INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
Writing in English, described as a "multifaceted enterprise" by Krull (2004), is one of the two key productive skills that English language learners (ELLs) often find challenging to master According to Harmer (2004), ELLs must pay attention not only to micro-skills like syntactic structure and vocabulary but also to macro-skills such as persuasiveness and rhetorical organization to develop effective writing skills Despite these essential components, various factors can complicate the process of learning English writing.
In his book, the author highlights key factors that hinder English Language Learners (ELLs) from mastering writing skills, referencing Grabe and Kaplan (1997) to emphasize that students often carry preconceived notions about writing from their own cultures, which can clash with native English-speaking contexts This cultural mismatch presents a significant barrier to effective written communication Additionally, researchers Cook (2008) and Nation (2009) support this viewpoint, noting that the differences between second language (L2) and first language (L1) writing systems complicate the process for ELLs in acquiring English writing skills.
In Vietnam, the differences between English and Vietnamese present significant challenges for learners attempting to write in English A study by Nguyen (2009) highlights that Vietnamese students often struggle with negative interference from their native language during the English writing process Additionally, Nguyen points out that the emphasis on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing instruction is often insufficient, further complicating the learning experience for these students.
The core curriculum in most Vietnamese schools emphasizes English writing; however, Nguyen argues that there is a significant disconnect between the objectives of teaching, learning, and assessing this skill.
In my school, the focus is primarily on receptive skills, as directed by the Head of Foreign Languages Division, leading to a neglect of English writing instruction Students often express frustration, as they are primarily trained for grammar and vocabulary exams, resulting in their ability to rearrange jumbled sentences rather than develop writing skills Despite this, I am committed to enhancing my students' writing abilities, as I frequently encounter their doubts about the relevance of writing when preparing for multiple-choice university entrance exams They often question the necessity of learning English writing, citing concerns about its practicality in their academic pursuits.
Vietnamese learners of English face challenges in writing due to the influence of their native language, inadequate EFL instruction, and ineffective assessment methods Cheng and Fox (2017) highlight that misalignment between learning goals, instruction, and assessment can hinder student progress Therefore, assessment practices must align with the school curriculum, learning objectives, and classroom activities The decisions on what, why, and how to assess in EFL writing classrooms are crucial for ensuring coherence among teaching, learning, and assessment.
Basically, there are two major approaches in EFL writing assessment, namely summative assessment and formative assessment (Cheng & Fox, 2017) With summative assessment, the
English writing skills are often assessed through standardized tests, which can create anxiety for learners and limit their understanding of their progress While summative assessments focus on ranking and control, formative assessments aim to enhance learning by considering individual student strategies and progress Over the past few decades, formative assessment has gained prominence due to its ability to provide a clear development path for knowledge, moving away from the limitations of traditional summative methods (Andrade & Heritage, 2017; Brown & Abeywickrama, 2018).
Furthermore, over a decade ago, Hall and Burke (2004) made the important point that ³WHDFKHUVDUHQRZEHLQJXUJHGWRLQFRUSRUDWHIRUPDWLYHDVVHVVPHQWLQWRWKHLUFODVVURRPSUDFWLFH PXFK PRUH H[SOLFLWO\ DQG FRQVFLRXVO\´ S 1) Therefore, how teachers should carry out DVVHVVPHQWVLQWKH()/ZULWLQJFODVVURRPVWRSURPRWHVWXGHQWVảOHDUQLQJLVRIFUXFLDOLPSRUWDQFH
Teacher feedback plays a crucial role in assessment, making it essential for educators to deliver effective feedback to students With the rise of formative assessment in recent decades, researchers have increasingly focused on the importance of teacher feedback in enhancing student learning outcomes.
Teacher feedback can be categorized as summative or formative, with summative feedback often leading to burnout for both teachers and students, as it primarily focuses on correcting errors in student writing In recent years, there has been a shift towards formative feedback, which emphasizes the learning process and encourages students to develop intrinsic motivation, learning autonomy, and transferable skills in English writing This approach not only supports students' future writing endeavors but also fosters the development of their writing processes.
To enhance formative assessment and formative feedback in the EFL writing classrooms, teachers need to ensure that ³D SURPLQHQW UROH LV DFFRUGHG WR WKH OHDUQHUV´ /HH S 3)
Student self-assessment ZKLFK LV DOVR D VXEVHW RI IRUPDWLYH DVVHVVPHQW FDQ HDVH WHDFKHUVả assessment burden and contribute to increased student involvement in learning Black and Jones
In 2006, the significance of student self-assessment was highlighted, emphasizing that it empowers learners to take ownership of their education, leading to more committed and effective learning experiences Research indicates that student-centered approaches in English Language Teaching (ELT) are closely linked to self-regulated and autonomous learning, particularly in EFL writing classrooms (Andrade & Valtcheva, 2009; Bullock, 2010).
Teacher feedback and student self-assessment should be incorporated as each has its drawbacks Teacher feedback when incorrectly interpreted and utilised may be of little effect
Student self-assessment, when combined with teacher feedback, can address the issue of students setting unrealistic personal goals and using ineffective learning strategies This approach encourages students to exert more effort and enhances their performance by guiding them to make more informed choices about their academic objectives.
According to Gibbs and Simpson, teacher feedback and student self-assessment play crucial roles in formative assessment, enhancing student engagement and performance Brookhart (2017) emphasized that effective formative feedback involves providing comments or arranging for self- or peer assessment, which allows students to gain additional performance opportunities within the same learning context Cheng and Fox (2017) further supported this notion, stating that involving students directly in assessment practices significantly increases their awareness of learning progress and fosters a sense of responsibility for their own learning.
Rationale for the study
Recent studies have shifted the focus toward student-centered and communicative approaches, leading students to seek more from teacher feedback Ferris and Hedgcock (2013) noted that students value constructive feedback that encourages and guides their writing development Lather Richards emphasized the importance of providing descriptive rather than evaluative feedback during assessments, highlighting that it should help students understand how to enhance their learning Essentially, effective teacher feedback should not only acknowledge what students have done well but also outline the steps they need to take for future improvement.
