INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
In today's language learning environment, interaction, particularly peer interaction (PI), is essential as it creates a contextual framework for learners This approach allows students to experiment with language, receive constructive feedback, and refine their language skills effectively.
Language learners develop their target language (TL) knowledge through interaction with others in their learning environment, as highlighted by various studies (Iwashita, 2014; De Guerrero & Villamil, 2000; Donato, 1994; Ohta, 2001; Swain & Lapkin, 1998) Recent interaction-based research has focused on adult learners in peer interaction (PI) settings, demonstrating that PI enhances L2 learning across various aspects, including grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and writing skills (Nguyễn Thu Hiền, 2017) Additionally, the collaborative nature of PI has been shown to further promote effective language learning (Donato, 1994; Storch, 2001; Swain & Lapkin).
Despite numerous studies highlighting the benefits of Peer Interaction (PI) in language learning, there is a lack of research examining interaction patterns and their effects on language development, particularly in speaking skills within EFL contexts Consequently, an increasing number of EFL studies are exploring the social dynamics of learning, aiming to understand how peers interact, the roles of participants, their proficiency levels, and the overall impact of PI on language acquisition.
2 language development, the types of interaction patterns more conducive to language learning and even the challenges peers encounter in various language settings.
Rationale of the Study
In Vietnam, English has become a vital international language, significantly influencing education amid globalization The government, along with researchers and educators, emphasizes the importance of mastering foreign languages, leading to the establishment of various language-in-education policies, including the National Foreign Language Project 2020 This initiative aims to enhance English proficiency within the national education system to prepare students for a globalized world To improve English teaching methods, Vietnamese educators are increasingly adopting learner-centered approaches, focusing on promoting student initiative through collaborative classroom activities Despite these efforts, many Vietnamese students, including those majoring in English, still struggle with effective communication in English, primarily due to limited practice opportunities outside the classroom.
In my experience at three training colleges, I've observed similar communication challenges among English-major students This highlights the necessity to comprehend how students utilize language in classroom settings By doing so, we can better support them in maximizing the potential of pedagogical interventions, ultimately enhancing their English language fluency.
Research on peer relationships in L2 learning reveals both asymmetrical and symmetrical interactions While studies predominantly explore top-down, one-way interactions between teachers and students (Nguyễn Thu Hiền, 2017), there is a significant gap in understanding how EFL students engage with peers from similar backgrounds Consequently, the current focus of interaction-based research at the tertiary level in Vietnam tends to emphasize the asymmetrical dynamics of peer relationships.
Lê Phạm Hoài Hương, 2007; Phạm Ngọc Thạch, 2015; Trần Thị Thanh Thương &
Lê Phạm Hoài Hương (2017) explores the interactions of Vietnamese learners with varying language proficiency levels in pairs during EFL speaking contexts This study enhances the literature on peer interaction (PI) and its impact on language learning.
The relationship between peer interaction (PI) and the development of linguistic features and language skills has been observed in various EFL contexts; however, its impact on English speaking tasks within Vietnamese tertiary education remains under-explored This gap leaves critical questions regarding how EFL college students in Vietnam utilize PI during speaking tasks unanswered To enhance English language learning through oral discussions, a thorough investigation into how learners communicate with peers in classroom activities is essential Specifically, it is crucial to examine how students use English for discussions, negotiate meaning, and express attitudes towards their peers and the tasks at hand This study seeks to provide deeper insights into the language use of Vietnamese EFL college students during speaking tasks.
Purpose of the Study
This study examines the practice of peer interaction (PI) within the theoretical framework of Sociocultural Theory (SCT), focusing on how Vietnamese EFL college students engage in English speaking tasks in pairs It aims to uncover the interaction patterns generated through PI, highlighting the linguistic benefits and knowledge construction that arise from collaborative work Additionally, the research seeks to identify the challenges faced by students while completing these peer speaking tasks.
