INTRODUCTION
RATIONALE
Although metaphor is deemed by most people as a matter of words rather than thought or action, Lakoff and Johnson (1980) have found that metaphor is
Metaphors are deeply embedded in our daily lives, influencing our thoughts and actions, often without our awareness They shape our conceptual framework, affecting how we perceive the world and interact with others Since language is a reflection of our thinking and behavior, understanding the metaphorical system of a language is essential for effective communication Therefore, when learning a new language, exploring its conceptual metaphors can provide valuable insights Research shows that this approach is beneficial in various fields, including literature and second language teaching, as it helps learners grasp idiomatic and polysemic expressions more effectively (Soriano, 2015).
There has been much research on the metaphors of emotions in English (Kovecses, 2005; Mashak, Pazhakh & Hayati, 2012; Patowari, 2015; Soriano,
2015), and there have been several investigations into similarities and differences in metaphors of emotions between English and Vietnamese (Huong,
In light of previous studies conducted by Nguyen (2013) and Trao (2014), this thesis seeks to enhance the understanding of the conceptual system of English by crosschecking data that varied in both sources and types of discourse.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
This study explores the conceptual metaphors of emotional concepts in English, based on Lakoff and Johnson's Conceptual Metaphor Theory (1980) By analyzing 20 public talks by American political figure Hillary Clinton, the research aims to identify the role of these metaphors in her speeches The findings are anticipated to enhance the English-learning experience for learners globally, particularly in Vietnam.
This thesis aims to identify the conceptual metaphors of emotion present in Hillary Clinton's public speeches in English and to analyze how these metaphors contribute to the effectiveness of her communication.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In order to achieve the aims and objectives of the thesis, two major questions were raised to be answered:
1 What are the conceptual metaphors of emotion in the investigated public talks of Hillary Clinton?
2 What contributions have the metaphors contributed to the talks by Hillary Clinton?
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Due to time constraints and limited access to diverse data sources, the thesis focused on analyzing 20 speeches by Hillary Clinton, a prominent American political figure The study examined her public addresses since 2016, coinciding with her second presidential campaign, as these speeches were meticulously crafted and the language used was deliberately selected, enhancing the reliability of the findings related to the conceptual metaphors of emotions.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The thesis aimed to validate Lakoff and Johnson's (1980) Conceptual Metaphor Theory by exploring the conceptual framework of emotions in English through the analysis of a contemporary American political figure's language It highlighted phrases related to emotions in English that often possess complex literal meanings, necessitating an understanding of the underlying conceptual metaphors This research is anticipated to enhance the teaching and learning of English as a foreign language in Vietnam and beyond.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE
METAPHORS AND CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS
2.1.1 Definition of metaphors and conceptual metaphors
Metaphors are commonly used in everyday language to describe abstract concepts by relating them to concrete ideas with similar characteristics Aristotle viewed metaphorical language as a persuasive and decorative tool, while Lakoff and Johnson argued that metaphors are integral to our thought processes and actions, shaping our understanding of the world They introduced the term "conceptual metaphor" in their seminal work "Metaphors We Live By," emphasizing that metaphors influence our reasoning and ultimately the way we navigate life According to them, the heart of metaphor lies in inference, allowing us to draw connections between different domains and shaping our experiences and perceptions.
Conceptual metaphor extends beyond poetry, permeating everyday language in ways we often overlook As Kovecses highlights, we utilize these metaphors daily and in various contexts, underscoring their significance in communication.
In 2002, metaphor was defined as understanding one conceptual domain through another, known as a conceptual metaphor This concept involves two domains: the source domain, which provides the framework for understanding, and the target domain, which is the subject being understood Kovecses describes a conceptual domain as a "coherent organization of experience." He also introduces the term "mappings," which refers to the systematic correspondences between the source and target domains, highlighting how elements of the source domain relate to the target domain.
Kovecses identifies that metaphors are prevalent across numerous languages, suggesting that some conceptual metaphors may be universal He supports this assertion by providing examples of universal conceptual metaphors that illustrate shared conceptual elements within the target domain.
“HAPPINESS IS UP, HAPPINESS IS LIGHT, HAPPINESS IS A FLUID IN A
The concept of "anger as a pressurized fluid or gas in a container" illustrates a common metaphor found across multiple languages, highlighting the shared conceptual frameworks within these linguistic communities However, not all conceptual metaphors are universally applicable; Kovecses points out that certain metaphors may exist in one language but lack equivalents in another's conventional linguistic structure.
