaman (2014) revealed that L2 students find paraphrasing more challenging when the text covers an unfamiliar topic Additionally, Liao and Tseng (2010) identified unfamiliarity with the reading topic as one of the top three reasons for students' plagiarism Furthermore, research by Sedhu, Lee, and Choy (2013) highlights that the complexity of the text also impacts students' ability to paraphrase effectively.

(2012) and Walker (2008) both revealed that low-readability texts prevent students from engaging with them at a deep level and fully paraphrasing them

Summary

Paraphrasing is a complex skill influenced by students' perceptions and various internal and external factors While students generally grasp the concept and purpose of paraphrasing, their limited understanding of effective techniques, combined with challenges like low English proficiency, lack of self-confidence, and difficult texts, often leads to unsuccessful attempts at paraphrasing.

Paraphrasing, a crucial skill for writing from sources, presents significant challenges for students, yet it remains underexplored in L2 academic writing research (Hirvela & Du, 2013) Existing studies primarily focus on the linguistic difficulties L2 learners face when paraphrasing, revealing issues such as poor reading comprehension and limited lexical and grammatical resources (Na & Mai, 2017; McInnis, 2009; Pinjaroenpan & Danvivath, 2017) However, the perspectives of learners regarding their paraphrasing experiences have received insufficient attention (Hirvela & Du, 2013) In Vietnam, this issue is particularly pronounced, as paraphrasing remains a significantly under-researched area with minimal findings (Na & Nhat Chi Mai, 2017).

The limited research on students' perceptions of paraphrasing underscores the necessity for further investigation into this topic Informal discussions with fast-track students reveal that paraphrasing is a significant concern in their thesis writing, indicating a wealth of insights to be explored Consequently, this study aims to fill the identified gaps in understanding students' experiences and challenges with paraphrasing.

18 conducted with the aim of examining students’ perceptions of paraphrasing in academic writing

This chapter provides descriptions of and justifications for the setting, research design, participants, data collection instruments, data analysis method, data collection and analysis procedures.

Setting of the study

The study will be conducted at a public university in Hanoi, where the author has relevant hands-on experience and is currently a student familiar with academic practices At this university, paraphrasing is a key component of the writing curriculum, particularly in the fast track program, where it is covered in a dedicated lesson during the first year This lesson teaches students essential paraphrasing techniques, including the use of synonyms, structural changes, and the addition or deletion of words Additionally, paraphrasing is extensively practiced across various courses, as students are frequently required to incorporate multiple sources into their writing assignments.

To graduate with a fast track degree, students must complete research in social sciences or humanities, guided by a detailed guideline provided at the start of their seventh semester This year's guideline emphasizes academic integrity, outlining three types of misconduct: plagiarism, fabrication, and falsification of information and data, with penalties ranging from failing grades to dismissal and degree revocation Additionally, the appendix includes three examples of textual plagiarism, with comments and guidance sourced from Princeton University's website to aid students in understanding proper writing conventions.

Target population

The research is aimed at 88 fourth-year fast track students, many of whom are in the process of writing graduation theses All of them have completed a reading

In a comprehensive writing course, students engaged in a paraphrasing session during their first year and tackled a research course in their third year, culminating in a research proposal as their final assignment However, personal observations and a pilot study reveal that many students continue to struggle with paraphrasing in academic writing, especially while composing their theses Addressing these challenges will directly benefit the students by enhancing their writing skills and academic success.

Research design

This study will utilize a qualitative approach to address the research questions, as it is deemed more appropriate for paraphrasing-related research than quantitative methods (Pecorari & Petrić, 2014) Supporting this, Sun and Hu (2019) also employed a qualitative framework in their investigation of paraphrasing, highlighting the rich, in-depth information it provides Additionally, Creswell (2012) and Denzin and Lincoln emphasize the value of qualitative research in gaining comprehensive insights.

(2000) asserted, in educational research, it offers detailed description of participants’ experiences, feelings, and opinions, as well as interpretation of the meanings of their actions.