Questions of the Study
EFL college students engage in decision-making and picture difference tasks, showcasing distinct interaction patterns that facilitate collaborative learning Through these activities, students perceive valuable lessons from peer interactions, enhancing their communication skills and critical thinking However, they also encounter challenges, such as language barriers and differing opinions, which can hinder effective collaboration Understanding these dynamics is essential for improving peer interaction in language learning contexts.
Scope of the Study
This study investigates the peer interaction (PI) of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students in Vietnam during English speaking tasks It examines how students engage in various types of dialogue and the language strategies they employ while collaborating with partners The research highlights the interaction patterns that emerge during these speaking tasks, as well as the learning benefits and challenges faced by students The primary emphasis is on verbal interaction, acknowledging the crucial role of spoken communication, while non-verbal cues like gestures and facial expressions are excluded from the analysis Additionally, the study aims to identify interaction patterns without delving into the reasons behind them.
5 investigates the relationship between interaction patterns and the outcomes This study does not either aim to investigate personalities of the participants as it focuses more the interactions between peers
This study focuses on second-year English majors from rural and highland regions of central Vietnam at a national college of education As a result, the findings are not applicable to EFL speaking classes in urban universities in Vietnam or in other countries.
Significance of the Study
This study aims to enhance the understanding of English classroom learning through both theoretical and pedagogical lenses It adds to the existing literature on Sociocultural Theory (SCT) by exploring the social nature of learning among EFL college students in Vietnam The findings reveal how EFL students engage with peers of similar language proficiency, highlighting the significance of symmetrical relationships in language learning Furthermore, the study provides insights into the dynamics of peer talk and its fluidity, offering practical principles for peer language learning in Vietnamese tertiary education These insights can inspire EFL learners and language teachers to design and implement effective pair work activities.
This study explores peer interaction (PI) through the lens of sociocultural theory, utilizing Storch’s typology to analyze various types of PI among Vietnamese adult EFL students during speaking tasks It examines the dynamics of interaction patterns and the mutuality and equality present in these tasks The findings aim to inform EFL teachers about the diverse interaction patterns and the potential shifts in these patterns that language learners may exhibit Additionally, the data on PI processes offers valuable insights for classroom teachers, equipping them with practical knowledge to enhance their teaching practices Overall, this research provides significant pedagogical insights for language educators.
6 and English language teachers in particular in training, especially in speaking tasks, to make classroom interaction a rich environment conducive to FL/L2 learning
The study explores the learning benefits and challenges of peer interaction (PI) in speaking tasks, revealing how collaboration can enhance language outcomes while also identifying affective factors that may hinder language development These findings provide valuable insights for language teachers in Vietnam and similar contexts, emphasizing the importance of considering these elements when designing teaching activities.
This study enhances the understanding of interaction-based research in speaking skills by focusing on peer interaction (PI) during speaking tasks It specifically examines the connection between different task types, such as consensus tasks, and their corresponding interaction patterns Consequently, the findings provide valuable insights into the design of speaking tasks that effectively promote language learning.
This study explores the application of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Storch’s (2002) framework in interaction-based research within tertiary speaking classes in Vietnam, a relatively underexplored area By doing so, it aims to inspire further educational research utilizing these frameworks in diverse contexts and across various language skills Ultimately, the study seeks to enhance English education programs by emphasizing the importance of language use, interaction, and learning in their curricula.
Structure of the Study
The study is structured into five key chapters: Chapter 1 introduces the research rationale, questions, scope, and significance; Chapter 2 provides a literature review that explores the nature of PI and its theoretical background; Chapter 3 details the methodology, including the research approach, instruments, data collection procedures, and methods; Chapter 4 presents the findings and discussions that address four research questions; and Chapter 5 concludes with a summary of major findings, contributions to the field, pedagogical implications, study limitations, and suggestions for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sociocultural Theory Perspective of Interaction
2.1.1 Sociocultural Theory and Language Learning
Sociocultural Theory (SCT), influenced by Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, emphasizes that cognitive development stems from social interactions and is internalized through language This theory posits that learning occurs within social contexts as individuals engage with others, objects, and events, utilizing language as a crucial mediational tool At the individual level, language facilitates cognitive processes, enabling learners to construct knowledge Thus, SCT highlights the vital connection between social interaction and language learning, illustrating how knowledge is co-constructed and higher mental functions, such as problem-solving and logical memory, are mediated through language.
