A CIRCULAR ECONOMY FOR PLASTIC PRODUCTS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES AND EXPERIENCE FOR VIETNAM.A CIRCULAR ECONOMY FOR PLASTIC PRODUCTS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES AND EXPERIENCE FOR VIETNAM.A CIRCULAR ECONOMY FOR PLASTIC PRODUCTS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES AND EXPERIENCE FOR VIETNAM.A CIRCULAR ECONOMY FOR PLASTIC PRODUCTS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES AND EXPERIENCE FOR VIETNAM.A CIRCULAR ECONOMY FOR PLASTIC PRODUCTS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES AND EXPERIENCE FOR VIETNAM.
Rationales for the research
In today's world, plastic products play a crucial role in our daily lives Their strength, lightweight nature, and moldability make them essential in countless items that enhance our comfort, convenience, and safety From carpets to blankets and pillows, plastics contribute significantly to the coziness of our homes.
Plastic products are widely used across various sectors, including packaging, transportation, energy efficiency, sports, medicine, and electronics, due to their lightweight, strength, and moldability In packaging, plastic has become essential for both food and non-food items, with advancements reducing average packaging weight by over 28% in the past decade This type of packaging offers convenience to consumers by providing visibility of products and ease of opening, while also protecting items from contamination In the automotive industry, plastics account for 10% of a new vehicle's weight and over 50% of its volume, contributing to fuel efficiency; a 10% weight reduction can save 5-7% in fuel usage and significantly lower carbon dioxide emissions Additionally, plastics enhance home energy efficiency through sealants, weather stripping, and insulation solutions, while plastic blinds and awnings help maintain comfortable indoor temperatures year-round.
Insulation made from recycled plastic effectively maintains temperature control in your home, keeping warmth in during winter and blocking heat in summer, ultimately saving energy and reducing heating and cooling costs Additionally, plastic foam spray is utilized to seal both large and small gaps in walls, doors, and attics, enhancing overall energy efficiency.
Plastic has transformed the electronics industry with its strength, lightweight nature, and moldability It powers devices through plastic cables and cords, while insulation protects users from overheating Household appliances like toasters and DVD players benefit from plastic's affordability and reduced weight Liquid crystalline plastics in LCD televisions deliver stunning visuals and energy efficiency, consuming less power than traditional cathode ray tubes Additionally, polycarbonate film is utilized in touch screens for mobile phones and computers, and shock-resistant polymers are used in tiny microphones, enhancing the comfort and portability of handsets and earpieces.
The rapid increase in plastic consumption is adversely affecting the environment, highlighting the urgent need for solutions A circular economy for plastic products presents a viable strategy to mitigate plastic pollution by promoting prosperity while reducing reliance on finite resources and minimizing negative externalities This transition requires a comprehensive approach that goes beyond incremental changes and fosters new collaborative mechanisms Addressing the challenges of the current plastics system calls for fundamental transformation, where research and innovation, supported by effective policymaking, play a pivotal role Although plastics offer functional benefits, the existing system leads to significant economic losses and environmental issues, such as marine litter It is clear that the plastics economy must evolve from a waste-producing model to one that preserves the value of plastics while eliminating detrimental impacts.
Research questions
+ What is a circular economy for plastic product?
+ What are challenges and opportunities in implementing circular economy for plastic product in developed countries?
+ What are challenges and opportunities in implementing circular economy for plastic product in Vietnam?
The objective of the study
This research aims to provide the plastic packaging industry and its stakeholders with insights and recommendations on public policy instruments that enhance the circularity of plastic packaging We examine various policy tools to assess their effectiveness in improving recycling rates and mitigating plastic pollution, while also fostering end markets for recycled plastics Our analysis highlights the economic, regulatory, infrastructural, and political factors influencing the pros and cons of different policy options across diverse geographic contexts Ultimately, we aim to enrich ongoing discussions among policy makers, industry leaders, and NGOs about global solutions to plastic pollution and the transition to a sustainable plastic economy.
The methodology of the study
PEST analysis, also known as STEP, SEPT, or STEEP, serves as a framework for examining macro-environmental factors that impact organizations It emphasizes the importance of understanding the specific business environment to gauge the success of management solutions Defined as all relevant physical and social factors outside an organization, the business environment plays a crucial role in decision-making PEST analysis posits that external circumstances significantly influence an organization's ability to create value, offering a comprehensive perspective to evaluate the external environment effectively.