Sampling method

To effectively select suitable participants from the sample pool, the researcher will employ purposive sampling, focusing on "identifying information-rich cases for the most proper utilization of available resources" (Etikan, Musa, & Alkassim, 2016, p 2) Participants will be chosen based on specific criteria, including their availability, willingness to engage in discussions, and ability to express their opinions clearly To facilitate this selection process, a pilot study consisting of informal group discussions was conducted to assess students' working schedules, enthusiasm for the topic, and paraphrasing experience Ultimately, 25 participants were carefully selected for the study.

Data collection instrument

The researcher employed semi-structured interview According to Dunn

In 2005, a specific type of interview was introduced that focuses on predetermined open-ended questions, allowing for additional questions to arise organically during the conversation between the interviewer and the interviewee This flexible approach enables interviewers to seek clarification and modify the order and phrasing of questions to align with the interview's natural flow, facilitating a deeper exploration of significant topics as they emerge (Power et al., 2010; Berg, 2009; Ryan & Coughlan).

& Cronin, 2009) Besides, the prepared set of enquiries provide researchers with a direction and ensure that the core topics will be covered

The interview consists of two main sections: the first focuses on gathering background information and exploring students' understanding of paraphrasing, including their definitions and perceived purposes in academic writing The second section evaluates their views on appropriate paraphrasing by presenting them with an original paragraph alongside six rewritten versions, prompting them to assess each version's appropriateness and provide oral justifications The paragraphs analyzed in this section are sourced from the revised Plagiarism Knowledge Survey (PKS) by Roig (1997), with a detailed interview guide available in Appendix C.

The reason for adoption is that PKS is one of the few validated tools to assess students’ understanding of research integrity (Marusic, Wager, Utrobicic, Rothstein,

The survey developed by Sambunjak (2016) has been extensively utilized in subsequent research, including studies by Hu and Shen (2020), Hu and Sun (2006), Landau et al (2002), Pritchett (2010), and Puccio (2007) Its reliability is bolstered by the involvement of four independent judges, comprising two English professors, a Psychology professor, and an Industrial Psychologist, all of whom are writing experts (Roig, 1997) Additionally, the original text has a Flesch–Kincaid readability index of 15.62, with complexity levels for sentences and vocabulary rated at 62 and 50, respectively, on a 100-point scale (Roig, 2001), making it appropriate for the intended audience's reading capabilities.

22 fourth-year students who have considerable exposure to academic papers in their studies

In PKS, an original paragraph from Zenhausern (1978) is accompanied by six rewritten versions that maintain the core meaning of the original text These paraphrased versions do not include citations, as participants are expected to understand that the appropriate references are already provided, aligning with the specific writing style of their profession (Roig, 1997).

Based on the Taxonomy of Paraphrase Types which consists of “Near Copy”,

“Minimal Revision” as inappropriate paraphrasing, “Moderate Revision” and

The analysis of paraphrased versions in PKS revealed that the first four were deemed inappropriate, aligning with Roig's classification, while the last two were considered appropriate paraphrases A detailed comparison of the first version with the original can be found in Appendix B.

The original version The first paraphrased version

To assess whether an individual thinks visually or nonvisually, direct questioning is necessary, as subjective and objective tests of imagery ability have not shown significant performance differences Notably, many nonvisual thinkers can still exhibit vivid mental imagery.

Many nonvisual thinkers possess vivid imagery yet assert that they do not visualize their thoughts Despite subjective and objective assessments of imagery abilities not showing expected performance variations, this intriguing phenomenon highlights the complexity of cognitive processes related to thinking and imagery.

23 imagery, but they can state with confidence that they do not think in pictures" (Zenhausern, 1978, p 382) determine if a person thinks visually or nonvisually is to ask that question directly.”

The first paraphrased version closely mirrors the original text, retaining identical sentences and phrases exceeding five words, with the sole alteration being the sequence of the sentences Consequently, this rendition is deemed ineffective.

“Near Copy” or an inappropriate paraphrase.

