INTRODUCTION
RATIONALE
Translation is a crucial discipline that facilitates communication between speakers of different languages, playing a vital role in today's globalized world As international events like scientific workshops and business conferences increase, the demand for translation, particularly interpretation, has surged Although translation has been recognized since ancient times by scholars such as Cicero and Quintilian, significant research on the subject only gained momentum in the latter half of the 20th century, with notable contributions from researchers like Goldman-Eisler, Barik, Gerver, Moser, and Chernov.
Despite the significance of translating specific sentence types between languages with distinct lexical, grammatical, and cultural systems, such as English and Vietnamese, limited research has focused on this area (Larmbert, 1984; Russell, 2005) This study aims to be a pioneering effort in exploring translation strategies for English-Vietnamese translations, specifically examining three common sentence types: passive sentences, conditional sentences, and sentences with relative clauses Due to a six-month timeframe, a comprehensive study is not feasible, necessitating a focused approach on these selected sentence types.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study aims to explore the translation of three specific sentence types—passive sentences, conditional sentences, and sentences with relative clauses—from English to Vietnamese The objectives include analyzing the techniques used in translation and assessing the impact of these sentence structures on the overall meaning and fluency in Vietnamese.
1 To find out how English sentences containing relative clauses in the investigated presentations are translated into Vietnamese
2 To find out how English passive sentences in the investigated presentations are translated into Vietnamese
3 To find out how English conditional sentences in the investigated presentations are translated into Vietnamese
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Based on the aims of the study, the following questions are expected to be answered:
1 How are English sentences containing relative clauses in presentations at an ICISE’s international conference translated into Vietnamese?
2 How are English passive sentences in presentations at an ICISE’s international conference translated into Vietnamese?
3 How are English conditional sentences in presentations at an ICISE’s international conference translated into Vietnamese?
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study focuses on translation strategies for sentences containing relative clauses, passive sentences, and conditional sentences, utilizing data from presentations at international conferences held at the International Center for Interdisciplinary Science and Education (ICISE) in Vietnam, along with their Vietnamese translations The selection of these three sentence types is due to time constraints, as the study was conducted within a six-month period The choice of ICISE as the sole data source is justified by three key reasons: the accessibility of its comprehensive record system, the scientific nature of the conferences that provide a rich context for data collection, and the reliability of the translations by the director of the Vietnamese National Center for Translation and Interpretation, who served as the interpreter ICISE hosts 10 to 12 high-level international scientific conferences annually, covering a broad range of disciplines, which enhances the diversity of the data Despite focusing only on ICISE presentations, the study includes a sufficient number of samples for analysis, with approximately 120 samples for each of the three sentence types.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study aims to identify the challenges interpreters face during conference translation, particularly focusing on the translation of relative clauses, passive sentences, and conditional sentences from English to Vietnamese By analyzing the performance of the investigated interpreter, the study offers targeted recommendations for improving poorly assessed and average translations Additionally, it provides general guidelines for translating these sentence types to enhance the effectiveness of English-Vietnamese conference interpretation.
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
This study consists of 5 chapters as follows:
Chapter 1, Introduction, includes the rationale, aim and objectives of the study, research questions, scope of the study, significance of the study, and organization of the study
Chapter 2, Literature Review and Theoretical Background, provides some previous relevant studies and relevant theoretical background for the study
Chapter 3, Research Methodology, outlines the data sources and samples utilized in the study, details the data collection methods, and describes the research approaches employed It also explains the translation quality assessment techniques, the procedures followed during the research, and discusses the reliability and validity of the findings.
Chapter 4, Findings and Discussion, presents the findings of the study which is followed by a discusion
Chapter 5 presents a summary of key findings, leading to drawn conclusions and outlined implications Additionally, the study acknowledges its limitations, offering recommendations for future research endeavors.
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL
TRANSLATION AND RELEVANT ISSUES
Translation is a complex concept that varies in definition among scholars, influenced by differing mentalities and perspectives across time Catford (1965) describes translation as an operation on languages, specifically the process of substituting a text in one language with a corresponding text in another.
Nida (1969), an American scholar, stated that translation was a science, he said:
Translating involves conveying the source-language message in the receptor language by finding the closest natural equivalent, focusing primarily on meaning and secondarily on style However, this straightforward definition necessitates a thorough assessment of various seemingly contradictory factors.
In 1984, Larson emphasized that translation involves conveying the meaning from the source language to the receptor language This transformation is achieved by transitioning from the structure of the source language to that of the receptor language, facilitated by the semantic framework.
In the translation process, the primary focus should be on preserving the meaning of the source text, as it is the most crucial element While the form may change, the essence of the original message must be re-expressed and maintained in the target language This involves transferring, encoding, and accurately recording the meanings into the receptor language to ensure effective communication.
