INTRODUCTION
I NTRODUCTION
Since the implementation of the Đổi Mới reforms in 1986, English has emerged as the most vital foreign language in Vietnam, becoming a mandatory subject in both general and higher education Students typically start learning English in grade 6 or grade 10, with some primary schools in major cities introducing it as an additional subject over the past decade Despite these efforts, the English proficiency of Vietnamese students remains a significant concern, as many struggle to communicate effectively This gap in language skills fails to meet employer expectations, highlighting the urgent need for improvements in English language teaching and learning throughout the country.
In recent decades, the Vietnamese government has implemented policies aimed at enhancing students' English language skills, shifting the focus from traditional translation methods to communicative competence Since 2006, task-based language teaching has been mandated at the secondary level, while the age for English instruction was lowered in 2003, allowing it to be taught as an optional subject in primary schools By 2010, the Ministry of Education and Training made English a compulsory subject for primary school children This study was conducted during the nationwide implementation of the 2010 English curriculum.
This study examines the implementation of the new English teaching curriculum for primary school students established by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in 2010 It begins with a background overview of the MOET program, followed by an exploration of the study's problem and objectives The main research question, along with three sub-questions, is introduced, leading to a discussion of the theoretical framework that underpins the study's analysis.
2 these research questions The significance of the study is presented in Section 1.6; and the final section (Section 1.7) outlines the structure of the thesis.
B ACKGROUND OF THE S TUDY
1.2.1 Curriculum Reform and the Programme of Teaching English for Students of Primary School
In 2008, Decision Number 1400/QD-TTg on approving the 10-year National Plan,
The Vietnamese government, through a decision issued by the Prime Minister, established a plan for "Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Formal Educational System from 2008 to 2020," making foreign language education compulsory from primary to higher education This initiative was launched during a period of increased globalization and aimed to enhance Vietnam's integration into the global economy The primary objectives were to foster engagement in a multicultural world and to boost the competitiveness of the Vietnamese workforce Consequently, English was selected as the first foreign language to be taught in the national education system, reflecting its global significance and widespread use.
In 2010, the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) initiated a pilot program under Decision Number 3321/QD-BGDDT, making English a compulsory subject for grades 3 to 5 in primary schools This program aimed to equip students with essential communication skills, foster a global perspective, and cultivate positive attitudes towards English learning, thereby establishing a solid foundation for their future education.
Upon completing the program, students were anticipated to attain an English proficiency level corresponding to A1 on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR).
Individuals can comprehend and utilize common everyday expressions and basic phrases to meet specific needs They are capable of introducing themselves and others, as well as asking and answering questions related to personal information, such as their location.
The individual can engage in basic conversations about their living situation, acquaintances, and possessions, as long as the other person speaks slowly and clearly, and is willing to assist.
The MOET has provided support for this programme that has included finance for teaching and learning equipment, teaching and learning materials, curriculum design, and language teacher professional development
The curriculum and textbooks for the primary English program, developed under the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), are tailored to the everyday lives and interests of primary school children in Vietnam This curriculum emphasizes the integration of English learning with real-life contexts, encouraging active participation in communicative activities where students are central to the learning process The recommended teaching methodology is Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), allowing teachers flexibility in implementation based on their unique classroom environments and student language levels While the MOET provides a series of approved textbooks, local educational authorities can select their own, ensuring they meet MOET standards The curriculum prioritizes the development of listening and speaking skills, alongside reading and writing, to enhance overall communicative competence.
To effectively implement the new English teaching curriculum and innovations, the quality of teachers is crucial The Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has organized workshops and training courses focused on enhancing teachers' English language proficiency and teaching skills, particularly those necessary for fostering communicative competence in students.
This study addresses the challenges associated with the implementation of the English teaching curriculum for primary school students, highlighting the reasons behind the need for this research.
T HE R ESEARCH P ROBLEM AND P URPOSE OF THE R ESEARCH
The research commenced with the pilot implementation of a new English language teaching curriculum in selected primary schools across various towns and provinces in Vietnam However, the program has encountered significant challenges since its launch According to Nguyen (2011a), despite support from the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), issues such as inadequate facilities and equipment, a lack of qualified teachers, and a disconnect between teachers' needs and the short-term professional development courses have adversely affected the program's effectiveness.
Before the introduction of this program, English was taught as an optional subject in select primary schools across major cities in Vietnam This initiative marked the first official inclusion of English as a compulsory subject in the primary education curriculum Consequently, it is essential to evaluate the program's effectiveness This study aims to assess the effectiveness of the newly proposed English program for beginner primary school students, focusing on the implementation of the recommended teaching methodology, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
Despite the emphasis on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in recent English education curriculums across East and South-East Asia, actual teaching practices often fall short of expectations Research highlights several obstacles to effective CLT implementation, including cultural conflicts between educators' practices and CLT principles, limited understanding and beliefs about CLT among teachers, and challenges related to new classroom management techniques.
