INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
In today's language learning landscape, the significance of interaction, particularly productive interaction (PI), is increasingly emphasized This approach creates a contextual framework that allows learners to experiment with language, receive constructive feedback, and make necessary modifications to their language use, enhancing their overall learning experience.
Language learners construct their knowledge and develop their target language (TL) through interaction with others in their learning environment Recent research has focused on interaction-based methods in language classrooms, particularly among adult learners, highlighting the benefits of peer interaction (PI) in enhancing various aspects of second language (L2) acquisition, including grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and writing skills The collaborative nature of PI has been shown to significantly promote language learning, as evidenced by numerous studies in the field.
Despite numerous studies highlighting the benefits of peer interaction (PI) in language learning and teaching, research specifically examining interaction patterns and their impact on language development, particularly in speaking skills within EFL contexts, remains limited Consequently, there is a growing trend in EFL research that emphasizes the social aspects of learning, aiming to explore how peers interact, the roles of participants, the varying levels of proficiency among peers, and the overall effects of PI on language acquisition.
2 language development, the types of interaction patterns more conducive to language learning and even the challenges peers encounter in various language settings.
Rationale of the Study
In the era of globalization, English has become a vital international language, significantly impacting education in Vietnam The Vietnamese government, along with researchers and educators, emphasizes the importance of mastering foreign languages, particularly English, through various language-in-education policies The National Foreign Language Project 2020 aims to enhance English proficiency within the national education system, fostering a workforce capable of thriving in a globalized environment To achieve this, Vietnamese educators are exploring innovative approaches to improve the relevance and effectiveness of English language teaching Over recent decades, there has been a notable shift from teacher-centered to learner-centered methodologies, with a focus on promoting learner initiative through communicative classroom activities However, despite these efforts, many Vietnamese students, including those majoring in English, still struggle with effective communication in English, primarily due to limited opportunities for oral interaction outside the classroom.
In my experience at three training colleges, I've observed similar communication challenges among English-major students This highlights the necessity of understanding how students utilize language in the classroom to better support their development By doing so, we can help them fully leverage the potential of pedagogical interventions to improve their English language fluency.
Research on peer relationships in L2 learning reveals both asymmetrical and symmetrical interactions While studies often emphasize top-down dynamics, particularly the interaction between teachers and learners (Nguyễn Thu Hiền, 2017), there remains a significant gap in understanding how EFL students engage with peers from similar backgrounds Consequently, the current focus of interaction-based research in Vietnam's tertiary education tends to prioritize unsymmetrical peer relationships, highlighting the need for a more balanced exploration of symmetrical interactions among students.
Lê Phạm Hoài Hương, 2007; Phạm Ngọc Thạch, 2015; Trần Thị Thanh Thương &
Lê Phạm Hoài Hương (2017) emphasizes the importance of examining how Vietnamese learners with varying language proficiency levels interact in English during pair work in EFL speaking contexts This research enhances the existing literature on Peer Interaction (PI) and its relationship with language learning outcomes.
The relationship between peer interaction (PI) and the development of linguistic features and language skills is evident in various EFL contexts; however, the role of PI in English speaking tasks among Vietnamese tertiary students remains under-researched There is a lack of clarity regarding how EFL college students in Vietnam utilize PI during speaking tasks To enhance English language learning through oral discussions, a thorough investigation into how learners communicate in English with peers during classroom activities is essential This study specifically seeks to explore how Vietnamese EFL college students engage in discussions, negotiate meaning, and express attitudes towards their peers and the tasks at hand, ultimately aiming to deepen the understanding of language use in speaking tasks.
Purpose of the Study
This study examines the practice of Peer Interaction (PI) within the framework of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), focusing on how Vietnamese EFL college students engage in English speaking tasks in pairs It aims to identify interaction patterns generated through PI, highlighting the linguistic advantages and knowledge construction that arise from collaborative work Additionally, the research seeks to uncover the challenges faced by students while completing peer speaking tasks.