Effective teacher feedback is essential for identifying students' strengths and areas for improvement However, students may struggle to bridge the gap between their current and desired learning outcomes if they do not fully understand the feedback provided According to Cheng and Fox (2017), the key to effective feedback lies in how students interpret and apply it to enhance their learning experience.
171) Therefore, teacher constructive feedback will be of much use when it enables students to internalise it through student self-assessment
Research indicates that teacher feedback and student self-assessment can effectively work together to enhance students' awareness of their learning progress and understanding of goals and standards (Brookhart, 2013; Brown & Abeywickrama, 2018; Gibbs & Simpson, 2004; Hounsell et al., 2008; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006) Notably, Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick (2006) emphasized a shift in the role of teacher feedback, suggesting that teachers play a crucial role in helping students identify errors and improve their self-assessment skills.
PLVFRQFHSWLRQVLQVWXGHQWVảZRUNWKDQSHHUVRUWKHVWXGHQWVWKHPVHOYHV,QHIIHFWIHHGEDFNIURP teachers can help substantiate student self-UHJXODWLRQ´S,WLVWKXVLQFXPEHQWXSRQWHDFKHUV to provide constructive feedback that promotes student self-assessment as well as self-regulation
Research has primarily focused on teacher feedback and student self-assessment in higher education, under the assumption that college students are more adept at evaluating their own performance However, an experimental study by McDonald and Boud (2003) suggests that self-assessment training can significantly enhance academic performance and should be integrated into high school settings, supported by teacher feedback This approach helps young learners appreciate the value of their education, a perspective echoed by other researchers like Stiggins (1999) and Black et al.
Cheng and Fox (2017) emphasize that high school students can enhance their metacognitive skills and self-assessment abilities when they receive constructive feedback from teachers.
Research on teacher feedback and student self-assessment in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing classrooms in Vietnam, particularly at the tertiary level, remains limited, despite growing interest in the topic Many students at my school are eager to enhance their English writing skills to pursue higher education and secure better job opportunities, both locally and internationally However, the reliance on summative assessments often fails to accurately reflect students' understanding of grammar and vocabulary While I have dedicated significant time to teaching these skills, the primary assessment method still focuses on exam results, creating a disconnect between learning objectives, instruction, and evaluation Consequently, I have opted to adopt a formative assessment approach to enhance my teaching practices and help my students improve their English writing abilities.
The study is driven by the observation that tenth-grade students at Le Quy Don High School in Vietnam face significant challenges in developing their English writing skills This difficulty highlights the need for targeted strategies to enhance writing proficiency among young learners.
In my current action research, I aim to implement a new assessment approach in my EFL writing class at LQDHS, focusing on formative assessment This method comprises two key components: constructive feedback from the teacher and self-assessment by students, all aimed at enhancing student performance.
Enhancing English writing skills and improving teaching practices are crucial in EFL classrooms in Vietnam Despite ongoing interest, there is a significant lack of empirical research on the effectiveness of teacher constructive feedback and student self-assessment in this context This persistent gap has inspired my thesis, making it a unique contribution to the field.
The aforementioned reasons altogether leave a research gap that forces me to conduct this VWXG\ ZKLFK LV HQWLWOHG ³,03529,1* 678'(176ả (1*/,6+ :5,7,1* 6.,//6
This action research at Le Quy Don High School focuses on the implementation of constructive teacher feedback and student self-assessment in an EFL writing class The study aims to enhance students' English writing skills and transferable skills, highlighting the significant implications for teaching, learning, and assessing EFL writing at the institution.
Aims of the study
To enhance English writing skills among students at LQDHS, I actively seek effective methods and strategies This study aims to explore various approaches that can support and improve their writing abilities.
(1) the extent to which teacher feedback and student self-assessment help improve the VWXGHQWVả(QJOLVKZULWLQJVNLOOV
(2) the extent to which teacher feedback and student self-assessment help the students develop transferable skills;
(3) advantages and disadvantages the students experience as well as their suggestions for the better implementation of teacher feedback and student self-assessment
Thematic analysis reveals valuable suggestions to assist students in overcoming challenges in English writing skills, ultimately enhancing their ability to communicate accurately and fluently in written English.
Research questions
To achieve the aforesaid aims of the thesis, three guiding research questions that help the study to be on track are given as follows:
(1) Do teacher feedback and student self-DVVHVVPHQW KHOS LPSURYH WKH VWXGHQWVả English writing skills? If so, how?
(2) Do teacher feedback and student self-assessment help the students develop transferable skills? If so, in what ways?
(3) What advantages and disadvantages do the students experience during the implementation of teacher feedback and student self-assessment? What are their suggestions?
The research questions are employed to formulate the conceptual framework and to then analyse the findings of the study.
Significance of the study
This study highlights the theoretical and practical significance of teacher feedback and student self-assessment in addressing the challenges faced by students at LQDHS in learning English writing skills By identifying these difficulties, the research aims to establish a theoretical foundation for implementing formative assessment in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing classrooms, particularly in Vietnamese high schools, thereby contributing to the broader field of formative assessment in EFL education.
This project aims to enhance students' English writing and transferable skills, which are crucial for accessing scholarship opportunities, better job prospects, and professional growth By understanding teacher feedback and implementing effective self-assessment strategies, students at LNAHS will feel more inspired and empowered to cultivate their academic abilities and pursue lifelong learning Additionally, conducting this action research will contribute to my own professional development and cognitive growth as an educator.
8 skills, to move toward new pedagogical methods, to become adept at classroom management and to ultimately further my teaching career in the future.
Scope of the study
This thesis focuses on enhancing students' English writing skills through teacher constructive feedback and student self-assessment at LQDHS The study aims to investigate the impacts of these methods specifically during the editing and revising phase of the writing process, excluding reading and listening classes It will explore the transferable skills developed through teacher feedback and self-assessment, while also examining the advantages and disadvantages experienced by students Additionally, the research will gather student suggestions for improving the implementation of these strategies in the English writing classroom.