In Vietnam, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) introduced a new English curriculum in 2006 for secondary schools, spanning grades 6 to 9, which emphasizes task-based language teaching (TBLT), a key component of communicative language teaching (CLT) Despite this initiative, research on the practical application of communicative and learner-centered approaches remains limited.
In Vietnam, teachers' practices often diverge from Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) principles, as evidenced by research indicating that the implementation of task-based curriculum innovations does not align with TBLT theories (Tran, 2015) Predominantly, grammar-focused, textbook-based, and teacher-centered approaches dominate the educational landscape (Le, 2007) For instance, Nguyen (2011b) highlights that lesson plans and teaching methods tend to prioritize form over meaning, contradicting the communicative language teaching (CLT) and TBLT frameworks.
The challenges in implementing Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) at the secondary level raise concerns for its application at the primary level, given the distinct characteristics of young language learners compared to adults While TBLT is mandated for secondary education, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) designates Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) as the primary approach for teaching English at the primary level Consequently, this study will focus on CLT, aiming to explore teachers' perceptions of language teaching and learning with young learners in Vietnam, particularly their understanding of communicative competence and their practical application of CLT Understanding teachers' beliefs and concerns is crucial for addressing potential challenges and can significantly enhance language teaching and learning in this context.
R ESEARCH Q UESTIONS
The study seeks answers to the following central question about the English education programme for primary school students in Vietnam:
How is CLT implemented in the MOET programme of ELT (English language teaching) in Vietnamese primary schools?
This question is embodied in the following sub-questions:
How is CLT understood by Vietnamese teachers in this context?
How is CLT practiced by Vietnamese teachers in this programme?
How can CLT be adapted in this context to improve MOET outcomes?
Answers to these questions are explored in this study through using perspectives from sociocultural theory as the theoretical framework, as presented in the following section.
T HEORETICAL F RAMEWORK
The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach emphasizes developing learners' communicative competence and has been adopted by curriculum designers for primary English education in several East Asian countries, including Vietnam This shift highlights the superiority of CLT over previous language teaching methods However, the successful implementation of CLT relies on its adaptability to various contexts, influenced by diverse sociocultural factors.
The selection of an appropriate methodology for achieving communicative competence hinges on recognizing sociocultural differences in learning styles (2002, p 6) This principle is fundamental to sociocultural perspectives in second language teaching, emphasizing that language education occurs within specific sociocultural contexts that require social structuring (Lantolf, 2000b) This section will explore key elements of sociocultural theory, which underpins the framework for this study.
Sociocultural Theory (SCT), rooted in Vygotsky's work, posits that language learning is facilitated through social interaction and engagement in meaningful activities that enhance cognitive development This perspective emphasizes that the human mind is shaped by its social context, highlighting the importance of collaborative learning experiences in the language acquisition process.
When children learn a new language, they acquire a complex set of skills and knowledge that extends beyond grammar and vocabulary This process is fundamentally social, emphasizing the importance of interaction rather than individual effort Mediation, the support of higher mental activities through social interaction and the use of tools, is crucial in language learning, with language serving as the primary medium for thought Thus, language acts as a vital means of facilitating mental activities and learning.
Language learning, particularly in the context of second language acquisition, is a mediated activity influenced by sociocultural factors (Swain, Kinnear, & Steinman, 2011) In this process, language serves as both a tool for mediation and the ultimate goal of learning (Ellis, 2003) Understanding how teachers and students utilize their first language to facilitate second language learning can offer valuable insights into the methods of teaching and learning English in the current study's context.
Vygotsky (1978) emphasized the importance of connecting prior knowledge with new classroom learning to foster independent knowledge construction He argued that interaction with teachers or more skilled peers can elevate a learner's developmental level, highlighting the significance of social engagement in the learning process.
‘Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) The ZPD is defined as follows:
The distinction between a child's current developmental stage, assessed through independent problem-solving, and their potential for higher development, evaluated through guided problem-solving with adults or collaboration with more skilled peers, highlights the importance of social interaction in learning.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) represents the difference between what a learner can accomplish alone and what they can achieve with guidance from more knowledgeable individuals This concept emphasizes the teacher's crucial role in facilitating children's language acquisition To effectively support language learning, educators must understand their students' ZPD, recognizing when to offer the right amount of guidance This approach aids students in transitioning from social speech to inner speech, ultimately enhancing their self-regulation in second language communication and reducing their reliance on external support (Nguyen, 2011a).