Questions of the Study
EFL college students engage in various interaction patterns during decision-making and picture difference tasks, which significantly influence their collaborative learning experiences Through these tasks, students perceive valuable learning outcomes from peer interactions, enhancing their language skills and critical thinking abilities However, they also encounter challenges, such as language barriers and differing opinions, which can hinder effective communication and collaboration Understanding these dynamics is crucial for improving EFL instructional strategies and fostering a supportive learning environment.
Scope of the Study
This study investigates the peer interaction (PI) of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students in Vietnam during English speaking tasks It examines how students engage in various types of dialogue and the language strategies they use with their partners The research highlights the interaction patterns that emerge during these speaking tasks, as well as the learning benefits and challenges faced by students Emphasizing the significance of verbal communication, the study focuses solely on spoken interactions, excluding non-verbal elements like gestures or facial expressions from analysis Importantly, while the study identifies interaction patterns, it does not explore the reasons behind these patterns.
5 investigates the relationship between interaction patterns and the outcomes This study does not either aim to investigate personalities of the participants as it focuses more the interactions between peers
The study was conducted at a national college of education, focusing on second-year English major students primarily from rural and highland regions of central Vietnam Consequently, the findings are not applicable to EFL speaking classes in urban universities in Vietnam or in other countries.
Significance of the Study
This study aims to enhance the understanding of English classroom learning by contributing valuable insights into both theoretical and pedagogical aspects It adds to the literature on Sociocultural Theory (SCT) by exploring the social nature of learning among EFL college students in Vietnam, particularly focusing on how these students engage in peer interactions with similar language proficiency The findings reveal the dynamics of peer talk and its fluidity, offering practical principles for language learning in Vietnamese higher education EFL learners and teachers can leverage these insights to inspire the design and organization of pair work activities that promote effective language learning.
This study explores Peer Interaction (PI) through the lens of sociocultural theory and Storch’s typology, focusing on the interaction patterns among Vietnamese adult EFL students during speaking tasks By examining the types of PI and the dynamics of mutuality and equality, the research aims to enhance EFL teachers' understanding of these interaction patterns and their evolution The findings offer valuable insights into the practical application of PI processes in the classroom, equipping educators with knowledge to improve their teaching practices and foster effective language learning environments.
6 and English language teachers in particular in training, especially in speaking tasks, to make classroom interaction a rich environment conducive to FL/L2 learning
The study investigates the learning benefits and challenges of peer interaction (PI) in speaking tasks, highlighting the relationship between collaborative work and language outcomes The findings reveal both the advantages peers gain from working together and the affective factors that may hinder language learning progress As a result, language teachers in Vietnam and similar contexts should carefully consider these insights when designing their teaching activities.
This study enhances the understanding of interaction-based research on speaking skills by focusing on performance indicators in speaking tasks It specifically investigates the connection between different task types, such as consensus tasks, and interaction patterns or types of talk Consequently, the findings provide valuable insights into the design of speaking tasks that promote effective language learning.
This study explores the application of Sociocultural Theory (SCT) and Storch’s (2002) framework within the context of speaking classes in Vietnam, an area that has seen limited research By highlighting the importance of these frameworks, the study aims to inspire further educational research in diverse contexts and across various language skills Ultimately, it seeks to enhance English education programs by emphasizing the significance of language use, interaction, and learning in their curricula.
Structure of the Study
This study is structured into five key chapters: Chapter 1 presents the research rationale, questions, scope, and significance; Chapter 2 offers a literature review that explores the nature of PI and its theoretical foundations; Chapter 3 outlines the research methodology, including approaches, instruments, data collection procedures, and methods; Chapter 4 discusses the findings related to the four research questions, providing a detailed analysis; and Chapter 5 concludes with a summary of major findings, contributions to the field, pedagogical implications, study limitations, and recommendations for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sociocultural Theory Perspective of Interaction
2.1.1 Sociocultural Theory and Language Learning
Sociocultural Theory (SCT), influenced by Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, emphasizes that cognitive development begins on a social level and is later internalized within the individual The theory posits that learning occurs through social interactions, where language serves as a crucial mediational tool for learners to engage with others and their environment This interaction not only fosters collaborative learning but also aids in the individual’s cognitive development as they use language to construct knowledge internally Ultimately, SCT highlights the essential connection between social interaction and language learning, asserting that higher mental functions such as problem-solving and memory are facilitated through this mediational process.