In 1988, Mary Snell-Horby, by focusing on the interaction process between the author, the translator and the reader, defined translation as follows:
Translation involves a multifaceted interaction among the source language (SL) author, the translator, and the target language (TL) reader The translator begins with the existing text and its linguistic elements, created by an author who relies on a set of typical scenes From this textual framework, the translator-reader constructs their own interpretations based on personal experiences and acquired knowledge of the subject matter.
Carbonell (2006), a Spanish language scholar, defines translation as a form of communication that facilitates the achievement of various objectives He emphasizes that the original communicative act is transferred to a different context, involving different participants and purposes, which introduces a layer of mediation that influences the entire process at multiple levels.
In her 2006 study, Marie Karlsson examined the translation of hedging, adjectives, and non-finite ing-participles in Margrit Coates' book "Horse Talking." She emphasized that translation involves conveying a message from one language to another, aiming to create a text that impacts the target reader similarly to how it affects readers of the source text This perspective highlights the significance of both the translation process and its effects on readers from diverse linguistic backgrounds.
In "Introducing Translation Studies" (2001), Jeremy Munday, an esteemed lecturer in Spanish Studies and a professional translator, highlights that the term "translation" encompasses multiple meanings It can denote the broader subject area, the final product (the translated text), or the process of creating the translation itself Munday emphasizes that translation involves transforming a written text from its original language into a different written language.
Researchers and practitioners have employed various methods to evaluate translation works, and while it's impossible to cover all approaches, this section highlights several prominent ones.
Sonia Colina (2008) identified four main translation approaches: experience-based & anecdotal, theoretical & research-based, reader-response, and textlinguistic & pragmatic Experience-based & anecdotal approaches, such as those used by the American Translators Association and the Society of Automotive Engineers, are tailored for specific industries but struggle with transferability due to their lack of a solid theoretical framework and empirical support This deficiency hinders replicability and inter-rater reliability, as there is no clear definition of translation errors, leading to subjective judgments among raters In culturally nuanced fields like translation, the absence of well-defined criteria results in significant variability and increased subjectivity, ultimately undermining the reliability of these approaches.
Theoretical and research-based approaches in translation are grounded in specific frameworks and assumptions, emphasizing the user of translation works However, these approaches face limitations that hinder their broader implementation As noted by Colina (2008), their primary focus on quality aspects often neglects the interdisciplinary nature of translation, making them challenging to apply in various professional and educational contexts.
Reader-response approaches evaluate translation quality by examining if readers engage with the translation in the same way they would with the original text This method emphasizes the importance of reader perception and experience, as highlighted by Nida and others in their seminal works.
In the 1960s, influenced by behavioristic views in the United States, Nida (1964) introduced response-based tests to evaluate translation quality, including techniques like reading aloud, cloze tasks, and rating tasks Nida and Taber (1969) proposed three assessment criteria: the extent to which target language (TL) readers understand the source language (SL) message, the comprehensibility of the translation, and reader involvement However, these tests did not gain popularity, as reader responses alone were deemed insufficient for assessing translation quality (House, 2015) Additionally, this approach faced criticism for not adequately considering the source text during the evaluation process (Hằng).
Functionalism in translation, rooted in the work of German scholars like Hans J Vermeer and Katharina Reiss, emphasizes the "skopos" or purpose of translation This approach prioritizes the intended receiver of the translation, recognizing that translation is a purposeful activity focused on communication rather than mere transcoding Skopos theory allows for various translation methods based on different objectives, granting translators the freedom to choose strategies that align with their goals However, it is important to note that skopos theory lacks the empirical testing required to be classified as a true scientific theory, as its prescriptions remain largely idealistic rather than tested hypotheses.
Reader-response approaches to translation are often viewed as controversial due to the difficulty in measuring reader responses and their varying significance across different translation contexts, particularly in non-reader-oriented texts like legal documents These approaches tend to focus narrowly on the equivalence of effect on the reader, overlooking other critical factors such as the translation's purpose and context Additionally, determining the equivalence of responses among different reader groups can be problematic, as even subtle differences can lead to varied interpretations Evaluating translation quality based on reader response is also a time-consuming process that requires careful selection of the intended audience Nonetheless, reader-response approaches are recognized for their emphasis on the audience's role and the impact of translations on readers as a measure of translation quality.
INVESTIGATED TYPES OF SENTENCE
2.2.1 Sentences containing relative clauses, conditional sentences and passive sentences in English
This section classifies various types of sentences based on traditional English grammar, while also categorizing their Vietnamese equivalents according to Vietnamese grammar Specifically, it focuses on sentences that contain relative clauses.
Thomson and Martinet (1986) identify three types of relative clauses: defining, non-defining, and connective A defining relative clause specifies the preceding noun, distinguishing it from others in the same category and is crucial for understanding the noun clearly Common relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses include who, which, and that.