Scaffolding is the process of providing support from a more knowledgeable participant, such as a teacher or advanced learner, to help a less experienced learner improve their performance This method is essential within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and is recognized as a form of assisted performance (Van Lier, 1996; Walqui, 2008) Defined as 'tutorial behavior that is contingent, collaborative, and interactive' (Wood, 1988, p 96), scaffolding is implemented when a learner requires assistance, facilitating their learning process.
Improvement in learning relies on the support of a teacher or a more skilled learner, making it contingent Scaffolding, which is a temporary aid, becomes unnecessary once the desired outcome is achieved This process is enhanced through collaborative relationships among participants, highlighting that scaffolding is an interactive strategy involving multiple individuals engaged in the learning activity.
The relationship between expert and novice participants is crucial for learning progress, as the expert provides assistance to the less capable peer However, participants of equal skill levels can also achieve development through collaborative efforts (Donato, 1994; Swain & Lapkin, 2002) Van Lier (2004) further emphasizes that learners benefit not only from being guided by more capable partners but also from the experience of guiding less skilled peers, expanding the contexts in which the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) operates.
In Vietnam, the traditional role of teachers is emphasized through the proverb, "Without a teacher, you will not be successful," highlighting their crucial influence in guiding and facilitating learning However, the importance of peer learning is also recognized, as expressed in the saying, "Learning from peers is better than learning from the teacher." This suggests that learning involves active interaction rather than passive reception of knowledge Students benefit not only from expert teachers but also from engaging with peers, who serve as valuable resources in the learning process This perspective aligns with Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), which views learning as a social process shaped by cultural interactions.
Sociocultural Theory (SCT) serves as an adaptive framework that justifies the shared cultural values between teachers and learners, utilizing available cultural tools and resources to facilitate learning From the SCT perspective, second language acquisition is framed within the context of social interaction and participation, both of which are essential for successful language learning.
In Vietnam, English language learning is significantly influenced by sociocultural factors and mediated through cultural artifacts This study examines the social interactions within institutional contexts and the resources utilized by teachers and students for English language learning By exploring teachers' perspectives and practices in relation to the MOET curriculum and the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), the research highlights how educators adapt their teaching methods to meet specific contextual needs Ultimately, understanding these adaptations and the unique characteristics of the teaching environment is central to the significance of this study.
S IGNIFICANCE OF THE S TUDY
This study enhances the understanding of English teaching and learning in Vietnamese primary schools, an under-researched area It examines teachers' practices in instructing young students in a context where English is not commonly spoken outside the classroom, emphasizing the importance of improving the communicative competence of these learners.
This article explores the applicability of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) from a sociocultural perspective, highlighting its adaptation within the Vietnamese context Several studies suggest that CLT, originally developed in Western contexts and rooted in Western values, may not be suitable for all environments, particularly when applied to Eastern cultures.
Since its inception, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has required re-evaluation in light of social and cultural shifts brought about by globalization Therefore, it is essential to implement CLT flexibly, adapting to specific social, cultural, and educational contexts.
This study enhances teachers' professional development by facilitating changes and improvements in English teaching through action research cycles, as advocated by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) According to the MOET's 2010 guidelines for the English curriculum for primary school students, teachers are encouraged to engage in professional development activities within their schools or collaborative groups, fostering the sharing of teaching experiences and collaborative efforts.
Collaborative action research enhances the effectiveness of language teaching by allowing educators to explore their understanding of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and its impact on English learning This study not only examined teachers' perspectives and the modifications they made during the language curriculum implementation but also introduced collaborative action research as a valuable tool for professional development and improvement in language education.
Finally, the following section will present the organisation of the thesis.
O UTLINE OF THE T HESIS
The thesis is structured into five chapters, beginning with an Introduction in Chapter I Chapter II critically reviews the literature on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and its implementation challenges It defines CLT and the concept of communicative competence, examining Krashen’s distinction between language acquisition and learning, while presenting counterarguments emphasizing the importance of interaction, form-focused instruction, error correction, and authenticity in CLT and English Language Teaching (ELT) Additionally, this chapter addresses the role of L1, the roles of teachers and students in CLT, and explores the impact of globalization on CLT, with a specific focus on implementation issues in Asian countries, particularly Vietnam.
Chapter III presents a methodological framework to answer the research questions This chapter provides description of the research design, settings, participants, data collection methods and techniques, and data analysis procedures Procedures for validation and generalizability are described in the last sections of this chapter
Chapter IV reports findings from the qualitative data collected through the interviews, lesson observations, and stimulated recall sessions, in relation to the teacher participants’ understandings of CLT and their practices of CLT before, during and after the action research
Chapter V presents discussion of the findings and conclusion of the study This chapter begins with a summary of the key points of the study Then it presents theoretical, methodological and practical implications and recommendations of the study The
11 chapter concludes by providing limitations of the study and suggestions for future research
LITERATURE REVIEW
I NTRODUCTION
In numerous Asian countries, English has become a prominent second language, prompting governments to implement significant policies aimed at improving English education within their formal systems Since the late 1990s, East Asian nations have introduced English instruction at the primary school level, shifting the focus from merely mastering the language to fostering effective communication skills for global engagement Consequently, a Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach has replaced traditional teaching methods, enhancing the effectiveness of English language learning in the context of English as a Foreign Language Notably, Vietnam's Ministry of Education and Training prioritized CLT when approving the curriculum for the English Teaching Project in Primary Schools, initiated in the 2010-2011 school year.