& Thorne, 2006; Watanabe, 2014) through the people’s interaction by the use of mediational tools
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) plays a crucial role in language learning and development, emphasizing that human activities occur within cultural contexts and are facilitated by language and other symbolic systems (Lê Phạm Hoài Hương, 2003) This highlights the significance of language, as participation in culturally organized activities is essential for effective learning (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006) In essence, learning is inherently mediated by social and cultural factors through language.
8 the culturally constructed meaning, SCT followers use various key concepts among which ZPD, mediation and scaffolding are the most relevant to this current study
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) emphasizes the importance of social, cultural, and historical contexts in learning, highlighting the crucial roles of adults and peers in the educational process Within this framework, peers are viewed through the lens of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding, which are essential for language development This theory has significant instructional implications, particularly during speaking tasks where learners of varying proficiency levels engage in language use (both their first language and target language) Through the scaffolding interactions between more capable and less capable peers, language learning is facilitated and internalized, enhancing the overall educational experience.
Social Cultural Theory (SCT) emphasizes three key concepts: social interaction shapes mental processes, cultural tools mediate psychological functioning, and development occurs within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006, p 287) These concepts are essential for understanding research in second language (L2) and foreign language (FL) learning, as they highlight the integration of social interaction and cultural tools within the ZPD Essentially, SCT suggests that effective L2/FL learning and development are influenced by various factors, where the use of both the first language (L1) and the second language (L2) as symbolic mediational tools is crucial, occurring primarily through social interaction within the ZPD.
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) represents a significant advancement over the traditional cognitive approach, which primarily emphasizes individual mental processes and quantifiable performance metrics In contrast, SCT posits that cognitive development is rooted in social interactions, highlighting the importance of collaboration among learners in constructing knowledge This perspective shifts the focus of learning from static outcomes to dynamic changes and processes, as noted by Schinke-Llano (1995) By prioritizing social interaction, SCT redefines the learning experience, making it a collaborative and evolving journey.
9 and processes” occur during the interaction learning context of the language learners (peers) in their ZPD by the mediational tools through mutual scaffolding
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) emphasizes the significance of interaction in second language (L2) learning, as it is widely recognized across various language learning perspectives (van Lier, 2000) This focus on interaction has made it a pivotal aspect of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research rooted in SCT Additionally, the role of interaction, particularly productive interaction (PI), is further supported by the SCT framework, highlighting its essential contribution to effective language learning.
“individual knowledge is socially and dialogically derived” (Donato, 1994, p 51) According to SCT, learning arises not through interaction but in interaction (Ellis,
Learners initially achieve new skills with the help of others before internalizing these skills for independent use, highlighting the role of social interaction in learning (Ellis, 2000) Lantolf and Thorne (2006) emphasize the importance of peer interaction (PI) in classroom settings, as it facilitates language development by effectively guiding students within their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) through various interactive strategies (Donato, 1994; Ohta, 2001).
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) emphasizes the importance of social interaction in language learning, highlighting key concepts such as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), mediation, and scaffolding These principles work together to create a comprehensive understanding of both general and language-specific learning By focusing on the relationship between peer interaction (PI) and language development, SCT serves as an effective framework for this study.