Procedure of data collection

Before the interview, the researcher contacted participants to obtain permission and agree on a convenient date and location Students were briefed on the interview's general content and anticipated duration To make a positive impression, the interviewer arrived at the interview site 15 minutes early.

In a one-to-one interview, the interviewer outlined the research purpose and structure, ensured data confidentiality, obtained recording consent, and expressed gratitude to participants Participants were given time to read and sign the consent form, with Vietnamese as the primary language to ensure clarity and ease of expression The interviewer emphasized that there were no right or wrong answers, focusing on gathering perceptions The first part of the interview involved discussing personal experiences and opinions, while the second part provided participants with a handout of six paraphrased versions to evaluate, using a pencil to note their responses After the interview, the researcher transcribed the data for analysis.

Data analysis method

Content analysis is a widely utilized method in qualitative descriptive studies, defined as a systematic approach for coding and categorizing large volumes of textual information to uncover trends, patterns, and relationships within communication (Vaismoradi, Turunen, & Bondas, 2013; Mayring, 2000) This technique allows researchers to explore the frequency and structure of words, revealing underlying themes that may not be immediately visible As noted by Altheide and Schneider (2012), the insights gained from this method emerge through a reflective and close reading of the text, highlighting the dynamic interaction between the researcher and the documentary materials (Neuendorf & Kumar).

The data analysis process involved three key steps: initially, the researcher thoroughly examined the data to understand its content; next, the data was organized into themes to reveal patterns and relationships; finally, the researcher interpreted the findings and compiled reports.

Ethical considerations

Prior to the study, participants were provided with consent forms and informed about the study's purpose and data collection methods They were assured of the anonymity of their responses and that recordings would be kept for analysis Ultimately, informed consent for the interview was secured.

The chapter presents data related to three research questions Simultaneously, it is brought into discussion with reference to other studies’ findings.

Students’ conceptualization of paraphrasing

Students’ understanding of the concept

In general, the participants grasped the essence of paraphrasing which is

Rewriting involves rephrasing content while preserving its original meaning While many emphasize the importance of word alteration and meaning retention, aspects such as proper citation and structural changes are often overlooked.

In the context of paraphrasing, which involves altering structures and vocabulary while maintaining meaning and proper citations, it is noteworthy that none of the students acknowledged the necessity of citations This oversight is common among Vietnamese students, who often paraphrase without proper attribution Observations from a university study reveal that students tend to include acknowledgments only when explicitly required by academic standards, such as in research papers or final assignments Additionally, Ha's research on Vietnamese undergraduates suggests that students believe in-text references are unnecessary, only providing a bibliography at the end of their work.

More than half of the students surveyed (15 out of 25) demonstrated an understanding of the importance of preserving meanings in paraphrasing They emphasized that effective paraphrasing involves maintaining the original meanings, with statements like “Paraphrasing involves keeping the meanings” and “It cannot be considered paraphrasing if you change the meaning of the sentences.” A common concern among students post-paraphrasing is whether they successfully retained the meanings of the texts, leading them to verify their paraphrased versions.

Students often prioritize maintaining the original meaning when paraphrasing, even if they do not explicitly state this in their definitions This tendency aligns with findings from researchers such as Khrismawan and Widiati (2013), Mira and Fatimah (2020), Ngan (2018), and Thadphoothon (2019), who highlighted the importance of semantic completeness in paraphrasing A contributing factor may be the emphasis instructors place on preserving meaning during paraphrasing lessons, as many students reported that teachers frequently reminded them to retain the essence of the original sentences.

The majority of interviewees (20 out of 25) highlighted the significance of vocabulary change in paraphrasing, stating that it involves restating sentences in one's own words and selecting different word choices However, a few students argued that altering sentence structures alone may suffice without needing to change vocabulary This perspective aligns with findings from previous studies by Khrismawan and Widiati (2013), Mira and Fatimah (2020), Ngan (2018), Pinjaroenpan and Danvivath (2017), and Thadphoothon (2019), which also describe paraphrasing as rewriting ideas using personal language The data reveal that changing vocabulary is a prevalent strategy among participants, with many noting that they spend considerable time searching for appropriate synonyms and reviewing their vocabulary usage post-paraphrasing.