& Thorne, 2006; Watanabe, 2014) through the people’s interaction by the use of mediational tools
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) plays a crucial role in language learning and development by emphasizing that human activities occur within cultural contexts and are facilitated through language and other symbolic systems (Lê Phạm Hoài Hương, 2003) This underscores the idea that participation in culturally organized activities is vital for effective learning (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006, p 214) In essence, language serves as a medium through which learning is socially and culturally mediated.
8 the culturally constructed meaning, SCT followers use various key concepts among which ZPD, mediation and scaffolding are the most relevant to this current study
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) emphasizes the importance of social, cultural, and historical contexts in learning, highlighting the significant role of peers and adults in the educational process Within this framework, peers are understood through concepts like the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding, which are essential for language acquisition This theory has substantial instructional implications, particularly in speaking tasks where learners of varying proficiency levels interact using both their native language (L1) and the target language (TL) Through the scaffolding process, more capable peers support less capable ones, facilitating internalization and mediating language learning effectively.
Social Cultural Theory (SCT) emphasizes that social interaction shapes mental processes, cultural tools influence psychological functioning, and development occurs within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006) These concepts are crucial for understanding research on second language (L2) and foreign language (FL) learning, as they highlight the integration of the ZPD with social interaction and cultural tools Essentially, SCT posits that L2/FL learning is influenced by various effective factors, where language (both L1 and L2) serves as a vital mediational tool that operates within the ZPD and is facilitated through social interaction.
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) represents a significant shift from traditional cognitive approaches to understanding language development While cognitive approaches focus on individual mental processes and measurable performance, SCT emphasizes that cognitive development arises from social interactions It highlights the importance of collaboration among learners in constructing knowledge, positioning social interaction as central to the learning process From the SCT perspective, learning is characterized by ongoing changes and processes rather than fixed products or states (Schinke-Llano, 1995, p.22).
9 and processes” occur during the interaction learning context of the language learners (peers) in their ZPD by the mediational tools through mutual scaffolding
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) emphasizes the significance of interaction in second language (L2) learning, as it is widely recognized across various language learning perspectives (van Lier, 2000) This focus on interaction, particularly productive interaction (PI), has become a fundamental aspect of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research informed by SCT.
“individual knowledge is socially and dialogically derived” (Donato, 1994, p 51) According to SCT, learning arises not through interaction but in interaction (Ellis,
Learners initially achieve new skills with the help of others before internalizing these skills for independent use, highlighting the role of social interaction in learning (Ellis, 2000) Lantolf and Thorne (2006) emphasize the importance of peer interaction (PI) in classroom settings, as research from the sociocultural theory (SCT) demonstrates that PI can effectively scaffold language development by guiding students within their zone of proximal development (ZPD) through various interactive strategies (e.g., Donato, 1994; Ohta, 2001).
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) emphasizes the importance of social interaction in language learning and knowledge construction, highlighting principles such as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), mediation, and scaffolding These concepts are interconnected and provide a comprehensive view of learning, particularly in language acquisition Given its focus on the relationship between peer interaction (PI) and language development, SCT serves as an ideal framework for this study.
2.1.2 Interaction and Peer Interaction in Sociocultural Theory
The concept of "interaction" plays a crucial role in foreign language learning, as highlighted by early research on non-native speakers' (NNSs) development of second language (L2) knowledge through interactive methods Long's Interaction Hypothesis (1996) underscores the importance of comprehensible input in facilitating language acquisition, while Krashen's seminal work (1985) further emphasizes the significance of input in the learning process.