Numerous studies on metaphors, as explored by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) and Kovecses (2002), highlight their significance in cognitive science, revealing that metaphors extend beyond language to encompass cognitive processes Conceptual metaphor involves the transfer of meaning between different domains, allowing us to understand one mental domain through the lens of another By learning about conceptual metaphors, we gain insights into our cognitive processes and the nature of thought, as the comprehension of a target domain is achieved through the exploration of a source domain.
2.1.2 Conceptual metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson
Lakoff and Johnson (1980) emphasize the importance of accessing abstract concepts like emotions and thoughts They argue that many of our activities are inherently metaphorical, and when a new metaphor enters our conceptual framework, it can transform our perceptions and actions Consequently, this shift can lead to the creation of a new reality shaped by these emerging metaphors.
Metaphors serve as significant cognitive tools that map concepts between different domains, comprising a source domain, a target domain, and their relational structure (Lakoff, 1992) These mappings align the cognitive framework of the source domain with the inherent structure of the target domain, allowing us to utilize our understanding of familiar concepts to comprehend new ideas This process is crucial, as it enables us to extend our knowledge and grasp novel concepts through established correspondences (Lakoff, 1987, p 270).
For example, the following expressions make use of a common metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY:
They are at the crossroad in their relationship
This relationship is not going anywhere
They’re in a dead-end relationship
For illustration, the mapping is represented as follows
Decision about direction → Choices about what to do
Destination of the journey → Goals of the relationship
Contrary to traditional beliefs, metaphorical mappings are not dynamic algorithms producing outputs from inputs; instead, they represent fixed correspondences that are activated (Lakoff, 1992) Lakoff and Johnson emphasize this perspective, highlighting the significance of these mappings in understanding language and thought.
In 1980, it was proposed that metaphoric projection involves the simultaneous activation of neural maps in the brain, suggesting that we do not need to linguistically define experiential domains as they are inherent in our experiences Our thinking relies on the sensory experiences we accumulate over time Primary metaphors, rooted in human experience, serve as foundational elements for developing more complex conceptual metaphors These metaphors function as essential tools for comprehending experiential domains that lack a preconceptual structure.
Lakoff (1992) suggests that metaphorical mappings are often made at the superordinate level, which enhances the potential for transferring complex conceptual structures from the source domain to the target domain Typically, generic-level mappings involve superordinate categories, while specific instances fall under basic-level categories When a structural correlation exists between the source and target domains, the metaphor appears more natural Furthermore, various metaphoric structures highlight different aspects of a concept, serving distinct purposes in understanding (Lakoff et al., 1980).
Lakoff and Johnson (1980) divide metaphor into three types, namely orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor, and structural metaphor
Lakoff and Johnson (1980) describe orientational metaphors as a type of metaphorical concept that organizes a system of ideas based on spatial orientation, including dimensions like up-down, in-out, and front-back They argue that these metaphors are rooted in our physical and cultural experiences, shaped by the nature of our bodies and their interactions with the environment Additionally, they note that the interpretation of orientational metaphors can differ across cultures Examples include phrases such as “HAPPY IS UP” and “SAD IS DOWN,” illustrating how emotions are often expressed through spatial metaphors.
Ontological metaphors, as defined by Lakoff and Johnson, refer to our understanding of experiences through the lens of objects and substances These metaphors enable us to categorize, quantify, and reason about our experiences, often going unnoticed due to their limited purposes They help us conceptualize events as entities, activities as substances, and states as containers Notable examples of ontological metaphors include phrases like “INFLATION IS AN ENTITY,” “THE MIND IS A MACHINE,” and “THE MIND IS A BRITTLE OBJECT.”
The final type of metaphor, i.e structural metaphor, occurs when “one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another” (Lakoff & Johnson,
Structural metaphors enhance our understanding by elaborating concepts in detail while emphasizing certain aspects and downplaying others Unlike simple orientational and ontological metaphors, structural metaphors enable us to use a well-defined concept to shape another For example, the metaphor "RATIONAL ARGUMENT IS WAR" illustrates how we can frame reasoning and debate through the lens of conflict, providing a deeper insight into the dynamics of argumentation.