The PEST analysis framework, traditionally employed to assess an organization's position within a business environment or evaluate management solutions, is proposed in this research to analyze a specific information systems (IS) solution By focusing on a particular context, such as a country, the study aims to refine its scope to a narrower setting, like a specific region and company type, thereby facilitating a deeper understanding and yielding more meaningful insights This approach is particularly valuable for examining large business environments and enhancing the study of organizational information systems.
Scope of research
This research focuses on the circular economy, particularly regarding plastic products in selected regions, including Asian countries, Africa, and Brazil, from 2010 to 2018 It aims to identify effective practices and insights that Vietnam can adopt to enhance its manufacturing processes and improve social life through circular economy principles.
Structure of reasearch
The study is divided into 4 charpter, as some details as following:
This literature review offers essential insights into the circular economy specifically related to plastic products, highlighting the significance of comprehending this concept for future consumption patterns.
An analysis of plastic product consumption in selected countries and exprience for Viet Nam
Recommendations to boost circular economy for plastic products in Viet Nam
LITERATURE REVIEW ON CIRCULAR ECONOMY FOR
Negative impacts of plastics
Impacts of plastics production and use
Conventional plastic production relies heavily on virgin fossil feedstocks, primarily natural gas and oil, along with significant water resources, requiring approximately 185 liters of water to produce just one kilogram of plastic Currently, plastics manufacturing accounts for up to 6% of global oil consumption, a figure expected to rise to 20% in the future.
If current consumption patterns continue, the global plastics sector could account for 15% of the annual carbon budget by 2050, significantly increasing its contribution to greenhouse gas emissions In 2012 alone, the combustion of waste plastics emitted 390 million tonnes of CO2, while the extraction and processing of fossil fuels for plastic production also contribute to CO2 emissions Without changes, emissions from plastics are projected to rise from 1% in 2014, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable practices in the industry.
Many plastics contain harmful chemical additives such as plasticisers, softeners, and flame retardants, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs) like short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCP) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Other dangerous substances include polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and endocrine disruptors like bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates The production of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) also generates toxic byproducts such as chlorinated dioxins, chlorinated furans, and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) Exposure to these chemicals has been associated with serious health problems, including cancer, as well as mental, reproductive, and developmental disorders.
Impacts from disposal and post-disposal
Recycling certain plastics poses significant challenges due to the harmful chemicals they contain, making it difficult to process them safely Additionally, thin plastics like bags and films, as well as multi-layered materials such as food packaging, complicate recycling efforts and increase costs The absence of universally accepted recycling standards further exacerbates these issues.
Inadequate information regarding the content and properties of various plastics hinders recycling efforts, leading to significant economic losses It is estimated that the global economy loses between $80 billion and $120 billion each year due to the low recycling rates of plastic packaging.
Approximately 4,900 million tons of the estimated 6,300 million tons of plastics ever produced have been discarded in landfills or the environment, with projections suggesting this could rise to 12,000 million tons by 2050 without intervention The oceans currently contain over 150 million tons of plastic, including more than 5 trillion micro and macroplastic particles, primarily originating from five Asian countries: China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam Notably, ten rivers across Asia and Africa, including the Indus, Ganges, and Yangtze, account for 88-95% of global plastic waste entering the sea The top 20 polluting rivers, mainly in Asia, contribute to 67% of oceanic plastic waste, with estimates indicating that ocean plastic could triple by 2025 If the current ‘take, make, use, and dispose’ model persists, by 2050, plastics in the oceans could outweigh fish by weight Single-use plastics, which include around 330 billion carrier bags produced annually, significantly contribute to this crisis, as they are often discarded after just a few hours of use and comprise about half of beach litter in European Regional Seas, even reaching the deepest ocean trenches.
Plastics persist in the environment for centuries, with some types taking up to 500 years to decompose This longevity leads to significant ecological harm, threatening biodiversity and depleting essential ecosystem services Following climate change, plastic pollution poses the greatest risk to coral reefs, increasing the likelihood of disease outbreaks by over 20 times This jeopardizes marine habitats that support food sources, coastal protection, and cultural benefits for more than 275 million people worldwide.