The use of different structures from the original was acknowledged by a small number of students (8/25) To illustrate, one student responded that

Paraphrasing involves modifying both the words and the structure of a given expression However, some students believe it is sufficient to change either vocabulary or structure alone, often neglecting the importance of syntactic differences This observation is supported by the findings of Khrismawan and Widiati (2013), as well as Mira and Fatimah (2020) and Pinjaroenpan and Danvivath.

In 2017, students viewed paraphrasing primarily as a technique for substituting synonyms rather than an essential component of the process This perspective was influenced by an excessive emphasis on word replacement, leading to a diminished focus on structural changes Many students indicated that they only altered sentence structures when they found it challenging to find alternative words.

Some students (5/25) gave a quite vague definition of paraphrasing such as

“You paraphrase when you use different expressions for a piece of content”,

“Paraphrasing means rewriting sentences”, “Paraphrasing is changing sentences so that it is not the same as the original while keeping the meaning” and

Paraphrasing involves expressing an idea in your own words, demonstrating your understanding of the original concept This ability is reflected in individuals' performances when tasked with identifying effective paraphrases, indicating that they possess a clear grasp of the paraphrasing process.

Students’ perceptions of the purposes of paraphrasing

The interviewed students demonstrated a solid understanding of the fundamental purposes of paraphrasing, particularly its role in rephrasing ideas However, they showed limited awareness of its more complex functions beyond basic knowledge-telling.

Plagiarism prevention is the primary reason students engage in paraphrasing, with a significant majority (23 out of 25) identifying it as the most crucial purpose Many students express that paraphrasing is their preferred method to avoid plagiarism, stating, "I mainly use paraphrasing to avoid plagiarism" and "Paraphrasing is the most effective way for me to stay away from plagiarism." This finding aligns with numerous studies, including those by Badiozaman (2014), Hirvela and Du (2013), and Khrismawan and Widiati.

(2013), Na and Nhat Chi Mai (2017) and Sun (2009)

Facilitating the presentation of ideas ranks as the second most crucial knowledge-telling purpose among students Many students (8 out of 25) noted that paraphrasing enhances writing by making it "less repetitive and more interesting to read." This technique allows writers to expand their vocabulary and use varied structures, especially when emphasizing key points that require frequent repetition.

Paraphrasing can enhance the smoothness and academic style of writing, particularly when dealing with sources that have an informal tone Hirvela and Du (2013) highlighted this effect through a participant who successfully improved her writing skills by manipulating source texts for linguistic and stylistic purposes.

Few students recognized the knowledge-transforming purposes of paraphrasing, with only two interviewees mentioning its role in adapting text to their writing intentions One student noted that paraphrasing allows writers to elaborate on ideas, adding further explanations and lengthening paragraphs Throughout the thesis writing process, they found paraphrasing to be more beneficial than anticipated, stating, “You can review and give comments on the paraphrased text For example, in the Literature Review part, I often discuss the limitations of previous findings.”

Research by Badiozaman (2014), Hirvela and Du (2013), Khrismawan and Widiati (2013), Na and Nhat Chi Mai (2017), and Sun (2009) highlights a significant lack of understanding regarding the knowledge-transforming purposes of paraphrasing among students This issue may arise from the methods used to teach paraphrasing at the university level Many students report that while they receive instruction on how to paraphrase, they do not learn how to effectively utilize these paraphrases As noted by Hirvela and Du (2013), without explicit guidance from teachers on the knowledge-transforming functions of paraphrasing, students struggle to grasp its true value and often remain confined to a knowledge-telling approach.

In addition to conveying knowledge and facilitating transformation, another key purpose of writing is to showcase language proficiency Students have indicated that paraphrasing effectively demonstrates a writer's vocabulary range and structural variety, as well as their reading comprehension skills.