“LABOR IS A RESOURCE”, and “TIME IS A RESOURCE” are examples of this type
Kovecses (2002) categorizes metaphors in various ways, focusing on aspects such as conventionality, function, nature, and generality He distinguishes between conventional metaphors, which are used naturally and effortlessly in everyday language, and unconventional or novel metaphors An example of a conventional metaphor is the phrase “I defend my argument,” illustrating how these expressions are integrated into normal communication.
“ARGUMENT IS WAR”, but that expression is so “well-worn and cliched” that speakers of English is normally unaware of the fact that such an expression is metaphorical (p 30)
EMOTIONS AND CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS OF EMOTIONS
Emotions are intrinsic to human life and serve a vital role; however, their definition differs among scholars due to varying perspectives on the concept of emotion Aristotle views emotions as essential components of human experience.
Emotions significantly influence human judgment and are often accompanied by sensations of pain or pleasure (Minsky, 2006) Minsky describes emotions as "suitcase" words, indicating their meaning is context-dependent Peter Goldie (2000) elaborates that emotions are complex, dynamic, and structured, comprising perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and bodily changes He emphasizes that emotions are intentional, directed towards specific targets Cecep Agus (2013) posits that emotions serve as a linguistic tool for communication, asserting that understanding language requires a thorough exploration of how emotions are conceptualized.
Linguistic studies reveal that metaphors are prevalent in everyday language, reflecting a person's conceptual framework (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) According to Lakoff and Johnson, metaphors are not merely rhetorical tools used by poets and speakers; they are essential cognitive structures that help individuals understand complex aspects of life As a result, human thought processes are predominantly metaphorical, highlighting the significance of metaphors in our reasoning and communication.
Kovecses (2004) divides emotion expressions into two major types, namely expressive and descriptive ones Expressive emotion expressions refer to those which can be used to express emotion, e.g “shit” (expressing anger),
Expressions like "yuk" convey disgust, while "wow" reflects enthusiasm Additionally, descriptive emotional expressions such as "anger," "angry," "joy," and "happy" effectively articulate the emotions they represent.
Kovecses asserts that figurative language, including metaphors and metonymies, serves as a descriptive expression of emotions such as sadness and depression These metaphorical expressions link two distinct domains—one often concrete and the other abstract—facilitating a better understanding of complex emotions He explores various metaphors associated with common emotions like anger, fear, happiness, sadness, love, lust, pride, shame, and surprise Kovecses identifies four universal source domains that correspond to all basic emotions through four overarching metaphor models.
- The existence of emotion is the present, for example: All feelings are gone
- The existence of emotion is restricted within a space, for example: She was in good spirits
- The existence of emotion is the owning of a physical object, for example: She has a bad hair day (She has a sad day.)
- Emotion is an object, for example: His fear grew
Cognitive linguists, despite varying research perspectives, concur that emotional concepts across diverse cultures are structured and comprehended metaphorically.
Emotional classification is a significant focus for psychologists and various other fields, including philosophy, sociology, and linguistics These classification systems typically differentiate between primary (basic) emotions, which are believed to be present in all animals, including humans, and secondary emotions, which are thought to be unique to humans Some scholars view secondary emotions as combinations or syntheses of primary emotions, while others argue they cannot be classified as basic Despite ongoing debates regarding the definitions of primary and secondary emotions, most cross-cultural researchers agree on four universal emotions: happiness, fear, anger, and sadness.
2009) Robert Plutchik (1962), with a circular approach, divides emotions into 8 basic types, namely joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, hatred, anger and precaution, which are arranged on a circle, forming 4 opposing pairs.
SOME PREVIOUS RELEVANT STUDIES
2.3.1 Studies on emotion conceptual metaphors in the world
Early studies on emotion conceptual metaphors relied on introspection and dictionary definitions to gather examples of figurative language In contrast, contemporary research utilizes extensive electronic corpora, as noted by Soriano (2015) These modern studies typically analyze collections of naturally occurring texts from diverse written and oral sources, encompassing hundreds of millions of words, providing a more comprehensive and accurate representation of a language compared to samples from individual native speakers.