Plastics in the marine environment degrade into microplastics, posing a significant threat to marine biodiversity These tiny particles can infiltrate the food chain, leading to potentially harmful consequences for human health.
Microplastics can accumulate high levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and other toxic chemicals, potentially transferring these harmful substances to aquatic organisms and, ultimately, humans Given their widespread presence and durability, there are growing calls to classify microplastics as POPs However, as of now, there is no scientific evidence linking microplastics directly to adverse human health effects.
Recent research indicates that microplastics are a significant and emerging source of soil pollution, posing long-term threats to terrestrial ecosystems worldwide These tiny particles adversely affect vital organisms, including soil-dwelling invertebrates and fungi, which are essential for ecosystem services Alarmingly, organic fertilizers used in agriculture can contain up to 895 microplastic particles per kilogram In Europe and North America, approximately 730,000 tonnes of microplastics are introduced to agricultural lands annually via urban sewage sludge used as manure, potentially impacting soil ecosystems, crops, and livestock, as well as introducing harmful chemicals.
Microplastics are a growing concern as a freshwater contaminant that can deteriorate water quality, impacting water availability and posing risks to freshwater wildlife The presence of microplastics in both tap and bottled water is increasingly common, prompting the World Health Organization to evaluate their potential effects on human health.
A large portion of disposed plastic contributes to municipal solid waste (MSW), particularly in developing countries where inadequate waste management systems often lead to open burning in dumps or backyards This practice is prevalent in cities near the world's top ten rivers that transport plastic waste to the ocean The incineration of plastics has three major negative consequences: it emits CO2 and black carbon, both potent climate change agents; it significantly contributes to air pollution through the release of unintended persistent organic pollutants (uPOPs) such as dioxins, furans, and PCBs; and it poses serious health risks to humans, animals, and plants, as toxic particulates can contaminate crops and waterways, ultimately degrading water quality and entering the food chain.
In 2014, UN Environment estimated that the annual natural capital cost of plastics, due to environmental degradation, climate change, and health impacts, reached approximately USD 75 billion, with 75% of these costs arising during the manufacturing stage More recent analyses suggest that the environmental costs could be even higher.
The definition of circular economy
The circular economy serves as a sustainable alternative to the traditional linear model of make, use, and dispose Its primary goal is to maximize resource utility by keeping products and materials in circulation for as long as possible, while also recovering and regenerating them at the end of their life cycle This restorative and regenerative approach minimizes waste generation by eliminating waste and hazardous materials through thoughtful design Applicable to both biological and technical materials, the circular economy emphasizes systems thinking and innovation, fostering a continuous flow of materials within a 'value circle' that involves manufacturers, consumers, businesses, and government entities.
The World Economic Forum highlights that adopting a circular economy globally could yield material cost savings of up to $1 trillion annually by 2025 Additionally, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development notes that the circular economy could unlock $4.5 trillion in business opportunities while supporting the Paris Agreement In Europe, implementing circular economy practices across energy, built environment, transport, and food sectors could lead to an 83% reduction in carbon emissions by 2050 compared to 2012 levels A study by the Club of Rome suggests that transitioning to a circular economy in Finland, France, the Netherlands, Spain, and Sweden by 2030 could achieve a two-thirds reduction in carbon emissions, lower business costs, and create up to 1.2 million jobs Although research on developing countries is limited, the UNDP has reported promising potential for circular economy initiatives.
Nine economic strategies can assist the Lao DPR in meeting its climate mitigation goals while fostering local industry growth These strategies aim to decrease reliance on resource rents and imported goods, ultimately contributing to poverty reduction.
Circular economy as solutions for the plastic sector
The Ellen MacArthur Foundation outlines key objectives for advancing a circular economy in the plastics industry, which include enhancing the economic feasibility of plastic recycling and reuse, preventing plastic pollution in ecosystems, particularly in waterways and oceans, and shifting away from fossil fuel-based plastic production by adopting renewable feedstocks.