29 successfully means that you have understood what the author wants to convey”

Many educators advocate for paraphrasing over direct quoting, as frequent quotations can be less effective Students have found that paraphrasing enhances their comprehension of the text, requiring them to engage more deeply with the material to express it in their own words.

Students’ recognition of appropriate paraphrasing

The most significant variations were observed in the third and fourth versions, while the other versions showed consensus among interviewees Notably, students prioritized the extent of differences, yet they also stressed the importance of preserving meaning They meticulously compared the meanings of the original text with those of the paraphrased versions.

The first version of the text was deemed inappropriate by nearly all participants (24 out of 25), who noted that it merely rearranged sentences rather than providing true paraphrasing One student expressed uncertainty but felt it was somewhat appropriate, suggesting that more changes were necessary In contrast, the second version received unanimous approval, with participants highlighting that it only involved superficial alterations, such as word replacements and deletions, which were insufficient They pointed out that the use of synonyms like “since” and “given that” or “important” and “significant” resulted in texts that remained too similar.

One interviewee found the changes acceptable, stating, "The words are changed and the logical flow is kept, and this is enough." However, regarding the third version, only 10 out of 25 students deemed it appropriate.

Paraphrasing strategies often involve altering the order and structure of sentences, as well as adding or removing words While some writers believe these modifications are adequate, others argue that such changes may not sufficiently differentiate the new text from the original Critics contend that if the two versions remain too similar, the result could be considered plagiarism.

Almost half of the interviewees (12 out of 25) deemed version 30 appropriate, citing improvements such as the inclusion of linking devices and minimal changes to specific terms However, some participants felt the differences from the original text were insufficient, suggesting modifications like rephrasing “ask that question directly.” Conversely, all students recognized the last two versions as appropriate, praising their substantial changes in both form and vocabulary, such as generalizing “subjective and objective tests” to “types of instruments” and effectively splitting the first sentence into two.

Compared to L1 undergraduate students who also completed the PKS in Roig

In a study conducted in 1997, participants demonstrated improved performance, particularly in paragraphs one and six, with a higher proportion of correct decisions compared to previous research While Roig (1997) reported that 9% to 24% of students could not provide definite answers, this study had only one such instance Unlike Roig's findings, which emphasized acknowledgment as the primary criterion for selecting appropriate texts, the current participants recognized the importance of making substantial changes to avoid plagiarism, a serious offense in university settings Many students employed plagiarism detection tools, understanding that mere superficial alterations do not qualify as acceptable paraphrases Additionally, reading well-paraphrased texts in secondary research provided valuable insights into effective paraphrasing techniques, further enhancing their skills in evaluating texts.

31 with varying levels of changes and the same correct citations, they met fewer difficulties than those in Roig (1997)

A notable trend observed in the results is that some students exhibit a tendency to engage in patchwriting, as identified in the studies by Roig (1997) and Sun (2009) Surprisingly, nearly half of the participants considered the third and fourth versions of their work to be acceptable, despite these versions being classified as inappropriate.

A significant portion of students struggle with identifying patch-writing as inappropriate, often due to insufficient instruction, as highlighted in Roig (1997) and Sun (2009) The lack of detailed feedback on paraphrasing in university classes may lead students to continue this practice unknowingly Cultural factors also play a role; in some Asian societies, knowledge is viewed as communal property, allowing for extensive borrowing of ideas with little alteration One interviewee noted that their experience with paraphrasing began in secondary school, where they frequently copied ideas from reference materials Ultimately, a lack of confidence in distinguishing their own writing from the original can further impede their ability to paraphrase effectively.

Students’ perceived difficulties in paraphrasing

On the whole, the paraphrasing problems are associated with language proficiency Lexical problems are shared by the majority of the participants (21/25)

To be more specific, finding synonyms is a demanding task for most of the participants In some cases, they are just unable to “come up with any synonyms”

Many students express concern that their choice of synonyms may alter the meanings of their texts, often reflecting on whether the paraphrased words align with the original intent Nearly half of the participants reported making mistakes with synonyms and collocations, highlighting vocabulary as a significant issue in their writing The challenge intensifies under exam conditions, where time pressure and the absence of reference materials, such as dictionaries, hinder their performance One student noted that they perform significantly better at home, where they have ample time and resources to think critically This aligns with previous research indicating that limited vocabulary is a primary obstacle to effective paraphrasing.