Lakoff and Johnson (1980) argued that while emotions may exhibit similar physiological responses across cultures, the conceptual understanding of these emotions can differ significantly They emphasized that the experience of emotions is rooted in human physiology, yet the expression of these feelings is heavily influenced by language, which shapes our comprehension of specific emotions Moreover, the direct physical experience of emotions is not solely determined by our biological makeup, but is also influenced by complex cultural presuppositions.
In 2012, Mashak et al conducted a study exploring the universality of emotional metaphorical conceptualization in English and Persian, utilizing Kovecses’s (2003) model for linguistic expression of metaphor The research focused on five key emotions: happiness, anger, sadness, fear, and love To enhance the comparison, Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) Conceptual Metaphor Theory was also incorporated The findings revealed that anger is the most universally recognized emotion, while sadness is the least universal.
In 2015, Patowari conducted a study to investigate the Theory of Conceptual Metaphor by examining the similarities between emotion metaphors in English and Bangla The study revealed significant cross-linguistic similarities in how emotions such as happiness and sadness are conceptualized using similar source domain elements, with only a few exceptions Furthermore, Patowari asserted that emotion metaphors are largely universal, appearing consistently across diverse languages shaped by varying social, cultural, and ecological contexts.
In her 2015 discussion, Soriano explored Conceptual Metaphor Theory and its relevance to the interdisciplinary field of affective sciences She concluded that this theory offers significant advantages for understanding emotions, which are complex and multifaceted To effectively study emotions, a multidisciplinary approach is essential, incorporating insights from language, culture, and cognition.
In 2013, Nhu Quynh Luu Nguyen conducted pilot research utilizing Lakoff's conceptual metaphor theory and Kovecses' basis emotion terms By analyzing examples from the Corpus of Contemporary American English, the World Wide Web, and the VietnameseWaC corpus, she discovered that both English and Vietnamese languages share the conceptual metaphor EMOTION IS LIQUID.
In his 2014 study, Nguyen Van Trao analyzed the metaphorical conceptualization of sadness in both English and Vietnamese The research revealed that the English metaphor "SADNESS IS DARKNESS" does not exist in Vietnamese, nor does the Vietnamese metaphor "SAD IS STALE" have an equivalent in English Despite these differences, both languages share common metaphors, notably "SAD IS DOWN" and "SADNESS IS PAIN."
Phan Thi Huong (2011) explored the metaphor "Love is a journey" through the lenses of traditional and cognitive linguistics in both English and Vietnamese Her study examined the mechanisms that facilitate the metaphorization of love as a journey However, the research was confined to a singular case, limiting its broader applicability.
SUMMARY
Metaphor, often viewed as a poetic device, is fundamentally ingrained in our daily lives, influencing language, thought, and action, as proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) This study categorizes metaphors into three types: orientational, ontological, and structural, adhering to the conceptual metaphor theory outlined by Lakoff and Johnson They argue that metaphors serve as general mappings between conceptual domains, consisting of a source domain, a target domain, and a relational connection These mappings facilitate our understanding of experiential domains lacking inherent preconceptual structures Lakoff emphasizes that these mapped categories typically exist at a superordinate level, which is crucial for generic-level mapping, while specific instances are represented within basic-level categories.
Emotion is traditionally viewed as feelings that can influence human behavior and decision-making, yet its definition varies among scholars Cecep Agus (2013) emphasizes the importance of understanding how emotions are conceptualized to grasp the nature of language Kovecses (2004) identifies two main types of emotional expression: expressive, which conveys emotions, and descriptive, which describes the emotions themselves While many cross-cultural researchers recognize four basic universal emotions—happiness, fear, anger, and sadness—Robert Plutchik (1962) expands this classification to eight fundamental emotions: joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, hatred, anger, and anticipation.
Studies on emotion conceptual metaphors varies greatly among scholars Some researchers investigated the universality of emotions, whereas others checked the Theory of Conceptual Metaphor given by Lakoff and Johnson
(1980) This study was aimed to contribute to the crosschecking of Lakoff and Johnson (1980)’s Theory of Conceptual Metaphor.
METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODS
The thesis utilized a descriptive method to identify metaphorical expressions that convey various emotions in the public speeches of Hillary Clinton, a prominent American political figure By analyzing these expressions, the research aimed to determine the most and least frequently used metaphors related to emotion The findings were discussed to explore the underlying reasons for the identified emotional metaphorical conceptualizations and their impact on the public talks examined.