Recent science and innovation highlights examples of how these goals might be achieved: i) Produce plastics from alternative feedstocks
Alternative feedstocks for plastic production include greenhouse gases like CO2 and methane, bio-based materials such as oils, starch, and cellulose, as well as natural biopolymers, sewage sludge, and food waste Additionally, some biodegradable plastics can be created from harmless materials The development of eco-friendly flame retardants offers a solution to reduce the reliance on hazardous chemicals in plastic manufacturing Furthermore, utilizing plastic waste as a resource presents a sustainable approach to addressing environmental concerns.
The capture and recovery of plastic waste for remanufacturing into new products has proven effective in various applications, including bricks, composites, road construction, furniture, clothing, and footwear Additionally, plastic waste can be converted into liquid fuel and utilized in waste-to-energy processes, despite some drawbacks Chemical recycling allows for the recovery of petrochemical components from plastic polymers, enabling the production of new plastics or alternative fuels Recent studies have shown that certain plastics can be chemically recycled indefinitely, while research indicates that polyethylene, a major type of plastic, can be broken down by bacteria and caterpillars, presenting promising opportunities for biobased recycling.
To enhance the longevity and reusability of plastic products while minimizing waste, it is essential to redesign plastics manufacturing processes This involves integrating considerations for after-use asset recovery and pollution prevention directly into the design phase from the beginning.
Adopting a life-cycle approach to product design is essential for sustainability, emphasizing cleaner production, reducing single-use plastics, and ensuring products are built for longevity and easy recycling This includes eliminating toxic substances and preventing microplastics from entering the environment by redesigning items like clothing and tires to minimize wear and tear, as well as replacing microplastics in personal care products with safer alternatives Innovations such as bulk delivery systems for cleaning and personal care products in refillable containers can significantly reduce single-use plastic waste Existing examples of this model include Replenish bottles, Petainer packaging, and Splosh, along with reusable beverage bottles and returnable systems that lower material costs and decrease greenhouse gas emissions.
Increasing collaboration between businesses and consumers is essential to raise awareness about the need to reduce non-essential plastic use and combat the throw-away culture By encouraging recycling and enhancing the value of plastic products through industrial symbiosis—whereby by-products from one industry serve as raw materials for another—significant climate and environmental benefits can be achieved Involving households in this process by improving waste collection systems and developing innovative take-back programs is crucial For instance, a study in a Chinese city demonstrated that energy production from plastic waste resulted in an annual reduction of 78,000 tonnes of CO2 emissions and prevented 25,000 tonnes of plastic waste from entering the environment.
(v) Embrace sustainable business models which promote products as services and encourage the sharing and leasing of plastic products
Optimizing product utilization can enhance revenue while reducing the volume of manufactured goods For instance, leasing water dispensers and refillable plastic bottles to households and offices exemplifies this approach Similarly, Lego's Pley system allows consumers to rent and return Lego sets instead of purchasing them outright.
To foster effective management of plastic resources, it is essential to establish robust information platforms that offer comprehensive data on plastic product composition, monitor the flow of plastics within the economy, and encourage cross-value chain dialogue and knowledge exchange Leveraging insights from existing global networks, such as the Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production Network (RECPnet), can enhance resource-efficient practices and facilitate collaboration through the sharing of relevant knowledge, experiences, and technologies.
(vii) Policy instruments including fiscal and regulatory measures to deal with the negative effects of the unsustainable production and use of plastics
To transition towards a circular economy and reduce reliance on fossil feedstocks, it is essential to implement measures that account for the costs of unsustainable production and consumption This approach would promote the use of alternative, less harmful resources, minimize waste, and enhance reuse and recycling efforts Fiscal policies such as surcharges, levies, and taxes on specific plastics can discourage non-essential usage and improve the financial viability of recycling initiatives Additionally, regulatory measures like recycling targets, extended producer responsibility, container deposit legislation, and bans on single-use plastics are crucial for fostering sustainable practices and ensuring eco-friendly design standards in public procurement.
Circular Economy and Circular Solutions
In a circular economy, materials and products should be reused, recycled, or recovered instead of discarded Companies aspiring to be circular must develop solutions based on these principles Research on circular business models reveals various strategies, including Accenture's five types: circular supplies, resource recovery, product life extension, sharing platforms, and product as a service Bocken et al expanded on this with additional strategies, while Lewandoski identified over 25 business models aligned with the Ellen MacArthur Foundation's ReSOLVE framework However, clear definitions of circular business models and value propositions remain elusive This review highlights three key solutions: remanufactured products, product service systems (PSSs), and the sharing economy Remanufactured products restore the functionality of used items, while PSSs extend product use through additional services, focusing on the 'sale of use.' Among the three PSS types—product-oriented, results-oriented, and outcome-oriented—only outcome-oriented PSSs significantly enhance sustainability by incentivizing cost reduction and material efficiency In contrast, product-oriented and results-oriented models still rely on physical products for value delivery, limiting their sustainability potential.