While grammatical difficulties are not very common among students, some have noted tendencies to repeat certain structures and make mistakes under time pressure Despite these challenges, their upper-intermediate to advanced English skills provide them with a solid grammatical foundation, setting them apart from other L2 learners who have struggled with correct structure usage in paraphrasing, as highlighted by Dung (2010), Loh (2013), and Wati (2018).

The readability of text significantly affects students' ability to paraphrase effectively Many participants, engaged in thesis writing, must navigate complex research articles that demand a high level of reading proficiency To successfully paraphrase these sources, students need to enhance their reading skills.

Understanding complex texts on intercultural communication can be challenging for participants, as highlighted by a student's experience with research in this area The terminology often differs from general meanings, requiring extensive reference to multiple articles, which can be time-consuming and exhausting Another student echoed this sentiment, noting that unfamiliar topics demand significant effort in paraphrasing, with some encountering terms for the first time and struggling to grasp their meanings Additionally, one student acknowledged the risk of misinterpreting intricate texts, leading to a distortion of the authors' intended messages This observation aligns with previous findings by Badiozaman (2014), Liao and Tseng (2010), Roig (1999, 2001), Sedhu, Lee, and Choy (2013), and Sun (2012), which indicate a correlation between text difficulty and the effectiveness of paraphrasing.

Two students reported no difficulties in paraphrasing, attributing their success to extensive practice since high school and a strong vocabulary and grammar foundation.

Summary

The interviewees demonstrated a basic understanding of paraphrasing but often overlooked the importance of citations and structural changes They recognized paraphrasing's role in preventing plagiarism but did not consider its function in transforming knowledge When tasked with identifying appropriate paraphrases, most participants made correct choices and provided reasonable explanations, although a few selected incorrect versions Students reported facing significant challenges in paraphrasing, particularly with making lexical changes and comprehending complex source texts.

This concluding chapter will summarize the findings before offering several implications for instructions as well as discussing some limitations and suggestions for further studies.

Summary of findings

The research utilizing semi-structured interviews revealed significant insights into EFL undergraduate students' perceptions of paraphrasing While students demonstrated a satisfactory understanding of paraphrasing, many overlooked the importance of citation and structural alterations in their definitions Participants recognized the role of paraphrasing in preventing plagiarism and enhancing writing variety, yet they struggled to see it as a tool for expressing personal opinions and developing ideas Although students could identify most acceptable paraphrases, some mistakenly considered versions too similar to the original as valid Vocabulary challenges were particularly prominent, with students finding it difficult to select appropriate synonyms while maintaining the original meaning Structural changes and text comprehension were also noted as challenges, albeit less frequently.

Pedagogical implications

To enhance students' paraphrasing abilities, teachers and schools should focus on students' understanding of the concept from the outset It is essential to address and clarify any misconceptions while bridging knowledge gaps related to the transformative purposes of paraphrasing By doing so, educators can significantly improve students' skills and appreciation for effective paraphrasing.

Many students view paraphrasing merely as a tool to avoid plagiarism, which leads to a lack of genuine effort in leveraging this technique to enhance their writing.

To enhance students' understanding of effective paraphrasing, it is essential to engage in comprehensive discussions about legitimate paraphrasing, supported by real examples from published articles and student papers Students should recognize that a well-crafted paraphrase not only accurately reflects the original text but also contributes to content development During practice sessions, teachers can facilitate peer comparisons and feedback on paraphrases, fostering collaborative learning Faculty members play a crucial role by establishing clear plagiarism policies that define unacceptable practices and promote good intertextual habits Interview feedback indicates that students benefit significantly from teacher guidance in clarifying the criteria for acceptable paraphrasing, reducing confusion in the process.