The study aims to explore the factors influencing students and their perspectives on implementing teacher feedback and self-assessment Consequently, the findings will be analyzed based on the three research questions guiding the research.
Structure of the thesis
This thesis, excluding Acknowledgements, Abstract, References, and Appendices, is structured into five main sections: (1) Introduction, (2) Literature Review, (3) Methodology, (4) Findings and Discussion, and (5) Conclusion and Recommendations Each chapter is designed to address specific aspects of the study, providing a comprehensive overview of the research process and its outcomes.
The Introduction chapter serves to provide essential background information for the study, outline the rationale behind the research, and articulate the research aims and significance It also addresses key research questions, defines the scope of the study, and presents the overall organization of the thesis.
Chapter 2, Literature Review, offers a comprehensive examination of the expanding body of relevant literature, establishing a solid theoretical foundation for the thesis This chapter is organized into two main sections, with the first focusing on the scientific background of the research through an in-depth review.
This article explores nine theories and concepts related to English writing skills, transferable skills, teacher feedback, and student self-assessment It also reviews previous studies on the effects of teacher feedback and student self-assessment on enhancing English writing and transferable skills Drawing on this theoretical foundation, a conceptual framework is developed to guide the research design, as well as the data collection and analysis processes.
The third chapter, Methodology, details the research design and methods used in the study It elaborates on the research questions and provides a comprehensive overview of the procedures for data collection and analysis.
The penultimate chapter, Findings and Discussion, offers a comprehensive analysis of the collected data and highlights the key findings of the study Chapter 4 addresses the research questions and lays the groundwork for the pedagogical implications discussed in Chapter 5.
The concluding chapter of the thesis summarizes key findings, acknowledges limitations, and outlines implications and recommendations for future research It emphasizes the pedagogical implications of the study, particularly in how the results can be applied to develop effective English Language Teaching (ELT) materials aimed at enhancing the English writing skills of LQDHS students through teacher feedback and self-assessment.
This introductory chapter outlines key issues related to teacher feedback and student self-assessment in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction, specifically focusing on writing skills It sets the stage for Chapter 2, the Literature Review, which will provide in-depth analyses of the relevant theoretical concepts and frameworks.
LITERATURE REVIEW
English writing skills
This section delves into the literature surrounding EFL writing skills, highlighting the significant challenges faced by both educators and learners It examines the historical and contemporary contexts of teaching and learning EFL writing, focusing on the definition of writing, the various approaches utilized in its instruction, and the essential writing skills that EFL learners must cultivate.
Reviewing the literature, we can see that there have been attempts to define L2 writing
Long ago, White and Arndt (1991) defined L2 writing as a problem-solving process that includes generating ideas, finding one's writing voice, planning, setting goals, monitoring progress, and selecting precise language to convey meanings Byrne (1996) later described L2 writing as the systematic encoding of messages through a sequence of sentences, emphasizing that organizing these sentences requires significant mental effort, including note-taking, planning, drafting, and revising In essence, effective preparation and thorough revision are crucial for successful writing.
English writing presents a significant yet captivating challenge for EFL learners, necessitating a comprehensive grasp of syntactic and lexical standards along with a deep understanding of rhetorical patterns and discourse structures As noted by Cumming, Kantor, and others, writing is a "social-cognitive act," requiring writers to develop their identities through increasingly complex practice in meaningful contexts.
English writing is defined as a complex inner thought process that involves generating ideas, organizing them logically, and revising for a polished final product (Brown & Lee, 2015) Effective writing requires a strong grasp of English syntax, vocabulary, logical connections, and discourse standards Achieving a fluent and coherent piece of writing demands significant mental agility and skill.
2.1.2 Approaches in the teaching and learning of English writing
Teaching English writing to L2 students requires effective instruction, making it a crucial focus for educators and researchers There are two main approaches to this: product writing, which emphasizes the final written piece, and process writing, which focuses on the steps involved in creating a text.
Hyland (2003) defines writing as a means of reinforcing language patterns and manipulating models provided by the teacher, emphasizing that writers should discover and reformulate their ideas while attempting to approximate meaning In the context of the Vitenamesse framework, product writing focuses on analyzing sample texts, while process writing highlights the writer's role as an independent creator engaged in the exploration of English.
The debate surrounding major approaches to writing in EFL classrooms raises important questions about the use of writing models and sample texts Proponents of the process approach argue that English writing is fundamentally a cognitive process, emphasizing the importance of thinking in the writing journey This perspective highlights the need for a balanced approach in EFL writing instruction, considering both the benefits and drawbacks of utilizing sample texts.
The process of writing is crucial in the learning environment, as highlighted by Brown and Lee (2015) Therefore, EFL student writers must develop skills to generate, choose, and connect ideas, emphasizing the importance of creativity and the absence of a model text for reference (Nation, 2009).
EFL student writers need guidance in developing strategies for generating, organizing, and refining ideas through the teacher's intervention This approach emphasizes that writing should be fundamentally learned rather than taught, with the teacher taking a non-directive and facilitating role to help students express their own meanings According to Hedgcock, effective process writing involves three key principles: fostering student engagement in meaningful writing, encouraging multiple drafts and revisions, and providing opportunities for teacher feedback and self-assessment Additionally, process writing should focus on discovery-based methods rather than relying on sample texts, making it particularly beneficial for intermediate and advanced EFL learners.
Advocates of process writing argue against the excessive reliance on models in product writing, cautioning that this approach can lead to rapid yet uncertain language acquisition (Hyland, 2010; Nation, 2009) They contend that if teachers and students heavily depend on sample texts, it may hinder the development of writing as a genuine form of communication (Majchrzak, 2017).
The process approach has significantly influenced Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and English Language Teaching (ELT), particularly with the rise of learner-centred and communicative methods However, the use of model texts in the classroom remains prevalent, as they effectively clarify textual conventions for students (Hyland).
The use of model texts in EFL writing classes has garnered significant support, with recent research offering a more critical perspective on product theory (Hasan & Akhand, 2011; Silva, Cumming, & Leki, 2008).