Research supports the idea that comprehensible input is essential for language acquisition, yet early interaction hypotheses have faced significant criticism for overstating the role of mere exposure to the target language (TL) in second language (L2) acquisition (Swain).
The interactionist approach to language learning emphasizes that interaction is a dynamic process influenced by multiple factors, such as providing learners with opportunities to produce output and presenting them with negative evidence to highlight gaps in their knowledge (Schmidt & Frota, 1986) Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis (1990) and Swain's Output Hypothesis (1995) expanded this approach by focusing on the importance of noticing forms, receiving feedback, and generating output However, critics argue that this perspective, rooted in the cognitivist paradigm, views interaction primarily as an environmental trigger for individual learning processes, rather than recognizing the significance of social contexts in the overall learning experience (van Compernolle, 2015; Philp et al., 2014).
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) offers a comprehensive understanding of the significance of interaction in language acquisition, addressing concerns related to social phenomena (Ellis, 1999) When comparing the Interaction Hypothesis with SCT, it becomes clear that SCT provides a richer perspective on the role of interaction in language learning.
The Interaction Hypothesis posits that interaction aids language acquisition by fulfilling learners' data needs, while Sociocultural Theory (SCT) considers interaction as a social practice that shapes learning SCT adopts a holistic approach, viewing interaction as a continuum that encompasses social interaction, individual development, and the co-construction of knowledge Consequently, both interaction in general and pedagogical interaction (PI) are thoroughly understood within the learning context by SCT.
SCT emphasizes the significance of Private Interaction (PI) in the learning process, with numerous studies supporting its effectiveness in language acquisition Research by Kowal & Swain (1997) and Swain, Brooks & others demonstrates that engaging in PI can facilitate language learning, confirming its valuable role in educational contexts.
From the perspective of Sociocultural Theory (SCT), second language (L2) learning is significantly influenced by dialogic interactions SCT posits that children acquire their first language through interactions with peers, particularly parents and adults (Vygotsky, 1978) Language serves as a semiotic mediational tool, facilitating cognitive development and language acquisition through social interactions Thus, SCT emphasizes the crucial role of social interaction in both cognitive and language development.
Interaction and Foreign Language Learning
2.2.1 Interaction and PI in Language Learning
Interaction is crucial in second language acquisition (SLA), defined as the use of language for communication with an emphasis on meaning over accuracy (Philp & Tognini, 2009) It serves as a key element for achieving effective communicative outcomes However, definitions of interaction vary among researchers, leading to ambiguous meanings and components The two primary types of interaction are interpersonal and intrapersonal Interpersonal interaction, described by Ellis (1999) as face-to-face communication, involves social behavior between individuals, while intrapersonal interaction occurs internally, involving mental processes and "private speech" as outlined in sociocultural theory (SCT) Although interpersonal interaction encompasses both verbal and non-verbal communication, most language studies focus primarily on verbal communication Consequently, this study emphasizes verbal interpersonal interaction in foreign language classrooms, using the term "interaction."
Interactions in the classroom are defined by various scholars, highlighting their characteristics, processes, components, and relationships Allwright (1984) emphasizes that interaction is the "fundamental fact of classroom pedagogy," asserting that all classroom activities occur through live person-to-person interaction Thus, interaction is viewed as the essential daily activity for teaching and learning languages, involving at least two participants.
Rivers (1987) and Thurmond and Wambach (2004) emphasize the significance of interaction components and processes in their definitions According to Rivers (1987, p 4), interaction encompasses both the expression and comprehension of ideas among participants, highlighting the importance of active listening in the process.
True interactions in learning involve a reciprocal exchange of information among participants, including learners, instructors, and technology According to Thurmond and Wambach (2004), effective interaction requires at least two participants: a sender and a receiver, or a listener and a responder The context of the interaction, often shaped by communicative tasks, plays a crucial role in facilitating this exchange.