Research indicates that the difficulty level and topic of texts significantly influence students' paraphrasing performance Therefore, teachers should carefully select texts for paraphrasing practice, beginning with familiar subjects that are slightly below students' current proficiency levels This approach helps students focus on comprehension without feeling overwhelmed, gradually building their confidence in paraphrasing skills For more complex texts, Wette (2010) suggests an "in-between stage" where teachers can have students orally summarize the text or create graphic organizers to demonstrate their understanding.

(Wette, 2010) They can then draw on these oral summaries and reading maps to paraphrase (Wette, 2010)

To effectively address students' challenges in paraphrasing, educators should dedicate more time to this skill within academic writing and research courses Incorporating complementary skills such as note-taking, critical reading, and summarizing can enhance instructional effectiveness (Liao & Tseng, 2010; Wati, 2018) Engaging students in meaningful tasks that require contextual paraphrasing for knowledge transformation is essential, along with providing consistent and detailed feedback from both peers and teachers to support their development Many students have reported that they only recognize their mistakes when identified by others Furthermore, participants emphasized the need for additional paraphrasing practice under exam-like conditions, which simulate time constraints and the absence of reference materials To address vocabulary challenges, EFL teachers should implement effective strategies for teaching synonyms.

(2010) recommended the focus on superordinate terms which may help build the vocabulary repertoire and increase the chances of using synonyms correctly Another useful strategy is nominalization, according to Baratta (2010).

Limitations and suggestions for further research

The small sample size and shared characteristics of participants, including a common cultural background and high English proficiency with prior paraphrasing experience, limit the generalizability of the findings Consequently, these results may not accurately represent all seniors at the educational institution, particularly those with lower language skills or limited experience in paraphrasing Further research is essential to explore these diverse student groups.

Secondly, there might be a difference between students’ perceptions and actual learner paraphrasing performance The likelihood is that when students

Students may encounter greater challenges with paraphrasing than they indicated during interviews Additionally, their paraphrased content often fails to accurately represent their understanding of the concept For instance, while they recognize that effective paraphrasing requires altering syntax, their writing may still closely mirror the structure of the original source Therefore, further research analyzing students' written work or requiring them to paraphrase will enhance the findings of this study.

To gain a more thorough understanding of students' perceptions regarding paraphrasing, it is recommended to explore multiple writing genres with different levels of complexity, rather than relying solely on one type of text for the analysis.

Concluding remarks

This study utilized semi-structured interviews to explore EFL students' perceptions of paraphrasing While high-level students demonstrated a solid understanding of paraphrasing definitions and techniques, they expressed limited awareness of its purposes and faced lexical challenges These findings can guide teachers in effectively instructing students on paraphrasing, suggesting that tailored activities and text selections could enhance learning To deepen understanding of student perceptions, future research should include a larger, more diverse participant pool and investigate various genres beyond articles.

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APPENDICES APPENDIX A THE TAXONOMY OF PARAPHRASE TYPES

Children speak more like adults, dress more like adults and behave more like adults than they used to

Near Copy 50% or more words contained within unique links

- Copied strings of 5 or more words

- Simplification through synonym substitution and deletion

Nowadays, children’s behavior more like adults than they used to

20–49% words contained within unique links

Children are acting more and more like adults every day

Modern children seem to be behaving, through dress and speech, like

- Combination of synonym substitution and the revision of clause structures (e.g., ing to clause) adults at an alarmingly young age

- Use of synonymous constructions, often in the form of complex noun phrases

It seems like the things that children do and even the clothes that they wear are more adult-like than ever before

Sure, please provide the article you would like me to rewrite.

APPENDIX B PARAPHRASE TYPES IN PLAGIARISM KNOWLEDGE SURVEY (PKS)

Research indicates that traditional subjective and objective tests of imagery ability do not effectively predict differences in performance To truly understand whether an individual thinks visually or nonvisually, it is essential to ask them directly Notably, many nonvisual thinkers report having vivid imagery, yet they confidently assert that they do not think in pictures (Zenhausern, 1978, p 382).