13 remanufactured products and intensify the use of goods, thus making it a strategy for reuse, a key activity within the circular economy
The sharing economy and collaborative consumption focus on maximizing the use of underutilized assets and promoting product reuse, similar to Product-Service Systems (PSSs) The European Commission defines the sharing economy as businesses that utilize accessibility-based models for peer-to-peer markets and their communities Schor identifies four key activities within sharing: recirculating goods, intensifying the use of durable goods, exchanging services, and sharing productive assets Ertz defines collaborative consumption as activities where consumers act as both providers and recipients of resources, which can involve either access or ownership transfer, conducted online or offline.
The sharing economy and collaborative consumption solutions focus on enhancing access to underutilized assets through various marketplaces and platforms These initiatives extend beyond community efforts to include companies that leverage these concepts Technological advancements, as noted by Accenture, have significantly contributed to the growth of the sharing economy, enabling broader market access for organizations and individuals Despite the touted sustainability benefits of these solutions, there is no definitive evidence that they have achieved their environmental promises; in fact, some evidence suggests that sharing companies may be escalating resource demand.
The overview of circular economy
The circular economy is an essential and contemporary concept that emphasizes the responsibility of companies to uphold environmental and sustainable values for a wider range of stakeholders beyond just shareholders This approach has sparked research into innovative management strategies that challenge the conventional make-use-dispose business model, promoting sustainability and resource efficiency While this perspective faces criticism and debate, it remains a crucial topic in today's business landscape.
The transition towards a circular economy presents a significant challenge for society, prompting an increasing number of scholars and practitioners to explore business models that prioritize resource cycling beyond mere shareholder interests Recent discussions have shifted from simplistic views on the benefits of the circular economy to more sophisticated justifications for its financial viability However, the integration of circular economy concepts within business management remains limited, as existing theoretical frameworks are not robust enough to analyze empirical evidence or align with strategic management literature Most research on the circular economy has emerged from fields like industrial ecology and production economics, often neglecting management perspectives Consequently, few scholars in strategy and organization have engaged with the circular economy, focusing instead on describing various circular business models and the challenges companies face in adopting them Additionally, while related concepts such as product-service systems and eco-efficient services have been explored, there remains a gap in synthesizing empirical evidence from a management theory standpoint, indicating a need for deeper analysis within this domain.
Recent reports highlight that few companies have successfully transformed their operations to align with circular economy principles, raising questions about the challenges they face in adopting these innovative business models This article aims to explore the reasons behind this reluctance and examine how embracing circular economy practices could lead to significant changes in behavior and profitability We begin by defining the circular economy and reviewing existing literature to provide a comprehensive understanding Subsequently, we outline the key elements of circular business models and discuss various perspectives on their profitability and potential to enhance competitive advantages.
We explore our research question by acknowledging six theoretical perspectives to explaining differences in firms’ behavior and the potential for economic returns and profitability:
(1) Contingencies and the importance of firms’ fit with the environment to exploit and create market opportunities from the circular economy;
(2) transaction costs and contracting between partners involved in creating the circular economy;
(3) differences in firms’ resources and capabilities;
(4) differences in network position and path-dependence logics;
(5) industry and structural differences in terms of competition and barriers to entry; and (6) agency issues, contractual design, and customer relationships
The focus of modern business models has shifted from profit generation through product sales to creating value by managing the flow of resources, materials, and products over time, emphasizing reuse and recycling This approach allows companies to mitigate their environmental impact while delivering and capturing value through alternative propositions Achieving this transformation necessitates strong collaboration among industrial network participants to establish efficient material loops Consequently, we define a circular business model as one that leverages innovation to create, deliver, and capture value by implementing circular economy principles.