Effective ELT techniques that utilize model texts have been proven beneficial for language learners (Grabe & Kaplan, 1997; Johns, 2011; Richards, 2015) These techniques include contextualizing writing, highlighting the linguistic variations across different writing contexts, and emphasizing the social aspects of writing Additionally, they focus on the importance of language and text structure in achieving effective communication Such approaches are particularly helpful in boosting the confidence of low-proficiency EFL students in their writing skills.
The introduction of 13 categories through model compositions is considered ideal for beginners, as product writing offers clear guidelines for constructing various text types, unlike process writing, which overly emphasizes the cognitive relationship between the writer and their internal world Brown and Lee (2015) highlighted that the ultimate goal of writing is to produce a finished product, which underscores the importance of engaging in the processes of prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing.
While process writing remains a leading approach in education, researchers are reevaluating its underlying assumptions and practices Concurrently, there is a growing emphasis on the previously neglected rationale for integrating both process and other writing methods for a more balanced approach.
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Transferable skills
Transferable skills are essential for educators and researchers focused on fostering deep learning and the development of 21st-century competencies within specific disciplines This section defines transferable skills, emphasizes their significance, and explores their application in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing classrooms A comprehensive review of extensive and rigorous studies on transferable skills is also presented.
In the 21st century, understanding and organizing essential skills has become crucial, leading researchers to differentiate between generic and transferable skills While both terms encompass vital competencies, generic skills are not limited to specific tasks or contexts, whereas transferable skills are adaptable and can be applied to various tasks in different situations, albeit with some necessary adjustments (Denicolo & Reeves, 2013).
Transferable skills are essential competencies that enable individuals to secure employment, advance in their careers, and adapt their knowledge to new environments Educators emphasize their importance for navigating career transitions and thriving in the 21st century Defined by Kennedy and Loeb (1998) as abilities necessary for smooth career changes, these skills are recognized by Pellegrino and Hilton (2012) as adaptable tools for problem-solving in various situations Overall, there is a consensus among educators that transferable skills are crucial for personal and professional growth in an ever-evolving society.
Transferable skills can be defined in various ways, with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) offering a specific definition in 2012 This definition will be adapted to align with the objectives and scope of this thesis.
Transferable skills are abilities acquired in one setting, such as research, that can be applied effectively in various other contexts, including future employment opportunities in research, business, and beyond These skills act as a valuable bridge, enhancing adaptability and versatility in the job market.
19 from study to work and from one career to another, as they enable subject- and research-related skills to be applied and developed effectively in different work environments (p 17)
This study defines transferable skills as abilities developed through learning English, particularly in writing, which facilitate the application of these skills to various contexts For example, when EFL students write letters to penfriends from different cultures, they encounter cultural differences that require problem-solving skills Consequently, these transferable skills enable students to adapt to diverse learning situations and enhance their overall growth in English as a Foreign Language (EFL).
Student-centred learning is essential in English teaching, as EFL students are expected to develop both language and transferable skills (Denicolo & Reeves, 2013) Beyond academic knowledge, it is crucial for students to enhance their transferable skills to prepare for future educational stages and career opportunities Moreover, improving these skills can help students adapt to diverse learning environments, fostering innovation beyond the English classroom.
2.2.3 Transferable skills for EFL classrooms
In recent years, the importance of transferable skills in EFL classrooms has gained significant attention While EFL writing skills are essential, it's crucial to recognize the strong connection between these skills and transferable skills Transferable skills not only help EFL students track their progress in writing classes but also foster a sense of independence and enthusiasm for learning English (Pei, Zheng, Zhang, & Liu 2017).
EFL learners benefit from acquiring transferable skills during their learning, as these help them learn the target language effectively and successfully, and equip them to handle subsequent
20 academic challenges Pellegrino and Hilton (2012) classified transferable skills into three broad categories, formulating a typology of transferable skills needed for EFL learners
Table 2.2 Two key clusters of transferable skills (Adapted from Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012, pp
Cognitive skills Critical thinking skills
Metacognitive skills Self-regulation skills
From Table 2.2 it can be seen that transferable skills are commonly grouped into cognitive skills (i.e thinking about our learning), and metacognitive skills (i.e thinking about our thinking)
Cognitive skills, such as critical thinking and problem-solving, alongside metacognitive skills that focus on self-regulation, are essential transferable skills expected to be cultivated in second language classrooms and across various subjects (Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012).
Cognitive skills, particularly critical thinking and problem-solving, play a crucial role in learning objectives as highlighted by Pellegrino and Hilton These skills are integral to enhancing reasoning and memory, forming a subset of transferable skills that connect thinking with learning By fostering these cognitive abilities, individuals can improve their overall problem-solving capabilities and critical analysis.
,WQHHGVWREHDFNQRZOHGJHGWKDW³WKHLGHDRIFULWLFDOWKLQNLQJKDYLQJDNH\UROHLQHGXFDWLRQ goes back perKDSVDVIDUDVWKHLGHDRIHGXFDWLRQLWVHOI´0RRUHS'HYHORSLQJ critical thinking skills aims at teaching students how to become independent thinkers and lifelong learners
Critical thinking, as defined by Bassham et al (2012), involves the process of engaging in thoughtful judgment that can lead to either positive or negative conclusions It is characterized as a human disposition that emphasizes the importance of careful reasoning and evaluation Furthermore, critical thinking is viewed as a general intellectual method that encompasses the application of reasoned judgment and observation in various contexts.
Critical thinking is a vital cognitive skill that enables individuals to identify, analyze, and evaluate arguments and truth claims It helps in uncovering and addressing personal biases and preconceptions, formulating compelling reasons to support conclusions, and making informed, rational decisions about beliefs and actions.
The discussions surrounding teaching and learning have increasingly emphasized the importance of fostering critical thinking skills, particularly in EFL writing students Developing critical thinking is essential as it significantly impacts students' learning experiences and writing processes Students must learn to engage in critical and reflective thinking while writing, which enhances their writing abilities and equips them with necessary tools For instance, they should focus on eliminating redundancy, combining sentences effectively, referencing other texts, and employing diverse syntactic and lexical choices Critical thinking skills are intricately linked to English writing skills, as highlighted by Northedge (2005), who identifies key characteristics of critical thinking that align with L2 writing competencies.