The concept of interaction in the learning process emphasizes the mutual relationships between participants Wagner (1994) describes interaction as “reciprocal events that require at least two objects and two actions,” highlighting that these elements influence each other Vrasidas and McIsaac (1999) further define interaction as the “reciprocal actions of two or more actors within a given context.” Similarly, Malamah-Thomas (1987) asserts that interaction involves the continuous accommodation of participants who impact one another Thus, effective interaction necessitates a two-way exchange of messages, ensuring that communication is achieved through mutual influence.
Interaction is defined as a reciprocal process involving at least two participants within a learning context, essential for enhancing learners' linguistic and communicative competence Through interaction, learners can utilize their linguistic resources to communicate effectively and address language challenges, fostering knowledge development in the learning environment Consequently, interaction is vital in foreign language teaching and learning, significantly contributing to language development.
2.2.1.2 Importance of Interaction in Language Learning
Interaction plays a crucial role in the language development of individuals, as it enables them to articulate thoughts, express ideas and emotions, and effectively enunciate words Through engaging in conversations and social exchanges, people enhance their linguistic skills and overall language proficiency.
Language learning is most effective through interaction, as highlighted by Ellis (2017, p 24), who notes that learners can perform language functions in ways they cannot independently Consequently, teachers emphasize verbal and communicative interaction in their lessons, positioning learners at the heart of the language acquisition process Classroom interaction serves as a vital tool for practicing the target language (TL), significantly enhancing students' communicative skills This approach provides students with meaningful opportunities to engage with the TL, fostering a more active and constructive learning experience.
According to Willis (1996), interaction provides learners with essential discourse skills necessary for managing conversations and controlling input Similarly, Long (1996) argues that interaction in the target language enhances learning by allowing learners to focus on communication, receive feedback, and modify their output based on that feedback.
According to Rivers (1987), interaction among students enhances their language acquisition by exposing them to authentic linguistic materials and peer contributions during discussions, collaborative problem-solving, and dialogue journals This engagement allows students to utilize their existing language skills effectively.
- all they have learned or absorbed in real life exchanges, where expressing their real meaning is important to them
In language learning, interaction plays a crucial role in collaborative problem-solving, allowing learners to work together to overcome linguistic challenges and enhance their language skills Beyond improving language proficiency, participants also acquire learning strategies, communication skills, and collaboration techniques from one another Consequently, interaction not only fosters second language (L2) development but also boosts overall learning abilities, promoting self-study and independence with minimal teacher intervention.
In summary, interaction is essential for language learning in classrooms, significantly improving target language (TL) outcomes Different forms of classroom interaction exist, with some gaining popularity due to evolving teaching methodologies, learner engagement, and educational advancements This article will explore one prominent form of interaction, peer interaction (PI), within the current context of English teaching and learning.
In language classes, interaction primarily occurs through teacher-learner and learner-learner (L-L) interactions, which are essential for effective communication and task completion Thurmond and Wambach (2004) also identify learner-course content and learner-technology interactions as important While teacher-learner interaction is fundamental, L-L interaction has gained popularity in modern foreign language and second language (FL/L2) teaching due to its emphasis on equality and mutual engagement among learners This interactive approach fosters a collaborative learning environment, making it conducive to second language acquisition (SLA) To effectively implement L-L interaction in the classroom, educators must develop a comprehensive understanding of its dynamics and benefits.
This study primarily investigates L-L interaction in pairs, referred to as Peer Interaction (PI), rather than in groups The term "peer" has evolved significantly over time, originally denoting "classmates" in traditional language classrooms, reflecting the changing concepts of learning as a transmission process.