DATA COLLECTION
To conduct the thesis, 82 metaphorical expressions describing emotion in
A collection of 20 public talks by Hillary Clinton was sourced from reputable websites, specifically The New York Times and Iowa State University of Science and Technology Established in 1851, The New York Times is a highly influential American newspaper with a global readership, having won 130 Pulitzer Prizes and ranked among the top newspapers by circulation Iowa State University, known for its strong research capabilities and membership in the Association of American Universities, further adds to the credibility of the information obtained The selection process for the samples was conducted manually, followed by categorization based on conceptual themes for subsequent analysis.
The selection of metaphorical expressions describing emotion were based on the following criteria:
(1) The meaning of an expression could not be understood in a literal way but needed a mapping to another domain (concept) to make a sense
(2) The source domain and the target domain must be different (to distinguish from metonymy where the source domain and the target domain are the same)
(3) Those expressions were related to emotion
Based on the three criteria, a non-biased identification of metaphorical expressions was expected to bring about the most reliable stage of data analysis.
DATA ANALYSIS
The study began with an Internet search to gather public speeches by Hillary Clinton, followed by a thorough examination of these talks to identify metaphorical expressions based on established criteria The collected samples were then categorized into groups sharing a common conceptual foundation, aiming to uncover systematic patterns that highlighted recurring themes and conceptualizations Metaphors were considered to have a shared basis if they pertained to similar targets and maintained coherence in imagery, propositional content, and inferences (Kimmel, 2012, p 8) After classifying the groups, discussions were held to explore the underlying reasons for the identified conceptualizations.
RESEARCH PROCEDURES
This thesis involved a systematic approach, beginning with the identification of the target area based on the research question A decision was made to code either all or specific metaphors, with a focus on emotion-related metaphors aimed at identifying metaphorical expressions that describe emotions.
In this study, metaphor units in discourse were defined, including the criteria for borderline cases and cut-off principles It was essential to differentiate metaphor from metonymy, as metaphors link two distinct domains or concepts, whereas metonymy represents a "stand-for" relationship within a single domain The maximum text span for metaphor units was determined to be unlimited, allowing metaphorical expressions to range from single words to multi-word phrases or entire sentences.
Metaphors were organized into clusters of conceptually related tokens, allowing for the establishment of formula and metaphor coherence within each group Subsequently, the underlying reasons for the identified conceptualizations were analyzed to enhance the understanding of how conceptual metaphors convey emotions.
Finally, the research questions were answered and implications were made for teaching and learning conceptual metaphors and teaching and learning English for future research.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
FINDINGS
4.1.1 Identified metaphor expressions in the study
The study identified 82 metaphors across seven emotional categories: love, happiness, sadness, fear, hate, anger, and surprise Notably, 30 metaphors were specifically linked to love, showcasing six distinct metaphorical expressions.
LOVE IS A FLUID IN A CONTAINER (You poured your hearts into this campaign (E9_M1))
LOVE IS A RESOURCE (You’ve shown the world what Orlando is made of strength, love and kindness (E16_M3))
LOVE IS AN EXCHANGE (And you build that village by investing love and time into your relationships(E5_M4))
LOVE IS FIRE (When I learned about this many years later, I asked how she managed to grow up into a warm, loving person and not become bitter and broken (E17_M3))
THE OBJECT OF LOVE IS A VALUABLE OBJECT (My heart goes out to all of you, especially those who are the first in your family to graduate (E2_M1))
THE SUBJECT OF LOVE IS A DIVIDED SELF (Love never fails, it tells us, and I believe that (E8_M6))
Regarding the conceptualization of happiness, Hillary Clinton, in her 20 investigated public talks, utilized 7 metaphors of happiness which were categorized into 4 metaphorical expressions
HAPPINESS IS A FLUID IN A CONTAINER (It’s lasted through good times that filled us with joy, and hard times that tested us (E1_M1))
HAPPY IS LIGHT (I don't personally know any of you who are graduating, but I have to tell you, I've been up there just beaming like I'm related to most of you (E3_M2))
HAPPY IS UP (Where's Val? Val - I know - got this crowd really whipped up, and I want you to stay whipped up for Val (E16_M1))
THE OBJECT OF HAPPINESS IS A VALUABLE OBJECT (I wish you and your family all the happiness in the world You have earned it (E7_M2))
With regard to sadness, there were only 3 metaphorical expressions with 4 cases as follows
SADNESS IS A BURDEN (It has helped people deal with the sorrows that come [ ] and it has [ ] the world outside challenged the faith that comes from belief (E14_M1))
SADNESS IS A FLUID IN A CONTAINER (I know many of you are deeply disappointed about the results of the election (E8_M1))
SADNESS IS AN EXCHANGE (I’ve had the great honor of getting to know their mothers, who have turned their grief into action and their mourning into a movement (E10_M2))
Fear received a lot of attention from Hillary Clinton with 15 identified metaphors divided into 6 metaphorical expressions
FEAR IS A FLUID IN A CONTAINER (They have different, and deeper fears about the world that their grandchildren face (E14_M2))
Fear acts as a concealed adversary, hindering personal growth and development Instead of confronting fear directly, individuals should focus on learning and evolving, envisioning their potential and the positive impact they can make in our society By shifting their perspective, they can unlock new opportunities and contributions to the nation.