Table 2.3 Critical thinking skills for writing (Adapted from Northedge, 2005, pp 287-288)
Argue different points of view
Be aware of what has been written and know how to cite it correctly
Develop points in a logical sequence which leads to a conclusion
Look at the strengths and weaknesses of the writing
Provide relevant and valid examples to support the argument
Ensure that the writing is detached
Exclude irrelevant points which do not back up the argument
Incorporating critical thinking principles into writing classes is essential for EFL students, as it enables them to comprehend and assess the arguments and beliefs of others This process not only enhances their analytical skills but also empowers them to formulate and defend their own well-supported arguments effectively.
EFL learners must cultivate critical thinking skills to effectively understand and evaluate the arguments and issues presented in their textbooks and classroom discussions This ability enables them to assess their learning processes critically and to construct persuasive arguments supported by evidence on various writing topics (Leicester & Taylor, 2010) Additionally, developing problem-solving skills is essential for their overall academic success.
Formative Assessment
Assessment is a crucial component of the teaching and learning process, as it provides essential information about individual students' strengths and needs, as well as insights into the effectiveness of instructional programs (Brown & Lee, 2015) Birnie (2016) emphasizes that assessment not only prepares students for high-stakes tests but also fosters the development of critical thinking and writing skills Therefore, educators must prioritize assessment to enhance learning outcomes and address the challenges faced in education today.
Assessment has evolved in its meaning and it has spawned substantial interest and research
This article explores the concept of assessment, with a particular emphasis on formative assessment and its distinction from summative assessment It highlights the two key components of formative assessment: constructive feedback from teachers and self-assessment by students, which are central to this thesis.
Assessment is defined as the process of integrating and evaluating information relevant to student academic achievement from various sources (Cronbach, 2016) Pellegrino, Chudowsky, and Glaser describe assessment as a tool designed to observe student behaviors and produce data that can be used to draw reasonable inferences about what students know Additionally, Richard emphasizes that teachers must assess their students' learning to evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching practices and the materials they use through various assessment methods, including classroom observations and assessments.
Regardless of the various definitions of assessment, it is crucial for researchers to align on its primary purpose in the classroom: to influence every aspect of the student learning experience Assessment serves to transform knowledge into practical application, ultimately enhancing the learning experience and supporting the second language acquisition (SLA) process.
2.3.1 Formative assessment and summative assessment
This section explores the concept, purpose, and key features of formative assessment, highlighting its differences from the more widely recognized summative assessment It also provides insights into the appropriate contexts for utilizing both types of assessment effectively.
Summative assessment is a crucial tool for teachers to evaluate the effectiveness of their instructional methods and the impact on student learning at the end of a unit or course Typically involving formal tests or essays, this assessment helps summarize and report on students' skill acquisition and academic achievement at a specific time While students receive marks or scores that contribute to their final grades, these figures often fail to fully capture the extent of learning or identify areas for improvement As noted by Brownlie and Schnellert, marks merely represent a way of communicating student learning outcomes, but they do not provide insights into what further actions are necessary to enhance educational progress.
Formative assessment prioritizes enhancing student learning through various methods such as journals, conferences, teacher observations, self-assessment, peer assessment, and portfolios, allowing learners to apply information effectively during their educational journey (Black et al., 2003) Unlike summative assessment, formative assessment typically does not involve grades; instead, it focuses on providing constructive feedback to support student growth and development (Brownlie & Schnellert).
Formative assessment plays a crucial role in advancing student learning by providing ongoing feedback about their progress and guiding them on how to improve By offering tailored insights, formative assessment equips students with the necessary information to enhance their educational journey, ultimately enriching the overall learning experience.
(2016) stated that in formative assesVPHQW OHDUQHUV ³VKRXOG EHQHILW IURP RQJRLQJ FODVVURRPWHVWLQJ´DQGWKDWWHDFKHUVVKRXOGYLHZDVVHVVPHQWDV³DQLQWHJUDOSDUWRIWKHLUWHDFKLQJDQGEXLOGRQWHVWUHVXOWVWRLQIRUPWKHLUWHDFKLQJ´SIRUWKHXOWLPDWHJRDORIHGXFDWLRQ±lifelong learning
Table 2.5 Formative and summative assessment (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2018, p 13)
Continuous long-term assessment One-shot, standardised exams
Untimed, free-response format Timed, multiple-choice format Contextualised communicative tasks Decontextualized test items
Individualised feedback and washback Scores suffice for feedback
Criterion-referenced scores Norm-referenced scores
Open-ended, creative answers )RFXVRQWKHàULJKWảDQVZHU
Oriented to process Oriented to product
Interactive performance Non-interactive performance
Fosters intrinsic motivation Fosters extrinsic motivation
The distinction between formative and summative assessment lies not in the test structure but in their purposes and the decisions made from the results Formative assessment has become central to educational improvement, emphasizing the teacher's role in guiding students to interpret assessment data and take informed actions Key elements include providing constructive feedback and encouraging self-assessment, which fosters intrinsic motivation among students The effectiveness of formative assessment is significantly influenced by the quality of teacher feedback and the opportunities for students to evaluate their own learning.
Current research on formative assessment emphasizes the importance of understanding its nature and characteristics to improve its quality There is a growing interest among educators and researchers in identifying the key features of formative assessment, as highlighted by studies from Andrade (2000) and Andrade, Du, & Wang (2008).
Black & Jones, 2006; Hall & Burke, 2004; Nicol & MacfarlaneǦDick, 2006; Shute, 2008; Stiggins,
2008) have tried to described key characteristics of formative assessment Among them, Cizek
In 2009, a comprehensive analysis of formative assessment research was conducted, drawing insights from notable scholars such as Andrade (2000), Andrade, Du, & Wang (2008), Shute (2008), and Stiggins (2008) This analysis culminated in the identification of essential characteristics of formative assessment, which are detailed in Table 2.6.
Each characteristic highlighted is increasingly acknowledged for its ability to enhance the effectiveness and advantages of formative assessment Importantly, it is not necessary for all characteristics to be present in every instance of formative assessment implementation.