2.1.2 Interaction and Peer Interaction in Sociocultural Theory
The concept of "interaction" is crucial in foreign language learning, as highlighted by early research on non-native speakers' (NNSs) development of second language (L2) knowledge Long's Interaction Hypothesis (1996) emphasizes the significance of comprehensible input, linking it directly to language acquisition through interactive experiences Additionally, Krashen's (1985) foundational work on input further supports the idea that meaningful interaction enhances language learning.
Research confirms that comprehensible input is essential for language acquisition, suggesting it is both necessary and sufficient Nonetheless, early interaction hypotheses have faced significant criticism for overstating the role of mere exposure to the target language (TL) in second language (L2) acquisition.
The interactionist approach to learning emphasizes that interaction is a dynamic process influenced by multiple factors, including the opportunity for learners to produce output and receive negative evidence Key theories, such as Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis and Swain’s Output Hypothesis, highlight the importance of noticing gaps in knowledge and receiving feedback However, this approach, rooted in a cognitivist paradigm, tends to view interaction primarily as an environmental trigger for internal acquisition, often neglecting the broader social contexts that enrich the learning experience.
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) offers a comprehensive understanding of the significance of interaction in language acquisition, addressing concerns related to social phenomena (Ellis, 1999) When comparing the Interaction Hypothesis and SCT perspectives on language learning, Ellis highlights the distinct roles that interaction plays in these frameworks.
The Interaction Hypothesis posits that interaction facilitates language acquisition by addressing learners' data needs, while Sociocultural Theory (SCT) perceives interaction as a social practice that shapes learning SCT adopts a holistic perspective, emphasizing the continuum from social interaction to individual development and the co-construction of knowledge Consequently, both interaction in general and peer interaction specifically are comprehensively understood within the learning context by SCT.
SCT emphasizes the significance of Private Interaction (PI) in language learning, with numerous studies supporting this theoretical framework and demonstrating its effectiveness in facilitating language acquisition (e.g., Kowal & Swain, 1997; Swain, Brooks &).
From the perspective of Sociocultural Theory (SCT), second language (L2) learning is significantly influenced by dialogic interaction, highlighting the importance of communication in both learning and development SCT posits that children acquire their first language through interactions with peers, including parents and other adults This process underscores language as a semiotic mediational tool that fosters cognitive development and language acquisition through social interactions.
Interaction and Foreign Language Learning
2.2.1 Interaction and PI in Language Learning
Interaction is crucial in Second Language Acquisition (SLA), defined as the use of language for communicative purposes, prioritizing meaning over accuracy (Philp & Tognini, 2009) It is essential for achieving communicative outcomes, yet definitions of interaction vary among researchers, leading to ambiguous interpretations The primary distinctions are between interpersonal interaction, which involves face-to-face communication and social behavior, and intrapersonal interaction, which occurs internally as different mental processes engage to build understanding, often reflected in "private speech" as per Sociocultural Theory (SCT) While interpersonal interaction encompasses both verbal and non-verbal communication, most language studies focus on verbal communication Consequently, this study emphasizes verbal interpersonal interaction in foreign language classrooms, referring to it simply as interaction.
Interactions are defined in various ways by scholars, focusing on their characteristics, processes, components, and relationships Allwright (1984) emphasizes that interaction is the "fundamental fact of classroom pedagogy," highlighting that all classroom activities occur through live person-to-person interactions In this context, interaction is seen as the essential daily activities involved in teaching and learning a language, requiring at least two participants.
Rivers (1987) and Thurmond and Wambach (2004) emphasize the importance of interaction components and processes in their definitions According to Rivers (1987, p 4), interaction encompasses both the expression and understanding of participants' ideas, highlighting that effective communication involves active listening.
According to Thurmond and Wambach (2004), true interactions in learning involve a reciprocal exchange of information among participants, including learners, instructors, and technology Interaction requires at least two participants: a sender and a receiver, or a listener and a responder The context of these interactions, often defined by communicative tasks, plays a crucial role in facilitating effective communication.