FEAR IS A RESOURCE (Leaders willing to exploit fear and skepticism have tools at their disposal that were unimaginable when I graduated (E5_M1))
FEAR IS A TORMENTOR/MOTIVATOR (Fear can paralyze us or spur us on(E2_M6))
Fear is a formidable opponent, and throughout my 50 years of experience, I've witnessed a wide range of responses to it What I've consistently learned is that we all have the power to choose how we confront our fears.
THE SUBJECT OF FEAR IS A DIVIDED SELF (Well, fear is always with us, but we just don’t have time for it, not now (E2_M4))
Hate was conceptualized via 5 cases with 2 metaphorical expressions as follows
Hate is a pervasive disease that can infect the heart, and it is crucial to guard against it Despite facing significant challenges and hostility, such as the powerful influence of the gun lobby, Erica remains resilient and determined to fight against hate.
Anger was conceptualized 7 times by Hillary Clinton with 5 metaphorical expressions
Anger can be likened to a captive animal, as it often arises from witnessing injustice, such as the unjust deportation of a classmate's father—a dedicated individual who contributes to both his family and society This feeling of outrage is not limited to immigrants; it resonates with anyone who values fairness and humanity.
ANGER IS A HOT FLUID (It just made me boil when Donald Trump disrespected a Gold Star Family- Mr and Mrs Khan (E11_M1))
ANGER IS AN OPPONENT (Don’t be afraid of your ambition, of your dreams, or even your anger - those are powerful forces (E5_M3))
ANGER IS FIRE (Now, there are some out there who see this as a moment to fan the flames of resentment and division (E14_M7))
THE CAUSE OF ANGER IS TRESPASSING (She gets under his thin skin like nobody else (E12_M1))
As regards the conceptualization of surprise, there were only 3 cases with
Starting your career can be daunting, and it's natural to feel overwhelmed by the challenges ahead Many share this sentiment, and it's important to acknowledge that surprise can be a powerful force in navigating these new beginnings.
4.1.2 Statistics of the identified metaphors
Following was the statistics of conceptual metaphors identified in 20 public talks of Hillary Clinton under the investigation of the study
Table 1 Types and quantity of identified conceptual metaphors
No Types of emotion Conceptual metaphor Number of identified cases
Table 1 reveals that "love" emerged as the most frequently conceptualized emotional concept in Hillary Clinton's public speeches, with 30 instances categorized into 6 distinct conceptual metaphors Following closely, "fear" was identified as the second most prevalent emotion, appearing 15 times across 6 metaphors Both "anger" and "happiness" were represented with 7 instances each, with "anger" encompassing 5 metaphors and "happiness" 4 Additionally, emotions such as "sadness" and "hate" were also noted.
The emotional concept of "surprise" was the least represented, featuring 5, 5, and 3 cases, along with 4, 2, and 1 conceptual metaphor expressions In contrast, the broader category of "emotion" was conceptualized with 2 metaphor expressions across 11 cases A detailed analysis of each specific emotional concept will be provided in the following section.