Table 2.6 Characteristics of Formative Assessment (Cizek, 2009, p 8)
Requires students to take responsibility for their own learning
Communicates clear, specific learning goals
Focuses on goals that represent valuable educational outcomes with applicability beyond the learning context
,GHQWLILHVWKHVWXGHQWảVFXUUHQWNQRwledge/skills and the necessary steps for reaching the desired goals
Requires development of plans for attaining the desired goals
Encourages students to self-monitor progress toward the learning goals
Provides examples of learning goals including, when relevant, the specific grading criteria RUUXEULFVWKDWZLOOEHXVHGWRHYDOXDWHWKHVWXGHQWảVZRUN
Provides frequent assessment, including peer and student self-assessment and assessment embedded within learning activities
Includes feedback that is non-evaluative, specific, timely, related to the learning goals, and provides opportunities for the student to revise and improve work products and deepen understandings
Promotes metacognition and reflection by students on their work
Effective formative assessment requires students to take responsibility for their learning while teachers provide individualized, constructive feedback tailored to students' needs Key components of this process include teacher feedback and student self-assessment, both of which are essential for enhancing the learning experience.
Involving learners in formative assessment is crucial, as it enhances their understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, ultimately improving teaching and learning outcomes According to Hall and Burke (2004), effective formative assessment relies on meaningful feedback from teachers to students, making the learner a key participant in the process.
Teacher feedback is essential in English language learning and teaching, as highlighted by Green (2014) and Harmer (2010) This importance is equally recognized in English language writing instruction, as noted by Hounsell et al (2008) and Hyland.
Impacts of teacher feedback and student self-DVVHVVPHQWRQVWXGHQWVả(QJOLVKZULWLQJVNLOOV
Constructive feedback from teachers significantly enhances learning outcomes in the EFL writing classroom, as supported by research (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2013; Hyland & Hyland, 2006b) This feedback facilitates improvements in students' writing abilities, spanning from micro-skill levels to macro-skill levels.
Grammar is a crucial aspect of micro English writing skills, emphasizing the need for sentence completeness, correctness, and variety to enhance short English compositions Constructive feedback can help learners identify and address common issues such as tenses, agreement, articles, and prepositions, enabling them to become more meticulous writers (Ferris & Hedgcock, 2013; Lee, 2003).
When assessing L2 writing, word choice is a crucial factor According to Brown and Lee (2015), EFL students must learn to effectively convey their intended messages using their mental lexicon To achieve successful written communication in the target language, students should construct their main ideas, supporting details, generalizations, and examples with appropriate linguistic selections Constructive feedback plays a vital role in encouraging students to explore new information and utilize a diverse vocabulary in their revisions (Hyland, 2000; Ruegg, 2015).
Proper conventions such as capitalization, punctuation, spelling, and handwriting are crucial for achieving a polished piece of L2 writing Teacher feedback plays a vital role in addressing these local issues, especially in areas like comma usage and spelling, ensuring that students improve their writing quality (Andrade, 2005; Bitchener & Ferris).
2012) To sum up, teacher feedback which is none-evaluative but constructive can guide students through micro-level errors in their papers
Effective English writing skills involve the organization and structure of text, which is crucial for EFL learners They must understand both the semantic relationships that ensure coherence and the use of cohesive devices that enhance cohesion By utilizing these textual resources, learners can manage the flow of information effectively (Hyland, 2010) Key elements that contribute to the organization of text include the grouping and sequencing of ideas Additionally, constructive feedback from teachers enables student writers to improve their organization and text development, ultimately enhancing the unity and coherence of their writing (Beach & Friedrich, 2006; Lam, 2013).
Constructive feedback plays a crucial role in enhancing EFL students' writing by increasing their awareness of audience and purpose, which in turn improves their rhetoric, clarity, and tone According to Parr and Timperley (2010), teacher suggestions encourage students to include relevant examples and details, making their writing clearer This type of feedback also fosters a sense of responsibility in students as writers, helping them effectively communicate their intended messages across cultural differences (McGarrell & Verbeem, 2007) Additionally, constructive feedback guides learners in clarifying their meanings by distinguishing between literal and implied interpretations when necessary (Weaver, 2006) Lee (2008) emphasizes that such feedback should assist student writers in unpacking culturally specific meanings to ensure that readers can engage with and understand the text.
2.4.2 Impacts of student self-DVVHVVPHQWRQVWXGHQWVả(QJOLVKZULWLQJVNLOOV
Research on student self-assessment has significantly increased, leading to numerous studies that explore its impact on English writing skills over the past few decades Many of these studies suggest that student self-assessment can positively influence writing abilities, highlighting its potential benefits in educational settings.
OHDUQHUảV(QJOLVKZULWLQJVNLOOVLQJHQHUDODQGRQWKHLUVSHFLILFPLFUR- and macro-skills in particular (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Brown, 2005; Cumming, 2001; Lee, 2011; Zimmerman, 2001)
2.4.2.1.Impacts of student self-DVVHVVPHQWRQVWXGHQWVảPLFUR(QJOLVKZULWLQJVNLOOV
Recent research highlights the significant effects of student self-assessment on grammatical accuracy in English writing It has been shown that self-assessment encourages students to identify and correct sentence-level errors, including issues with tenses, articles, word forms, and prepositions (Diab, 2016; Xiang, 2004) However, a limitation of these studies is their failure to examine the long-term effects of self-assessment on grammatical proficiency.
Research indicates that student self-assessment plays a crucial role in enhancing vocabulary and reducing lexical errors among EFL students Diab (2016) found that self-assessment significantly decreases collocation and lexical errors in student essays Furthermore, students engaged in self-assessment activities demonstrate improved word choice and accuracy To achieve optimal results, it is essential to implement a well-structured rubric that effectively supports EFL students in developing their vocabulary skills.
Conventions play a crucial role in L2 writing, highlighting the importance of mechanics such as spelling and handwriting Research indicates that EFL students enhance these skills through repeated self-assessment activities (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Ross, Rolheiser, & Hogaboam-Gray, 1999) Ultimately, self-assessment empowers students to revise and improve their writing at both the sentence and discourse levels.