The concept of interaction in the learning process emphasizes mutual relationships, as highlighted by Wagner (1994), who describes it as “reciprocal events that require at least two objects and two actions,” indicating that these elements naturally influence one another Vrasidas and McIsaac (1999) further define interaction as the reciprocal actions of two or more actors within a specific context, while Malamah-Thomas (1987) notes that it involves continuous accommodation between interactants Thus, true interaction necessitates a two-way exchange, where participants influence each other through the giving and receiving of messages to facilitate effective communication.
Interaction is defined as a reciprocal process involving at least two participants in a learning context, essential for enhancing learners' linguistic and communicative competence Through interaction, learners can utilize their linguistic resources to communicate and address language challenges, fostering knowledge development within the learning environment Consequently, interaction is vital in foreign language teaching and learning, significantly contributing to language development.
2.2.1.2 Importance of Interaction in Language Learning
Interaction plays a crucial role in human language development, enabling individuals to articulate words, structure their thoughts into coherent sentences, express ideas and emotions, and enhance their overall linguistic skills.
Language learning is most effective through interaction, as it enables learners to engage in language functions they might not achieve independently (Ellis, 2017, p 24) Consequently, teachers prioritize verbal and communicative interactions in their lessons, positioning students at the heart of the learning process Classroom interaction serves as a vital tool for practicing the target language (TL), significantly enhancing students' communicative skills This approach provides learners with meaningful and constructive opportunities to acquire the TL, fostering a more active and engaged learning environment.
According to Willis (1996), interaction allows learners to develop essential discourse skills necessary for managing conversations and influencing the type of input they receive Similarly, Long (1996) emphasizes that interaction in the target language enhances learning, as it enables learners to focus on communication, receive feedback, and modify their output based on that feedback.
According to Rivers (1987), interaction plays a crucial role in enhancing students' language acquisition by exposing them to authentic linguistic materials and the contributions of their peers during discussions, collaborative problem-solving, and dialogue journals This engagement allows students to utilize their existing language skills effectively.
- all they have learned or absorbed in real life exchanges, where expressing their real meaning is important to them
In language learning, interaction plays a crucial role by facilitating collaborative problem-solving among learners, allowing them to overcome linguistic challenges and enhance their language skills Beyond language improvement, participants also acquire valuable learning strategies, communication skills, and collaboration techniques from one another during this process Consequently, interaction not only fosters second language development but also boosts overall learning abilities, promoting self-study and independence in language acquisition with minimal teacher intervention.
In conclusion, interaction significantly enhances language learning outcomes in classrooms, playing a crucial role in second language acquisition Various forms of classroom interaction have emerged, influenced by evolving teaching methodologies, learner engagement, and educational advancements This article will explore one particularly popular form of interaction, known as Peer Interaction (PI), within the contemporary context of English teaching and learning.
In language classes, interpersonal interaction primarily occurs through teacher-learner and learner-learner (L-L) interactions, which are influenced by the participants involved Thurmond and Wambach (2004) also highlight learner-course content and learner-technology interactions as important Teacher-learner and L-L interactions necessitate reciprocal and continuous engagement (Malamah-Thomas, 1987) to effectively complete language tasks However, L-L interaction has gained preference in contemporary foreign language (FL) and second language (L2) education, as it fosters mutual relationships and equality among participants during communicative tasks This approach is particularly beneficial for second language acquisition (SLA), emphasizing active involvement from both parties in the linguistic task completion process Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of L-L interaction is essential for successful implementation in classroom settings.
This study primarily examines L-L interaction in pairs, referred to as Peer Interaction (PI), rather than in groups The term "peer" has evolved from its original meaning of "classmates" in traditional language classrooms, reflecting the changing concepts of learning as a process of knowledge transmission.
“knowledge” from teacher to student (Philp et al., 2014, p.2) into the figurative sense of “the context for language learning” as peer learning or PI recently due to
The shift in teaching methodology emphasizes language learners as proactive agents in mastering a second language (L2) Peers play diverse roles in this process, varying in function, relationship, and proficiency during dyadic interactions According to Lê Phạm Hoài Hương (2004), peers can be native speakers, non-native speakers (NNSs), or fellow learners, as highlighted by van Lier (2000), contrasting their roles with those of teachers (Swain).