Following were the number of metaphors and the number of metaphorical expressions reconigzed in the study
Table 2 Number of metaphors and the number of metaphorical expressions reconigzed in the study
Types of metaphor Number of identified metaphors
The analysis revealed that ontological metaphors were the most frequently used, accounting for 57 instances and 21 distinct metaphorical expressions Following closely, structural metaphors were employed 27 times, featuring 10 unique expressions In contrast, orientational metaphors were utilized only twice by Hillary Clinton, comprising a single metaphorical expression.
DISCUSSION
4.2.1 Conceptualization of emotion in general
This thesis specifically examines distinct types of emotions, such as happiness, sadness, fear, pain, and surprise, rather than a general conceptualization of emotion Additionally, the analysis will be conducted whenever the speaker conceptualizes emotions or feelings broadly.
The study identified two primary conceptual metaphors for emotions: EMOTION IS LIQUID and EMOTION IS A PHYSICAL SENSATION The metaphor EMOTION IS LIQUID is a widely recognized conceptualization that structures emotions in terms of liquid, illustrating how emotions can flow and change.
1 It’s lasted through good times that filled us with joy, and hard times that tested us (E1_M1 where E was the ordinal number of the talk in the list of
20 investigated talks in the appendixes, and M was the ordinal number of the metaphor within the talk)
2 You poured your hearts into this campaign (E9_M1)
3 You have to stir up public opinion, put pressure on political leaders, shift policies and priorities, and win elections (E3_M3)
More specifically, the structural metaphor EMOTION IS LIQUID was established thanks to the following conceptualization which was provided by Nhu Quynh Luu Nguyen (2013)
The consumer/container of the liquid
-> The consumer/container of the emotion (e.g contain anger)
The act to take the liquid into the body
-> The act to take the emotion into the body (e.g consume anger, swallow sadness)
Feeling the need of the liquid -> Feeling the need of the emotion (e.g thirsty for love)
Physical state of liquid -> Physical state of emotion (e.g steaming about, boil over, simmer)
The change of physical state of liquid
-> The change of physical state of emotion (e.g steaming about, boil over, simmer)
The act to put someone in the condition of being in liquid, or to fill something with liquid
-> The act to put someone in the condition of being in emotion or to fill something with emotion (e.g soaked in love, get drenched in love, dissolve in sadness)
The amount of liquid -> The amount of emotion (e.g one drop of love)
The motion of liquid -> The motion of emotion (e.g overflowing joy, flow of love, anger surges through the body)
The condition of being in liquid -> The condition of being in emotion
(e.g fall in love, soaked in love)
The conceptualization of emotions as liquids can be illustrated through three examples: joy is depicted as a liquid that fills a human body, love is represented as a liquid poured from the heart into another object, and excitement is described as a liquid that can be stirred by people The verbs "fill," "pour," and "stir up," commonly associated with liquids, are creatively applied by Hillary Clinton to convey various emotional states, highlighting the dynamic nature of human feelings.
The conceptualization of emotions can be linked to three key factors Firstly, just as liquids exist in various states, emotions also manifest in different forms; for instance, sadness is often associated with frozen or cold liquids, while anger correlates with boiling or steaming liquids Secondly, the diverse movements of liquids—such as flowing, dropping, boiling, and simmering—provide vivid illustrations of emotional states, each reflecting varying intensities Lastly, liquids are vital for human survival, paralleling the essential role emotions play in our lives Consequently, the strong desire for specific emotions often mirrors the fundamental need for water.
In Hillary Clinton's public talks, a prominent conceptualization of emotion is framed as "EMOTION IS A PHYSICAL SENSATION." This ontological metaphor illustrates the understanding of emotions as tangible experiences, linking abstract feelings to physical sensations Furthermore, it serves as a structural metaphor, grounded in a well-defined conceptual framework Examples of this metaphorical interpretation can be observed throughout her speeches, emphasizing the connection between emotional experiences and physical states.