“knowledge” from teacher to student (Philp et al., 2014, p.2) into the figurative sense of “the context for language learning” as peer learning or PI recently due to
The shift in teaching methodology emphasizes language learners as active agents in mastering a second language (L2) Peers play diverse roles in this process, varying in functions, relationships, and proficiency levels during dyadic interactions As Lê Phạm Hoài Hương (2004) highlights, peers can be native speakers, non-native speakers (NNSs), or fellow learners, which contrasts with the traditional role of teachers (Swain, 2000).
Previous Studies and Gaps in the Literature
Recent studies utilizing Sociocultural Theory (SCT) as a conceptual framework have increasingly focused on the relationship between interaction patterns and language outcomes in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) settings worldwide A review of existing research highlights various contexts in which interaction-based studies have been conducted These studies have addressed multiple aspects of language learning, including context creation, task construction, goal coordination, and learner cognition They aim to understand how learners collaboratively construct shared understandings essential for language acquisition This study aligns with this research trend, emphasizing the role of peer interaction as a mediational tool in scaffolding language learning during English speaking tasks.
The majority of previous studies on PI, especially PI patterns, using SCT’s conceptual framework to study the opportunities of language learning in pairwork/
Research has demonstrated a strong link between peer interaction (PIs) and language development, particularly in English as a Second Language (ESL) contexts Notable studies by Storch (2002), Watanabe and Swain (2007), and Roberson highlight the significance of collaborative group work in enhancing language learning outcomes.
(2014), and EFL as in studies by Ahmadian & Tajabadi (2017), Dao’s (2017), Kim (2016); Kos (2016), Lê Phạm Hoài Hương (2007), Li (2009), Nguyễn Minh Huệ
The research studies conducted by various authors, including Phạm Ngọc Thạch (2015), Shima (2008), and Trần Thị Thanh Thương and Lê Phạm Hoài Hương (2017), primarily focus on adult participants in tertiary institutions, with exceptions for Kos’s high school and Ahmadian & Tajabadi’s kindergarten participants The majority of these studies are set in English language classrooms, although Shima’s research pertains to a Japanese class The geographical contexts span several countries, including Germany and the USA, as well as Asian nations like Iran, Korea, and Vietnam.
Most studies on interaction contexts, including those in Vietnam, primarily focus on face-to-face language learning in classrooms An exception is Phạm Ngọc Thạch’s (2015) research, which explores online English language learning environments These studies mainly aim to analyze learners' linguistic performance, particularly their writing skills, as demonstrated in the works of Storch (2001, 2002) and Watanabe and Swain.
Research on speaking skills in language education, particularly in Vietnam, has been limited, focusing more on grammatical and vocabulary aspects (Ahmadian & Tajabadi, 2017) Studies have explored various topics, such as language learners' performance in presentation courses (Nguyễn Minh Huệ, 2013), teacher-learner interactions in large classes (Trần Thị Thanh Thương & Lê Phạm Hoài Hương, 2017), and the collaborative tasks of EFL university students (Dao, 2017) However, the dynamics of student interactions during speaking tasks remain largely unexplored, raising questions about what students communicate in pairs and how these interactions affect their language acquisition This gap highlights the need for further research on peer interaction (PI) and its impact on language learning in Vietnamese tertiary education.
This study examines peer interaction (PI) among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students in a Vietnamese higher education setting, focusing on pairs working with minimal teacher involvement Utilizing Sociocultural Theory (SCT) as a framework, it analyzes interaction patterns during speaking tasks and employs Storch’s categories to identify these patterns Additionally, the research aims to document students' reported learning outcomes and the challenges they face while engaging in English speaking tasks through peer interaction.
Summary
This chapter highlights the theoretical foundation of Peer Interaction (PI) in language learning through the lens of Sociocultural Theory (SCT), focusing on key concepts such as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), scaffolding, and mediation It refines and elaborates on essential terms related to PI in speaking tasks and reviews previous studies that provide a comprehensive understanding of PI and language learning across various contexts Additionally, the chapter stresses the necessity for further research on PI within Vietnamese EFL tertiary education, particularly in speaking tasks The subsequent chapter will outline the research approach and design.