Previous Studies and Gaps in the Literature
Recent studies utilizing Sociocultural Theory (SCT) as a framework have increasingly focused on the relationship between interaction patterns and language outcomes in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts globally A review of existing research highlights the diverse contexts in which interaction-based studies have been conducted (see Appendix A, p 152) These studies address various aspects of language learning, including task construction, goal coordination, affective variables, learner cognition, and collaboration, aiming to understand how learners co-create shared meanings essential for language acquisition (Brooks & Donato, 1994; Duff & Coughlan, 1994) The present study aligns with this research trend by investigating how interaction patterns influence language learning, emphasizing the role of peers in using language as a mediational tool to support one another in completing English speaking tasks.
The majority of previous studies on PI, especially PI patterns, using SCT’s conceptual framework to study the opportunities of language learning in pairwork/
Research has demonstrated a strong link between peer interactions (PIs) and language development, particularly in English as a Second Language (ESL) contexts Notable studies by Storch (2002), Watanabe and Swain (2007), and Roberson have explored this connection across diverse language learning environments.
(2014), and EFL as in studies by Ahmadian & Tajabadi (2017), Dao’s (2017), Kim (2016); Kos (2016), Lê Phạm Hoài Hương (2007), Li (2009), Nguyễn Minh Huệ
The studies conducted by various researchers, including Phạm Ngọc Thạch (2015), Shima (2008), and Zheng (2012), primarily focus on adult participants in tertiary institutions, with the exception of Kos’s high school participants and Ahmadian & Tajabadi’s kindergarten-aged subjects These studies predominantly take place in English language classrooms, although Shima’s research is set in a Japanese class, encompassing diverse contexts across countries such as Germany, the USA, Iran, Korea, and Vietnam.
Most studies on interaction contexts, including those in Vietnam, primarily focus on face-to-face learning in language classrooms An exception is Phạm Ngọc Thạch’s (2015) research, which explores online English language learning environments The main objective of these studies is to examine learners' linguistic performance, particularly their writing skills, as highlighted in the works of Storch (2001, 2002) and Watanabe and Swain.
Research on speaking skills in Vietnam's language education remains limited, despite various studies addressing aspects such as learner performance in presentation courses (Nguyễn Minh Huệ, 2013) and teacher-learner interactions in large classes (Trần Thị Thanh Thương & Lê Phạm Hoài Hương, 2017) Investigations have also been conducted on EFL university learners engaging in convergent and divergent tasks (Dao, 2017) and third-year students in double major programs participating in group discussions (Nguyễn Thu Hiền, 2017) However, the specifics of interactions during speaking tasks—what students communicate with one another and how these interaction patterns affect their language acquisition—remain largely unexplored This highlights the necessity for further research on peer interaction (PI) and its impact on language learning in Vietnam's tertiary institutions.
This study investigates peer interaction (PI) among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students in Vietnam's higher education, focusing on pair work with minimal teacher involvement Utilizing Sociocultural Theory (SCT) as a framework, the research analyzes interaction patterns during speaking tasks and applies Storch’s categories to identify these patterns Additionally, the study aims to document students' reported learning outcomes and the challenges they face while engaging in English speaking tasks.
Summary
This chapter highlights the theoretical foundation of Peer Interaction (PI) in language learning through the lens of Sociocultural Theory (SCT), focusing on key concepts such as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), scaffolding, and mediation It refines and elaborates on essential terms related to PI in speaking tasks and reviews previous studies that frame PI within SCT across various contexts, enhancing our understanding of its role in language learning Additionally, it emphasizes the need for further research on PI in Vietnamese EFL tertiary education, particularly in speaking tasks, with the research approach and design to be detailed in the following chapter.