Table 1 Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses
For persons who whom/who whose that that
For things which which whose/of which that that
Non-defining relative clauses provide additional information about a noun that is already definite, without defining it These clauses are not essential for understanding the sentence and can be removed without causing confusion Unlike defining relative clauses, they are separated from the noun by commas, and the pronoun cannot be omitted This construction is generally more formal and is frequently found in written English Common relative pronouns used in non-defining relative clauses include "who," "which," and "that."
Table 2 Relative pronouns used in non-defining relative clauses
For persons who whom/who whose
For things which which whose/of which
Connective clauses enhance storytelling rather than describing nouns, and they utilize commas similarly to non-defining relative clauses The pronouns commonly used in these clauses include who, whom, whose, and which, typically positioned after the object of the main verb While it can sometimes be challenging to differentiate between non-defining and connective clauses, students need not worry about this distinction, as both forms function in the same way.
Restrictive relative clauses modify a head noun that is part of a class, making it identifiable solely through that modification, as stated by Quirk and Greenbaum (1985) In contrast, non-restrictive relative clauses modify a head noun that is either unique or already identified in prior context A specific type of non-restrictive clause is the sentential relative clause, which refers to an entire clause or sentence rather than just a noun phrase.
In "Practical English Usage," Michael Swan (2016) describes two types of relative clauses: identifying clauses, which specify or classify nouns, and non-identifying clauses, which provide additional information without classification Identifying relative clauses, also known as defining or restrictive clauses, clarify which person or thing is being referred to, while non-identifying relative clauses, referred to as non-defining or non-restrictive clauses, merely add details about an already identified noun Similarly, in "Understanding and Using English Grammar," Betty S Azar and Stacy A Hagen (2017) categorize these clauses into essential (restrictive) relative clauses that do not require commas, and nonessential (nonrestrictive) relative clauses.
For the purpose of this study, sentences containing relative clauses are those having a clause following a noun phrase and modify it b Conditional sentences
Conditional sentences are structured around an if-clause, which sets a condition for the main clause to occur (Swan, 2016) Thomson and Martinet (1986) categorize these sentences into three types: Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3, each using different tense pairs to convey distinct meanings Type 1 suggests a probable action in the present or future, with the if-clause typically in the present tense Type 2, while also referring to the present or future, uses a subjunctive past tense in the if-clause to indicate improbability or unreality Finally, Type 3 reflects unreal conditions in the past, employing the past perfect tense in the if-clause and the perfect conditional in the main clause, signifying that the condition was never fulfilled.
Azar and Hagen (2017) identified three types of conditional sentences: those that convey real conditions in the present or future, those that indicate unreal conditions in the present or future, and those that reflect unreal conditions in the past.
In "A University Grammar of English" (1985), Quirk and Greenbaum identify two types of conditions: real and unreal A real condition leaves the fulfillment of the condition and the truth of the main clause's proposition uncertain In contrast, an unreal condition clearly indicates that the condition is not expected to be fulfilled Unreal conditions are further divided into two sub-types: one relating to the present and the other to the past, corresponding to Thomson & Martinet's conditional sentence types 2 and 3 (1986).
In 1985, alternatives to the traditional if-structure for expressing conditions were identified, including terms like unless, provided that, and as soon as Additionally, grammarians agreed that these were not the only forms of conditional sentences Notably, mixed tense conditional sentences also exist, which do not conform to the previously mentioned patterns.
In this study, conditional sentences are defined in accordance with Thomson and Martinet’s definition including some alternatives for the if-structure as mentioned in Quirk
Passive form of a verb is normally made by using tenses of the auxiliary “be” followed by the past participle of the verb (Swan, 2016; Thomson & Martinet, 1986; Azar
In passive voice constructions, the subject of the active verb becomes the "agent" of the passive verb, often omitted but sometimes included at the end of the clause preceded by "by." According to Quirk and Greenbaum (1985), the use of passive voice serves to invert the typical order of "agentive" and "affected" elements, allowing for an adjustment in clause structure that emphasizes new information towards the end (end-focus) and allocates the final position for more complex components (end-weight).
The passive voice is often employed without a by-phrase, particularly when the identity of the doer is unknown or irrelevant This construction is commonly used in situations where the focus is on the action itself rather than the actor.
In certain cases, speakers may opt for the passive voice with a by-phrase to shift focus onto the subject of the sentence (Azar & Hagen, 2017) However, not all verbs can be transformed into passive forms, particularly intransitive verbs, which lack an object and thus cannot serve as the subject in a passive construction (Swan, 2016; Azar & Hagen, 2017) Essentially, a sentence can be identified as passive if it follows the structure "be + past participle."
Despite of the fact that the terms “relative clauses”, “conditional sentences” and
In Vietnamese, there are equivalents to English "passive sentences," although such structures do not exist in Vietnamese grammar To convey similar meanings, Vietnamese often employs relative clauses as an alternative method of expression.