4 And my heart just swelled when I saw Anastasia Somoza on this stage, representing millions of young people who - because of those changes to our laws - are able to get an education (E1_M2)
5 Many of you or your friends and families are already feeling the squeeze (E2_M2)
6 Honestly, I don't know how anyone would want to rub salt in the wounds of a grieving family (E11_M2)
7 This is a heart-wrenching story on a lot of levels (E12_M4)
Mappings of this metaphorical conceptualization were proposed by Kovecses (2000, pp 132-133) and by the author of this thesis as follows
Physical contact (Kovecses) -> Emotional effect (e.g feel the squeeze, touched)
Internal sensation (Kovecses) -> Emotion (e.g heart-wrenching, heart- breaking, swelled heart)
Hurt in physical sensation (Author of the thesis)
-> Hurt in feeling (e.g it breaks her heart)
When a part of our body is injured, the sensation is clear and its intensity can be measured In contrast, emotions are more complex and less easily quantified To convey the intensity of their emotional experiences, individuals often draw parallels to physical sensations For example, Hillary Clinton illustrated her emotional pain using vivid metaphors such as a "swollen heart," "a squeeze," "wounds rubbed with salt," and "a wrenched heart," effectively communicating the severity of her feelings to her audience.
The structural metaphor EMOTION IS A PHYSICAL SENSATION was the central idea of famous theories of emotion by James’s (1890) and Schachter's
(1971) (as cited in Kovecses, 2000) Kovecses (2000) indicated that this conceptualization appeared in at least two conceptual metaphors that were widely used The first one was EMOTIONAL EFFECT IS PHYSICAL
Expressions like “her death hit him hard” and “it broke my heart” illustrate the metaphor of CONTACT, emphasizing how emotions can feel like physical sensations impacting the body This connection highlights that emotional experiences often evoke strong, tangible reactions Similarly, the metaphor EMOTION IS AN INTERNAL SENSATION is conveyed through phrases such as “my heart ached” and “my heart swelled,” which use the imagery of the heart to express deep emotional pain For instance, Hillary Clinton’s use of “swelled heart” effectively communicates her suffering, allowing the audience to visualize her emotional turmoil, despite pain being an abstract experience not easily observed.
Hillary Clinton presents various conceptualizations of love, with one key idea being that "the object of love is a valuable object." This perspective is illustrated through a range of identified examples that highlight the significance and worth attributed to love and its objects.
8 My heart goes out to all of you, especially those who are the first in your family to graduate (E2_M1)
9 And you build that village by investing love and time into your relationships (E5_M4)
10 It is great to be back in San Francisco, a place that has a big big spot in my heart and to be able to speak with all of you this afternoon (E6_M1)
Hillary Clinton employs ontological metaphors to articulate the concept of love, equating it with valuable objects and essential aspects of life She illustrates love as a precious entity, referring to it as her heart—an organ crucial to human existence—and as a grant to be invested This perspective stems from the inherent desirability of love, prompting comparisons to valuable items, such as calling someone "my treasure" or "my life." By expressing love through metaphors like "my heart goes out to all of you" and "that has a big spot in my heart," Clinton effectively conveys the profound significance of love in a more tangible manner.
The second conceptualization of love by Hillary Clinton was LOVE IS
AN EXCHANGE Following were the corresponding identified samples
11 And you build that village by investing love and time into your relationships (E5_M4)
12 As president, I will be your partner in this work of translating love into action (E20_M7)
The concept of love is often understood through the lens of exchange, as illustrated by Hillary Clinton's use of "love" to represent a valuable object This ontological metaphor frames love as something that can be invested in and translated into other forms, aligning with the metaphor that views the subject of love as a valuable object Consequently, love is frequently associated with terms related to exchange and investment, emphasizing its perceived value in interpersonal relationships.
The third conceptualization of love views it as a fluid within a container, serving as an ontological metaphor that transforms the abstract notion of love into a tangible concept This perspective aligns with the basic-level metaphor of the broader category of EMOTION, illustrating how love can be understood through more concrete imagery.
Liquid serves as a powerful structural metaphor for emotion, as both exhibit various states and forms Just as liquid can exist in multiple states, emotions can also manifest in diverse ways, allowing for a rich connection between the two Additionally, the movement and flow of liquid effectively illustrate the dynamic nature of emotions Ultimately, both liquid and emotion are fundamental aspects of human experience, highlighting their intertwined significance in our lives.
Following was the only case of this metaphorical conceptualization of love
13 You poured your hearts into this campaign (E9_M1)
In this example, "love" is metaphorically represented as the "heart," a vital organ in the human body, and is further conceptualized as a liquid that can be poured into another vessel.
The fourth metaphorical conceptulization of love was THE SUBJECT OF LOVE IS A DIVIDED SELF which was recognized through the following case
14 Love never fails, it tells us, and I believe that (E8_M6)