Businesses are realigning their strategies among stakeholders to achieve environmental, social, and economic benefits, driven by laws from entities like the European Union and the Chinese government promoting a circular economy The EU's 2018 Circular Economy Package sets recycling targets for various materials, while China's 2009 Circular Promotion Law emphasizes resource efficiency and environmental protection Transitioning to a circular economy presents challenges for companies, as they navigate an uncertain landscape characterized by unpredictable customer behaviors and undefined product needs, along with a lack of established value chains However, companies adopting innovative, sustainable business models stand to gain a competitive edge and potential profitability in this evolving market.
New plastics economy: a circular economy for plastic
1.7.1 The impacts of plastic product on society and enviroment
Plastic offers undeniable benefits due to its affordability, lightweight nature, and ease of production, resulting in a significant increase in its production over the past century This trend is expected to persist, with global plastic production projected to soar in the next 10 to 15 years However, we are struggling to manage the vast amounts of plastic waste generated, with only a small percentage being recycled Annually, approximately 13 million tonnes of plastic enter our oceans, posing threats to biodiversity, economies, and potentially human health.
The world urgently needs to rethink the way we manufacture, use and manage plastic
Plastics have significantly impacted daily life, with production expected to surpass 300 million tonnes annually This article examines the benefits and concerns associated with plastic use, highlighting its societal advantages and potential for future technological and medical advancements However, issues such as waste accumulation in landfills and natural habitats, wildlife harm from ingestion or entanglement, and chemical leaching raise significant concerns The most pressing issue is the unsustainable nature of current plastic usage, with approximately 4% of global oil production dedicated to plastic production and a large portion used for disposable packaging As fossil fuel reserves decline, this linear approach to plastic utilization is untenable Solutions like material reduction, end-of-life recyclability design, enhanced recycling capabilities, and the development of bio-based feedstocks are essential Effective action requires collaboration among the public, industry, scientists, and policymakers, especially as plastic production in the 21st century is projected to rival that of the entire previous century.
1.7.1.1 Accumulation of plastic products waste in the natural enviroment
Significant amounts of plastic have built up in the environment and landfills, constituting approximately 10% of the municipal waste stream by weight (Barnes et al 2009) This issue of discarded plastic will be further explored in §6.
Plastic contamination affects a variety of natural habitats, including terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments, with reports of debris found even on high mountains While there is some data on urban littering, particularly in the UK, there is a significant lack of research on plastic accumulation in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems Instances of soil contamination from sewage sludge and the presence of plastic in compost from municipal waste highlight the issue, alongside evidence of plastic being washed into waterways during rain and floods The need for further investigation into the quantities and impacts of plastic debris in these environments is clear Historically, the problem was first noted in seabirds in the 1960s, and it has since escalated to widespread contamination of oceans globally Most plastics are buoyant, leading to substantial accumulation on the sea surface and along shorelines Monitoring debris is crucial for understanding accumulation rates and the effectiveness of remediation efforts, with extensive studies focused on shoreline debris compared to open oceans Additionally, understanding the sources of plastic debris, particularly from rivers and stormwater, is essential, as high-flow events can significantly transport debris to marine environments.
The abundance of plastic debris varies significantly across countries and organizations, complicating trend analysis The United Nations Environment Programme and the OSPAR Commission are working to establish standardized protocols to address this issue While there has been a noticeable increase in debris from the 1960s to the 1990s, recent observations show that surface abundance is stabilizing in some regions, although areas like the Pacific Gyre are experiencing significant increases Plastic debris is more prevalent in the Northern Hemisphere and near urban centers, with evidence of accumulation in sediments Contamination of remote habitats, such as deep-sea and polar regions, is expected to rise due to debris transported from populated areas Without changes in practices, the overall quantity of debris will likely continue to grow, and existing plastic waste will persist for a long time This persistence is exemplified by cases where debris, like that from a 60-year-old plane crash, continues to affect wildlife, such as albatrosses ingesting it.
1.7.1.2 Effects of plastic products debris waste in the enviroment and on wildlife
While there are documented cases of terrestrial debris affecting wildlife, such as the endangered California condor, Gymnogyps californianus, the majority of research on the environmental impact of plastic debris has focused on marine environments This highlights the need for increased studies on the effects of plastic in terrestrial and freshwater habitats Plastic debris not only creates aesthetic issues but also poses significant risks to maritime activities, including fishing and tourism.