In Vietnamese grammar, the term "cụm từ chủ vị" (subject-predicate phrase) is a component of the broader grammatical unit known as "phần phụ sau của cụm danh từ nêu đặc trưng miêu tả" (the noun phrase postmodification that expresses descriptive features) (Ban, 1992, p 58) This phrase consists of two main parts: the subject and the predicate, with the subject typically being "người, thứ, cái, vật, đó," among others Additionally, the phrase may include "kết từ hạn định chỉ ý nghĩa quan hệ về mục đích, hoặc quan hệ về đặc trưng – mà" (restrictive connectors indicating relative meaning about purpose or feature – mà), which are part of the "kết từ chính phụ" (subordinators) (Ban, 1991, p 154) For this study, the term "noun phrase postmodification which expresses descriptive features" will be referred to as "Vietnamese relative clause."
PREVIOUS RELEVANT STUDIES
Despite significant interest from scholars in translation studies, research on translating English conditional sentences, passive sentences, and relative clauses into other languages remains limited Notably, Jasim Khalifah Sultan (2011) conducted a study focused on the translation of English conditional clauses into Arabic, emphasizing a pedagogical approach This study involved fourth-year translation students at the University of Basra, where their translations were analyzed to determine the most challenging structures for translation The results indicated that the coordinating conjunction "and" posed the greatest difficulty for students, while "place and time clauses" were the least problematic in expressing conditions.
In 1993, Aziz Khalil studied the Arabic translations of English passive sentences
A study involved 32 translators, including Arabic-speaking EFL college instructors and students, alongside 19 judges who were university-level instructors in Arabic language and literature The translators were tasked with providing Arabic translations for 25 English agentive passive sentences, of which 19 contained passive verbs with agentive phrases and 14 featured animate agents The agentive phrases included three types: "by + NP," "at the hands of + NP," and "by means of + NP." The judges evaluated the translations to determine if they were "Modern" or "Classical" and subsequently rewrote each translation.
The distinction between "Modern" and "Classical" language is significant, with "Modern" representing the vernacular of contemporary media and literature, while "Classical" pertains to the language found in the Qur'an, prophetic traditions, and ancient texts Khalil identified that a primary issue faced by the students studied was their tendency to translate English by-agentive phrases literally into Arabic, which he attributed to the impact of translations from European languages and the prevalent use of Arabic agentive passive constructions in modern media and literature.
In her 2011 study, Parisa Farrokh examined the translation of English relative clauses, focusing on the types of equivalence and shifts in the Persian translations of complex sentences containing wh-subordinate clauses The research analyzed 160 complex sentences extracted from the novels "The Old Man and The Sea" by Ernest Hemingway and "Animal Farm."
In his analysis of the Persian translations of Orwell and Joyce's Dubliners, Farrokh examined works by Asha (2000), Hosseini and Saffariyan (2007), Balouch (2010), Daryabandari (2010), and Firouzbakht (2009) Utilizing Nida’s equivalence theory and Catford’s category of shifts within a descriptive qualitative framework, he discovered that Persian translations of English complex sentences featuring wh- subordinate clauses exhibited a higher frequency of shifts compared to equivalence Furthermore, he noted that each specific instance of these complex sentences prompted a unique translation approach.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
DATA SOURCES AND SAMPLES
This study focused on three primary concerns: relative clauses, passive sentences, and conditional sentences The data were sourced from presentations at international conferences held at the International Center for Interdisciplinary Science and Education (ICISE) in Vietnam, along with their Vietnamese translations The decision to limit the study to these three sentence types was due to a six-month time constraint, making a larger-scale study impractical Presentations at ICISE were specifically chosen for three reasons: the accessibility of translation records, the scientific nature of the conferences providing a rich context for data collection, and the reliability of the translations by Mr Pham Binh Dam, the director of the Vietnamese National Center for Translation and Interpretation Annually, ICISE hosts 10 to 12 high-level scientific conferences covering various disciplines, including physics, biology, medicine, and social sciences The study yielded a sufficient sample size, comprising 120 English passive sentences, 117 English conditional sentences, and 120 relative clauses, along with their translations.
DATA COLLECTION
First, 9 English records and 9 Vietnamese records for 4 conference days (8-11 th May,
In 2018, with permission from the ICISE manager, recordings were transcribed for analysis, each lasting 4 to 5 hours and totaling approximately 70,000 words per language The English transcripts featured numerous passive sentences, conditional sentences, and relative clauses, which were identified and highlighted The selection of Vietnamese translations for these highlighted items was unbiased, based solely on their correspondence to the English sentences To determine if a Vietnamese sentence accurately translated an English item, neighboring sentences were considered; sentences overlooked by the translator were excluded from sampling, ensuring only precise translations were included.
RESEARCH METHODS
In this study, the qualitative method was used to analyze the collected data Assessment would be made for 120 English-Vietnamese translations of passive sentences,
This study presents 117 English-Vietnamese translations of conditional sentences and 120 translations of relative clauses, with recommendations provided for those assessed as "average" or "poor." Utilizing a descriptive method, the author gained insights into the translation of these sentence types, highlighting key findings and significant points The discussion includes specific cases that lead to conclusions regarding effective translation strategies for each investigated sentence type.