2.4.2.2.Impacts of student self-DVVHVVPHQWRQVWXGHQWVảPDFUR(QJOLVKZULWLQJVNLOOV
A number of studies which proved that sophisticated qualities such as clarity and tone can be improved through student self-assessment remains relatively modest There are only several
Research indicates that student self-assessment can enhance writing skills by helping students generate clearer, more focused, and relevant ideas (Andrade, Du, & Wang, 2008; Andrade, Wang, Du, & Akawi, 2009) Additionally, studies by Andrade and Valtcheva (2009) support these findings, highlighting the positive impact of self-evaluation on student writing performance.
Du, and Mycek (2010) reported that students were also more inclined to use an appropriate voice, SHUVRQDODQHFGRWHVJULSSLQJH[DPSOHVDQGGHWDLOVWRHQULFKWKHFHQWUDOWKHPHWRKROGWKHUHDGHUảV attention in their revised papers
EFL students can enhance their paragraph and essay writing skills, including improved topic and concluding sentences, logical sequencing, and stronger coherence and cohesion, through effective student self-assessment (Andrade et al., 2009) Research by Matsuno (2009) highlights that when students engage in self-assessment with a critical perspective on their idea development, they can produce essays that flow logically and smoothly Furthermore, well-designed student self-assessment encourages the use of thoughtful conjunctive linking items, which significantly boosts the cohesion and coherence of their texts (Andrade et al., 2008; Andrade & Valtcheva, 2009).
Building awareness of the relationship between writers and their audience can develop over time through student self-assessment (Cumming, 2001) This process encourages students to articulate their ideas effectively, enhancing their sense of responsibility as writers Additionally, studies by Cumming (2001) and Hung (2009) highlight the importance of acculturation in writing, which involves recognizing cultural differences between the writer and the reader Through self-assessment, students become more aware of their foreign audience and the objectives of their L2 writing, fostering greater cultural sensitivity in their work.
In conclusion, teacher feedback and student self-assessment significantly influence students' English writing skills Previous studies indicate that both micro- and macro-level skills in EFL writing can be enhanced through effective teacher feedback and self-assessment, depending on the learning environment.
Impacts of teacher feedback and student self-DVVHVVPHQWRQVWXGHQWVảWUDQsferable skills
In addition to EFL writing skills, feedback from the teacher has been posited to be IDYRXUDEOHWRVWXGHQWVảGHYHORSLQJRIWUDQVIHUDEOHVNLOOV7KHUHDUHTXLWHDIHZVWXGLHV&KHQJ Fox, 2017; Ferris & Roberts, 2001; Lee, 2014; McGarrell & Verbeem, 2007; Thurlings et al., PHQWLRQLQJWKHSRVLWLYHLPSDFWVRIWHDFKHUIHHGEDFNRQVWXGHQWVảWUDQVIHUDEOHVNLOOV
Constructive feedback empowers learners by enabling them to make informed decisions and take decisive actions, rather than relying on assumptions (Saito, 1994) It encourages students to critically engage with their work, particularly when they edit their papers based on teacher input Cottrell emphasizes that constructive criticism can clarify situations and help individuals excel by fostering new ideas and knowledge through thoughtful reflection Additionally, researchers agree that such feedback promotes systematic inquiry over directive approaches, allowing students to reassess the challenges they encounter in their learning journey (Carless et al., 2010; Hamid & Mahmood, 2010; McGarrell & Verbeem, 2007).
Ferris and Roberts (2001) argued that non-evaluative and constructive feedback from teachers provides learners with opportunities to address problems in their writing without feeling judged Similarly, Lee (2014) emphasized the importance of teachers intentionally delivering constructive feedback to guide students in EFL writing and to help them focus on strategies to resolve their challenges Although constructive feedback may initially create cognitive dissonance, it ultimately encourages learners to seek additional information and explore alternative strategies to successfully complete their tasks (Ashwell, 2000; Thurlings et al., 2013).
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Constructive feedback is essential for students to understand the standards they need to meet and identify gaps in their learning, enabling them to plan effective next steps (Brown & Lee, 2015; Gibbs & Simpson, 2004; Orsmond, Merry, & Reiling, 2002) Through teacher feedback, EFL students can reflect on their learning and establish new academic goals This feedback allows students to recognize their achievements and areas for improvement in their writing, ultimately providing them with opportunities to develop critical perspectives and set realistic objectives for their future English learning The impact of teacher feedback significantly enhances students' self-awareness.
Research indicates that constructive feedback from teachers significantly boosts students' awareness of their strengths and weaknesses, enabling them to take actionable steps to improve their English learning outcomes (Brandt, 2009; Chan & Lam, 2010; Race, 2001) This feedback not only enhances students' understanding of effective strategies for developing their English writing skills (Ferris, 2009) but also fosters greater self-awareness, attention, and enthusiasm for learning Consequently, the use of constructive feedback facilitates deeper learning and strengthens students' self-regulation in their educational journey.
Constructive feedback is essential for learners as it helps them identify their learning challenges and guides them in making necessary adjustments to achieve their goals (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Brookhart, 2019) It directs students to monitor their learning and demonstrates how to accomplish educational objectives, fostering self-regulated learning (Andrade & Boulay, 2003) Additionally, Brookhart (2019) emphasizes that effective feedback enables students to interpret tasks and connect them with their underlying understanding and performance, providing valuable information for setting new goals and enhancing self-regulation.
Constructive feedback that is applicable, focused, and timely can significantly enhance students' confidence and self-esteem, playing a crucial role in their self-regulation (Cheng & Fox, 2017; Hadwin, Jorveloe, & Miller, 2017) Additionally, both metacognitive and affective dimensions of student learning are positively impacted by such feedback.
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2.5.2 Impacts of student self-DVVHVVPHQWRQVWXGHQWVảWUDQVIHUDEOHVNLOOV
Self-assessment has been shown to enhance transferable skills over the past few decades (Panadero & Jonsson, 2013; Spiller, 2012) Numerous studies, including those by Andrade & Valtcheva, Brown, Butler, and Lee, emphasize the significance of self-assessment in developing language abilities among students.