Discarded fishing nets contribute to ghost fishing, negatively impacting commercial fisheries Floating plastic debris, which can persist on the sea surface for extended periods, often becomes colonized by marine organisms and may transport non-native species The most concerning issues for wildlife involve ingestion and entanglement in plastic debris, affecting over 260 species, including invertebrates, turtles, fish, seabirds, and mammals These interactions can lead to impaired movement, reduced reproductive output, and even death Monitoring data indicate that entanglement rates have increased over time, with various feeding species, particularly those mistaking plastic for food, showing high ingestion rates For instance, 95% of fulmars found dead in the North Sea contained plastic in their guts This data has been instrumental in tracking the abundance of sea-surface plastic debris across Europe.
Further research is essential to fully understand the environmental impact of plastics in contaminating organisms and the potential for these chemicals to move through food chains Nonetheless, existing evidence indicates that chemicals linked to plastics pose significant risks to wildlife Laboratory studies summarized by Oehlmann et al (2009) reveal that phthalates and BPA negatively influence reproduction across all examined species.
Animal groups, particularly crustaceans and amphibians, are negatively impacted by plasticizers, with molluscs and amphibians showing heightened sensitivity to these compounds Biological effects have been documented at low concentrations, ranging from ng l–1 to àg l–1, while fish typically exhibit effects at higher levels Plasticizers disrupt hormone functions through various mechanisms, and laboratory observations align with environmental concentrations, indicating a significant risk to natural populations Bisphenol A (BPA) levels in aquatic environments can vary widely, reaching 21 àg l–1 in freshwater, with sediment concentrations often much higher; for instance, the River Elbe recorded BPA at 0.77 àg l–1 in water versus 343 àg kg–1 in sediment These findings starkly contrast the European Union's predicted environmental concentration of 0.12 àg l–1.
1 for water and 1.6 àg kg –1 (dry weight) for sediments
Phthalates and BPA can accumulate in various organisms, with significant variability among species and individuals based on the type of plasticizer and experimental methods used Invertebrates typically exhibit higher concentration factors compared to vertebrates, particularly in certain molluscs and crustaceans While laboratory studies demonstrate that these chemicals have harmful effects at environmentally relevant concentrations, further research is essential to understand their population-level impacts in natural settings, long-term exposure consequences—especially for embryos—effects of contaminant mixtures, and the role of plastics as sources of these contaminants.
1.7.1.3 Effects on humans: Epdemiological and experimental evidence
The increasing concern over the health risks associated with plastic exposure has led to a growing body of research highlighting the toxic chemicals used in plastic manufacturing Biomonitoring studies indicate significant potential adverse effects on the human population, emphasizing the urgent need to address these health hazards linked to plastic consumption.
Measuring environmental contaminants in human tissue provides a comprehensive assessment of exposure to various pollutants, particularly chemicals used in plastic manufacturing, which have been linked to adverse health effects, including reproductive abnormalities The complexity of interpreting biomonitoring data necessitates a comparison with toxic dose levels established through laboratory studies Currently, the understanding of toxicity is evolving, especially concerning endocrine disruptors, as traditional toxicological methods fail to adequately address the long-term impacts of low-dose exposure during critical developmental periods Research on laboratory animals is essential for informing epidemiological studies and assessing chemical risks to humans A significant takeaway from Talsness et al (2009) is the urgent need to revise chemical testing methodologies to incorporate endocrinological principles into risk assessment frameworks.
Dose-response curves are often incorrectly assumed to be monotonic, and the idea of threshold doses or safe levels is not applicable to endogenous hormones or hormonally active chemicals, including many found in plastics (Talsness et al 2009).
While there are environmental concerns regarding certain chemicals used in plastic production, current evidence of their effects on humans remains limited This highlights the necessity for further research in this area.
A comprehensive review of 23 longitudinal studies highlights the need to explore the temporal relationships between chemicals leaching from plastics (Adibi et al 2008) Traditionally, research on chemical toxicity has concentrated on individual exposures linked to diseases or abnormalities However, due to the intricate nature of the endocrine system, it is essential for future investigations of endocrine-disrupting chemicals from plastic products to consider the mixtures of chemicals that individuals encounter through everyday household items.
1.7.2 Novel sources, designs and business models for plastic products in a circular economy