TRANSLATION QUALITY ASSESSMENT APPROACH
The study opted against using experience-based, theoretical, reader-response, and textual approaches for translation assessment due to their limitations Instead, a custom analytical rating scale was developed, as existing scales lacked widespread success and varied significantly between contexts For instance, the criteria for literary translation differ from those for technical translation Therefore, the newly constructed rating scale tailored to this study's needs is detailed below.
This study selected three key categories for translation assessment: "message," "context," and "language norm." These criteria were chosen after evaluating various scale categories proposed by scholars, including content, delivery, language quality, accuracy, pronunciation, grammar, intelligibility, informativeness, logic, purpose, and context.
The "message" criterion, akin to content and accuracy, assesses how effectively the original idea is conveyed to the target language audience It evaluates whether the translation maintains the same concept as the original and whether it delivers adequate information Scholars widely agree that this criterion is crucial, as it represents a fundamental aspect of interpretation (Gile, 1999; Llewellyn-Jones, 1981; Strong & Rudser, 1985; cited in Han, 2018).
The "context" criteria in translation emphasizes the importance of choosing words that are appropriate for the situation in which the original sentence was spoken This involves not only capturing the original word's meaning but also considering the formality of the context For example, translating "haircut can be traded here" as "cắt tóc có thể được buôn bán ở đây" violates this criterion, as "buôn bán" implies selling rather than the intended meaning of "kinh doanh," which refers to operating a business Similarly, translating "that problem is concerned" as "vấn đề đó được ngó đến" uses "ngó" (look) accurately for the meaning of "concern," but it fails to meet the contextual criteria.
The violation of "context" occurred at the scientific conference due to the inappropriate use of the offensive term "ngó." It's important to note that incorrect word translation doesn't always lead to context violations; rather, when a translated word has a completely different meaning from the original, it results in a message violation instead Understanding the criteria of "context" is crucial, as it allows for the evaluation of translation quality, even when different translations share the same literal meaning.
The "language norm" criterion focuses on the translator's adherence to the target language's typical syntactical and grammatical structures It evaluates whether the translation is clear and comprehensible, meeting the established criteria, or if it is awkward and difficult to understand, violating those standards This criterion is essential, as translations that utilize conventional and easily understandable structures are deemed superior to those that do not.
In this study, the assessment focused on sentences rather than complete passages or texts, making it impractical to use a broad range of scale bands Consequently, only three assessment categories were utilized: "good," "average," and "poor."
This study excluded scalar descriptors as it did not intend to assess the translator's competence, making detailed descriptions across various scale bands unnecessary.
Following was the trigger table for the analysis of this study
“Good” assessment was given upon the observation of all the three criteria, while
A "poor" assessment is given when the essential criterion of conveying the original message is violated, as the primary goal of interpretation is to accurately communicate the message to the target audience If the translation fails to reflect the original message, it is deemed a failure in interpretation Conversely, a translation is rated as "average" when it meets the message criterion but fails to satisfy at least one of the other two criteria The decision not to further subdivide "average" and "poor" assessments stems from the time-consuming nature of such categorization and the study's focus on achieving high-quality translations rather than merely identifying errors, making additional categorization unnecessary.
RESEARCH PROCEDURES
The study was carried out as follows:
First, data was collected under the form of recording files from the manager of the ICISE There were 9 English recording files and 9 corresponding Vietnamese translation recording files
Second, those files were transcripted into written texts after which the English texts were scanned to identify English conditional sentences, passive sentences and sentences containing relative clause
Next, the Vietnamese translations of those types of sentence were identified
After that, each of those translations was analyzed and given recommendation translation in the case of average- and poor-assessed translations
Then, the findings were synthesized to draw the conclusions
Finally, certain implications were stated for the sake of those interested in the field of translation and recommendation for further research were made.
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
In this study, the reliability and validity were ensured from the initial stage of collecting data to the final stage of producing the research results
The data for this study was sourced from the International Center for Interdisciplinary Science and Education, a renowned institution that hosts conferences attended by Nobel laureates, scientists, and researchers globally throughout the year The conference analyzed in this research featured Pham Binh Dam, the Director of the Vietnamese National Center, serving as the interpreter.
Translation and interpretation play a crucial role in providing reliable samples, serving as a general example of English-Vietnamese translation across the three types of sentences examined.
The translation quality assessment approach utilized in this study was developed through a comprehensive review and synthesis of various methodologies It was uniquely tailored to address the specific characteristics and objectives of the research, focusing on the translation of particular sentence types rather than evaluating entire texts or speeches.