Research reveals that many nonvisual thinkers possess vivid imagery yet confidently assert they do not think in pictures Despite subjective and objective tests failing to show expected performance differences in imagery ability, the most effective way to identify whether someone thinks visually or nonvisually is to ask them directly.

- Over 50% of words contained within unique links

- Copied strings of more than 5 words

To determine whether an individual thinks visually or nonvisually, direct questioning is essential, as both objective and subjective tests of imagery have not shown expected performance differences Interestingly, some nonvisual thinkers possess vivid imagery yet confidently assert that they do not think in pictures.

- Over 50% of words contained within unique links

- Copied strings of more than 5 words

Subjective and objective tests assessing imagery ability have not shown expected performance differences; thus, the most effective method to determine whether an individual thinks visually or non-visually is to directly pose that question.

One important finding is that many nonvisual thinkers who state with confidence that they do not think in pictures have rather vivid imagery

- Over 50% of words contained within unique links

- Copied strings of more than 5 words

Research indicates that both objective and subjective assessments of imagery ability often produce inconsistent outcomes Consequently, the most effective method to ascertain whether an individual thinks visually or nonvisually is to pose the question directly.

One important finding is that many nonvisual thinkers who state with confidence that they do not think in pictures have rather vivid imagery

- Over 50% of words contained within unique links

- Copied strings of more than 5 words

Research indicates that instruments used to measure imagery often produce inconsistent results One researcher proposes that the most reliable method to determine if someone engages in visual thinking is to ask them directly Interestingly, he observes that some individuals who claim they do not think in pictures may still experience vivid imagery.

- Under 20% of words contained within unique links

- Combination of synonym substitution, word insertion, deletion and the revision of clause structures

Various instruments designed to measure imagery have produced inconsistent results One researcher argues that the most reliable method to determine if a person thinks visually is to ask them directly However, this researcher also observes that some individuals who claim they do not think in pictures often exhibit vivid imagery.

- Under 20% of words contained within unique links

- Combination of synonym substitution, word insertion, deletion and the revision of clause structures

Sure, please provide the article you'd like me to rewrite, and I'll help you with that!

1 What comes to your mind when you hear the word ‘paraphrasing’?

2 When did you first learn about paraphrasing (read about, being taught, or hear about it)? What can you remember about that experience?

3 At your university, have you received instructions about paraphrasing?

- If yes, when, what and how were you taught about paraphrasing?

- Do you think the teaching of paraphrasing at the university is effective for you?

4 In your opinion, what does paraphrasing refer to?

5 In your opinion, what are the purposes of paraphrasing?

6 Are you writing the thesis paper?

- If yes, can you explain how the paraphrased texts support or relate to the thesis paper you are writing?

7 Think back on your paraphrasing experience Have you had any difficulties in paraphrasing?

- If yes, what were the difficulties?

- What do you think were the possible causes for these difficulties?

- How did you deal with them?

8 Have you ever wondered about how to appropriately paraphrase a text?

- If yes, can you describe what you wonder about?

The article presents an original paragraph from a research study alongside six paraphrased versions Each paraphrase is evaluated for its accuracy and coherence in relation to the original text The assessment focuses on whether the paraphrases maintain the original meaning while adhering to proper citation practices Ultimately, the evaluation determines the appropriateness of each paraphrase based on these criteria.

Research indicates that traditional subjective and objective tests of imagery ability do not reveal significant performance differences, making direct inquiry the most effective method to assess whether an individual thinks visually or nonvisually Interestingly, many individuals who identify as nonvisual thinkers report having vivid imagery, yet they assert confidently that they do not think in pictures.

Research indicates that many nonvisual thinkers possess vivid imagery yet assert they do not think in pictures As both subjective and objective assessments of imagery ability have failed to show expected performance variations, the most effective method to ascertain whether someone thinks visually or nonvisually is to ask them directly.