2.5.2.1.Impacts of student self-DVVHVVPHQWRQVWXGHQWVảFULWLFDOWKLQNLQJVNLOOV
Numerous studies highlight the significant benefits of student self-assessment in enhancing critical thinking skills (Boud, 2003; Hanrahan & Isaacs, 2001; Muñoz & Alvarez, 2007; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006) Engaging in self-assessment requires students to explore various learning strategies and higher-order thinking skills, ultimately providing them with valuable feedback and guiding their future learning (Chamot & Malley, 1994) By allowing students to analyze their own work and clarify how they can improve, self-assessment encourages them to identify informational ambiguities and make informed decisions on subsequent tasks (Cheng & Fox, 2017; Nielsen, 2012) This process not only cultivates critical thinking skills across different disciplines but also fosters a critical attitude toward learning that extends beyond the classroom (Duron et al., 2006).
2.5.2.2.Impacts of student self-DVVHVVPHQWRQVWXGHQWVảSUREOHP-solving skills
The related literature reveals that VWXGHQWVảSUREOHP-solving skills can be honed by virtue of student self-assessment (Andrade & Valtcheva, 2009; Boud, 2003; Ross, 2006; Spiller, 2012) Student self-DVVHVVPHQWSURFHVVFDQKHOS³WRSUHSDUHVWXGHQWVQRWMXVWWRVROYHWKHSUREOHPVZH already kQRZWKHDQVZHUWREXWWRVROYHSUREOHPVZHFDQQRWDWWKHPRPHQWHYHQFRQFHLYH´%RXG
Research indicates that problem-solving skills are significantly enhanced through student self-assessment, which allows learners to articulate their thought processes and make informed decisions about their learning strategies By engaging in self-assessment, students can effectively clarify confusion within problem contexts, explore various solutions, and select the most effective approaches to enhance their learning outcomes.
2.5.2.3.Impacts of student self-DVVHVVPHQWRQVWXGHQWVảVHOI-regulation skills o Impacts of student self-DVVHVVPHQWRQVWXGHQWVảJRDOVHWWLQJ
Self-assessment significantly enhances EFL learners' engagement, productivity, and commitment to the writing process, fostering greater concern for their writing (Andrade, Du, & Mycek, 2010; Panadero et al., 2015) According to Brown & Abeywickrama (2018), reflective self-assessment is crucial for setting future learning goals and development When students learn to assess themselves as writers, they become better equipped to plan, make informed decisions, dedicate personal resources to learning tasks, and establish realistic and manageable goals for improving their writing This process not only records but also stimulates academic growth, ultimately enhancing their English learning experience (Pajares et al., 2007; Reardon, 2017; Ross, 2006).
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Self-assessment enhances students' awareness of their learning strengths and weaknesses, fostering self-awareness as they recognize mistakes as opportunities for growth This reflective practice allows students to track their learning progress and identify gaps between their goals and current performance, ultimately improving their self-regulation skills (Ismael, 2017; Khodadady & Khodabakhshzade, 2012; Lee & Coniam, 2013; Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009).
Studies has propounded the idea that self-DVVHVVPHQWFDQSURPRWHVWXGHQWVảVHOI-regulation (Andrade & Du, 2007; Andrade & Heritage, 2017; Andrade & Valtcheva, 2009; Bailey & Heritage, 2018; Butler & Lee, 2010; Hammann, 2005) Self-assessment is the key of encouraging
Self-regulation is crucial for students as it empowers them to take responsibility for their learning, particularly in writing tasks (Saddler & Andrade, 2004) Research shows that self-regulated learners utilize mnemonic devices, maintain a positive attitude towards learning, embrace risks, and experience reduced fear of making mistakes (Rivers, 2001) Furthermore, self-assessment significantly enhances students' motivation to learn and encourages proactive engagement (Cheng & Fox, 2017) In English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing classes, fostering self-regulation through self-assessment can lead to improved learning habits and skills, ultimately resulting in better academic performance (Andrade & Heritage, 2017; Butler & Lee, 2010; Hammann, 2005).
Conceptual framework of the study
Research indicates that effective formative assessment in EFL writing classrooms relies on collaboration between teachers and students, where teacher feedback and student self-assessment work together towards shared learning objectives (Andrade & Du, 2007; Andrade & Heritage, 2017; Black et al., 2003; Butler & Lee, 2010; Gibbs & Simpson, 2004; Jonsson, 2012; Nguyen, 2009; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006).
The conceptual framework illustrated in Figure 2.2 highlights key terms and their interrelationships, emphasizing three main points Firstly, within the realm of formative assessment, it is essential that teacher feedback is integrated with student self-assessment, as there is no universally superior method for language teaching This approach aligns with the notion that effective assessment is crucial for enhancing learning outcomes.
The article examines the effects of teacher feedback and student self-assessment on the development of English writing skills, focusing on both micro-skills and macro-skills, as well as transferable skills such as cognitive and metacognitive abilities, as outlined in the research questions.
The study investigates the challenges students face while incorporating teacher feedback and engaging in rubric-based self-assessment, addressing research question 3 The alignment of research questions, instruments, and findings with the study's conceptual framework ensures a cohesive analysis of the educational process.
Figure 2.2 Conceptual framework of the study
Cognitive skills Meta-cognitive skills
This chapter reviews extensive research on English writing skills, focusing on teaching approaches, micro- and macro-skills, and their connection to transferable skills It emphasizes the importance of formative assessment, highlighting teacher constructive feedback and student self-assessment The role and types of teacher feedback in English writing classrooms are discussed, alongside the characteristics of constructive feedback and student self-assessment The chapter justifies the use of a holistic rubric and outlines principles for integrating teacher feedback and student self-assessment The impacts of these assessments on students' English writing skills and transferable skills are examined Finally, the conceptual framework that guides the study's objectives is introduced, with the next chapter set to detail the research design, methods, data collection, and analysis procedures.