The assessment criteria for the selected approach were clearly defined, providing a detailed framework for evaluating sentence translations This clarity facilitated decision-making for assessors, ensuring consistent quality evaluations across different raters and maintaining uniformity in assessment results.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
FINDINGS
Following are details of occurrence times and occurrence rate of different assessment types in translating passive sentences
Table 4 Occurrence times and occurrence rate of different assessment types in the translation of passive sentences
Use of Vietnamese passive structure with the same verb
Transformation of the main verb into active form without role swap between subject and object
Transformation of the main verb into active voice with the role swap between subject and object
* times = number of times that the assessment type occurs for each strategy
* rate = occurrence times/total times that the strategy is used
The interpreter predominantly employed Vietnamese passive structures for translating passive sentences, accounting for 47 out of 120 translations Additionally, the active voice was a frequently used strategy, with 46 instances noted; among these, 22 maintained the original subject-object roles, while 24 involved swapping these elements, a common practice in English Furthermore, the interpreter showcased a range of alternative strategies for translating passive sentences, with 27 distinct approaches identified in the analysis.
The success rate of translating passive sentences is significantly influenced by two strategies: the use of Vietnamese passive structures with the same verb and transforming the main verb into active voice, which involves swapping the roles of the subject and object These strategies achieved high assessment rates of 80.9% and 81.8%, respectively, while maintaining low poor assessment rates of 0% and 4.5%.
A total of 83 out of 120 passive sentences, representing 69.2%, were effectively translated from English to Vietnamese with high quality This indicates that the interpreter successfully communicated the author's message while maintaining the appropriate context and language norms of the target language Additionally, 28 cases were assessed separately.
The assessment of translation quality revealed that 23.3% of cases were rated as "average," indicating that while the interpreter maintained the author's intent, they did not adhere to the original context or target language norms In contrast, "poor" assessments accounted for 7.5%, with nine instances where the translations failed to convey the author's intended message Notably, "good" translations significantly outnumbered both "poor" and "average" assessments, totaling 83 cases, highlighting the overall success of the translation efforts.
In a total of 37 cases assessed, the interpreter demonstrated a notable ability to translate passive sentences from English to Vietnamese, facing minimal challenges in the process.
Following is the occurrence times and occurrence rate of different violation types in the translation of passive sentences
Table 5 Occurrence times and occurrence rate of different violation types in the translation of passive sentences
Use of Vietnamese passive structure with the same verb
Transformation of the main verb into active form without role swap between subject and object
Transformation of the main verb into active voice with the role swap between subject and object
* times = number of times that the violation type occurs for each strategy
* rate = occurrence times/total times that the strategy is used
The data indicates that the most frequent violation of language norms in the translation of passive sentences occurred 29 times, primarily through the use of alternative strategies, which accounted for 37% of total occurrences Message and context violations were each noted 9 times, with message violations predominantly arising from alternative strategies (5 out of 27 cases, or 18.5%), while no violations were observed when utilizing Vietnamese passive structures Context violations were most prevalent in the strategy of transforming the main verb into active form without swapping the subject and object, appearing 4 times in 22 instances, whereas the strategy involving role swaps showed only one violation in 24 cases Overall, the strategies of transforming the main verb into active form without role swaps and employing other strategies exhibited the highest violation rates at 63.6% and 62.9%, respectively, while the use of Vietnamese passive structures with the same verb had the lowest violation rate, with 9 violations out of 47 uses (19.2%).
Following are details of occurrence times and occurrence rate of different assessment types in translating conditional sentences
Table 6 Occurrence times and occurrence rate of different assessment types in the translation of conditional sentences
Use of Vietnamese conditional structure without time indicators
Use of Vietnamese conditional structure with time indicators
* times = number of times that the assessment type occurs for each strategy
* rate = occurrence times/total times that the strategy is used
In the translation of conditional sentences, the predominant strategy employed was to maintain the original conditional structure, observed in 92 out of 117 instances Among these, only 26 cases included time indicators, while the remaining 66 translations were devoid of such markers Although the interpreter utilized the Vietnamese conditional structure, other strategies were infrequently applied, totaling only 25 instances, which could not be further categorized.
The analysis reveals that the "use of Vietnamese conditional structure without time indicators" emerged as the most effective strategy for handling conditional sentences, achieving a notable 43.9% good assessment rate and a mere 25.8% poor assessment rate In contrast, the category of "other strategies" was the least effective, with only 36% of assessments deemed good and a significantly higher 48% classified as poor.
Out of 117 conditional sentences translated from English to Vietnamese, 48 (41%) were assessed as high quality, while 33 (28.2%) were deemed average and 36 (30.8%) were rated poor Although good translations constituted the largest proportion, they only slightly exceeded the combined total of average and poor translations, which together accounted for 59% This suggests that the interpreter faced significant challenges when translating conditional sentences between the two languages.
Following is the occurrence times and occurrence rate of violation types
Table 7 Occurrence times of different violation types and their occurrence rate in the translation of conditional sentences
Use of Vietnamese conditional structure without time indicators
Use of Vietnamese conditional structure with time indicators
* times = number of times that the violation type occurs for each strategy
* rate = occurrence times/total times that the strategy is used
The analysis of the data reveals that the most prevalent violation in translating conditional sentences was the violation of language norms, occurring 57 times This was primarily due to the strategy of using Vietnamese conditional structures without time indicators, which accounted for 31 instances (47%) Notably, this strategy also had the highest occurrence rate in the "other strategies" category at 52% The second most frequent violation was related to message distortion, with 36 occurrences, predominantly arising from the same strategy, where it was noted 17 times, but again had the highest occurrence rate (48%) in "other strategies." In contrast, the criterion of context was the least frequently violated, indicating a lower occurrence rate overall.
The analysis reveals that the use of Vietnamese conditional structures without time indicators accounts for 6% of occurrences, while "other strategies" represent the highest occurrence rate at 12% Overall, the violation rate for the use of Vietnamese conditional structures without time indicators is the lowest at 78.8%, whereas "other strategies" exhibit the highest violation rate at 112%.
Following are details of occurrence times and occurrence rate of different assessment types in translating sentences containing relative clauses
Table 8 Occurrence times and occurrence rate of different assessment types in the translation of relative clauses
Use of Vietnamese relative clause without relative pronouns
Use of Vietnamese relative clause with relative pronouns (người/ thứ/ cái/ vật
Use of an independent clause 9 (64.3%) 4 (28.6%) 1 (7.1%) 14
* times = number of times that the assessment type occurs for each strategy
* rate = occurrence times/total times that the strategy is used
The interpreter's preferred strategy for translating sentences with relative structures involved retaining the relative structure itself, utilized in 83 out of 120 cases Among these, relative pronouns were used in 28 instances, while the remaining 55 translations omitted them Additionally, the interpreter incorporated independent clauses, achieving a strong assessment in 9 cases, an average assessment in 4, and a poor assessment in just 1 instance Furthermore, the interpreter employed various "other strategies" for relative structures in 23 cases.
The analysis indicates that the use of Vietnamese relative clauses with relative pronouns emerged as the most effective strategy, achieving an impressive 82.1% good assessment rate and only 3.6% poor assessment rate In contrast, the category labeled "other strategies" demonstrated the least success, with only 54.1% of translations rated as good and a concerning 16.2% classified as poor.
Out of 120 translations featuring relative clauses, 82 were rated as "good," representing 68.3% of the total Additionally, 26 translations received an "average" rating, making up 21.7% of the cases, while only 12 translations, or 10%, were deemed "poor."
The data indicates that in translating sentences with relative clauses, successful translations significantly outnumbered average and poor ones, with 82 instances of good translations compared to only 38 of the latter This suggests that English-Vietnamese translation of such sentences is relatively straightforward for interpreters However, challenges primarily stem from contextual factors and the linguistic norms of the target language, as well as the need to accurately convey the author's intent and the original message.
Following is the occurrence times and occurrence rate of violation types for the translation of this sentence type
Table 9 Occurrence times of different violation types and their occurrence rate in the translation of relative clauses
Use of Vietnamese relative clause without relative pronouns
Use of Vietnamese relative clause with relative pronouns
(người/ thứ/ cái/ vật (mà), đó, mà)
Use of an independent clause 1 (7.1%) 0 (0%) 4 (28.6%) 5 (35.7%)
* times = number of times that the violation type occurs for each strategy
* rate = occurrence times/total times that the strategy is used
DISCUSSION
The interpreter demonstrated a high level of proficiency in translating passive sentences and relative-structure sentences, achieving good assessment rates of 69.2% and 68.3%, respectively, with low poor assessment rates of 7.5% and 10% In contrast, the translation of conditional sentences yielded a lower good assessment rate of 41% and a higher poor assessment rate of 30.8% These statistical findings highlight the interpreter's varying success across different sentence structures.
“language norm” was always the most violated criterion, “message” always came next and
“context” was always the least violated one Possible reasons for such outcomes are discussed in details as follows
The study found that the translation of passive sentences was largely successful, with 83 good, 28 average, and 9 poor assessments The interpreter employed several strategies, with the most common being the retention of passive voice, used 47 times The second most frequent strategy involved transforming the main verb into active voice while swapping the roles of the subject and object, utilized 24 times The third strategy, transforming the main verb into active form without changing the roles, was used 22 times Additionally, the interpreter applied various other strategies to effectively translate passive sentences.
The interpreter successfully conveyed the message in 111 out of 120 cases, largely due to the simplicity and clear structure of the passive sentences analyzed This clarity helped the interpreter easily grasp the original idea Additionally, the passive voice's characteristic of placing the action recipient and main verb at the beginning of the sentence allowed for effortless identification of the subject and action being discussed.
Despite efforts, there were 9 instances where the interpreter failed to convey the original message effectively, resulting in poor assessments These inadequate translations stemmed from two primary issues: first, the mistranslation of content words, including noun and verb phrases, which altered the intended meaning of the sentences Second, the interpreter's misunderstanding of the relationship between ideas in the original text further contributed to the miscommunication.
In this study, the most common violation in passive sentence translation was the breach of language norms, accounting for 24.2% of cases This violation stemmed from various factors, including the use of inappropriate subjects for both passive and active sentences, complicated structures, and redundant wording Instances arose where interpreters produced passive sentences with ambiguous nouns followed by general verbs, leading to audience confusion Additionally, there were cases where active sentences lacked necessary objects, resulting in incomplete meanings Excessive redundant information further complicated the clarity of the translated sentences.
In cases where the context criterion was violated, interpreters used words that were either inappropriate for the conference setting or inaccurate within the sentence context Such violations occurred nine times in the translation of passive sentences, stemming from various causes One primary issue was the incorrect selection of meaning for words, particularly those with multiple meanings, often placed at the beginning of sentences Additionally, even when interpreters selected the correct meaning, the words chosen to convey that meaning were sometimes unsuitable for the formal context of a scientific conference.
The two most effective strategies for addressing English passive sentences in Vietnamese are the use of Vietnamese passive structures with the same verb and transforming the main verb into active voice by swapping the roles of the subject and object These strategies are successful because they are present in both English and Vietnamese, allowing interpreters to either maintain the passive structure or easily convert the original sentence into an active form This approach ensures that the content remains accessible and familiar to a Vietnamese audience.
To understand the translation of passive sentences, this article offers a detailed analysis and presents typical examples of the translation strategies employed by interpreters One effective strategy is the use of Vietnamese passive structures that maintain the same verb, ensuring clarity and coherence in the translation process.
The predominant strategy employed by the interpreter for translating passive sentences from English to Vietnamese involved utilizing the Vietnamese passive structure: Subject + “bị”/“được” + verb Diep Quang Ban (1992) referred to “bị” and “được” as “dependent verbs with the role of a main element in verb phrases” (p 67) This approach was used 47 times, making it the most frequently applied and most effective strategy, achieving a “good” assessment rate of 80.9%, with no instances of “poor” assessment.
One key advantage of this strategy is that the interpreter can follow the sequence of ideas in the spoken sentence without needing to reorganize them, enabling faster information processing and improved alignment with the speaker's pace for complete sentence translation Additionally, while there is no consensus on the existence of a "passive sentence" in Vietnamese, the use of "bị" and "được" serves as an equivalent to the passive voice in English This structural similarity allows Vietnamese listeners to easily grasp the intended meaning when the interpreter employs these terms for translating passive sentences.
In well-assessed translations, the subjects were primarily concrete nouns, with abstract nouns appearing infrequently However, these abstract nouns were familiar in Vietnamese and were often accompanied by modifiers, such as demonstrative adjectives, which clarified the action's recipient The verbs used were common and easily translatable into Vietnamese Consequently, the passive sentences in this study effectively conveyed their intended messages from the source language to the target language.
The application of this strategy resulted in seven violations of language norms and two violations of context To understand the factors influencing the assessment of a translation as good or average, it is essential to analyze each case in detail.
Effective assessments maintain the integrity of the original message, ensuring that both the context and language norms are respected This means using words appropriately within their context and avoiding awkward expressions that could lead to misunderstandings.
Following are two examples of good translation using this strategy:
42 These guidelines were formulated to provide a framework for promoting debate on ethics
-> Hướng dẫn này được đưa ra để tạo khuôn khổ cho các cuộc thảo luận về các chuẩn mực đạo đức
[This guideline is formulated to make a framework for discussions on ethics]
87 Some of these relationships will be presented today as well by our panelists -> Một số mối quan hệ sẽ được chúng ta thảo luận trong ngày hôm nay bởi các vị diễn giả
The panelists discussed various relationships today, using simple sentences that enhanced the interpreter's understanding The subjects of these sentences were easily identifiable due to the use of the demonstrative adjective "these," which helped the audience, including the interpreter, recognize the topics being addressed Familiar verbs with Vietnamese equivalents contributed to the clear communication of the message, while other words in the sentences also had direct translations, ensuring cultural relevance Overall, there were no unfamiliar nouns or contextual violations, facilitating effective comprehension.
SUMMARY
In conclusion, maintaining the original structure in translation is the most effective strategy, yielding the highest quality results and the lowest incidence of poor translations Additionally, when translating passive sentences, utilizing the Vietnamese passive structure with the same verb is recommended for optimal clarity and accuracy.
Transforming the main verb into active voice involves swapping the roles of the subject and object When translating conditional sentences, utilizing Vietnamese conditional structures yields the best translation results; however, the success rate remains relatively low This may be attributed to the inherent complexity of complex conditional sentences.