As Prabhu (1990) noted, the effectiveness of a teaching method varies based on the context, indicating that no single approach is universally applicable This is supported by Mitchell and Lee (2003), who emphasize that a method successful in one setting may not yield the same results in another While Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) offers a flexible framework suitable for diverse environments, Holliday (1994) suggests that its principles must be tailored to local needs This study specifically investigates the implementation of CLT and its appropriateness for achieving the objectives of English language education among Vietnamese primary school students.
This chapter begins with an introduction, followed by a discussion of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in the context of globalization It offers insights into CLT studies conducted in various Asian countries and specifically in Vietnam Key terms related to CLT will be defined, and the principles of CLT will be critically examined to clarify its meaning and application.
12 is ideally understood and practiced in the classroom The last section (Section 2.6) will draw conclusions for the chapter.
G LOBALIZATION AND CLT
Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of the world in various aspects of modern life, as defined by Goldblatt et al (1999) This phenomenon is fueled by the cross-border movement of people (ethnoscapes), technology (technoscapes), finances (financescapes), information (mediascapes), and ideas (ideoscapes), as highlighted by Appadurai (1996).
Globalization has led to innovative theoretical and methodological shifts in education, especially in second language teaching Historically, second language education has evolved from traditional grammar-based methods like Grammar-Translation and Audiolingual approaches to more communicative strategies, such as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) This transition has occurred globally, reflecting the growing demand for more effective language teaching practices.
In the post-World War II era, education in Europe was shaped by collaborative perspectives that transcended national borders Key considerations included defining the objectives of language teaching, establishing content organization principles, and determining effective methodologies for language instruction.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has shifted the focus of language education from solely grammar and vocabulary to the development of communicative competence, as noted by Canale and Swain (1980) According to Block (2010, p 289), this change emphasizes the importance of effective communication skills in language learning.
Language user competence encompasses not only grammar and vocabulary but also the effective and appropriate use of language within a speech community, guided by culturally shaped pragmatic knowledge.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is widely recognized for its application in English language teaching, attracting significant attention from language educators and linguists due to English's global prominence As noted by Crystal (1997), a language attains a truly global status when it assumes a unique role in international communication.
English has become a global lingua franca, with a significant rise in second language speakers surpassing native users (McKay & Bokhorst-Heng, 2008) Currently, English serves as the dominant or official language in over 60 of the 185 UN-recognized nation-states, a number that continues to grow due to various political decisions (Crystal, 1997; Nettle & Romaine, 2000).
English is recognized as a global language and is the most widely taught language internationally, receiving priority in national curricula worldwide The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach has gained prominence alongside the expansion of English language education, becoming central to teaching methodologies in numerous countries In Vietnam, the popularity of English has surged since the Doi Moi reforms, reflecting its growing significance in the educational landscape.
In 1986, Vietnam implemented the Doi Moi reform to transition towards a market economy, leading to significant policy changes in education The Vietnamese government has prioritized English language teaching, officially designating it as the primary foreign language in schools during the Central Party Committee on education in December 1996 As a result, a remarkable 99.1% of secondary schools nationwide now offer English as a foreign language (Nguyen, 2005).
The next section will review studies of CLT in East Asian countries, including Vietnam.
S TUDIES OF CLT IN A SIAN C OUNTRIES
Asian countries like China, Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan have adopted a national curriculum for English as a foreign language (Butler, 2005; Hu & McKay, 2012; Lee & Azman, 2004) In China, for instance, the government introduced Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in 1992, gaining support from the educational community (Liao, 2004) Each country's Ministry of Education has advocated for curriculum innovations aimed at moving away from traditional grammar-translation methods towards a focus on communication and communicative competence (Lamie, 2001, p xv).
Research and findings on the implementation of CLT in these contexts (Lee & Azman, 2004; Li, 1998; Sato, 2002; Xu, 2010; Yoon, 2004) suggest that the use of CLT, a
The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach, which has its roots in Western educational settings, faces challenges when applied in Eastern cultures, often resulting in limited success (Butler, 2005; Lee & Azman, 2004; Rao, 2002; Wu, 2008) Key issues include classroom management difficulties due to large class sizes and the noise generated by communicative activities, which can hinder effective teaching (Lee & Azman, 2004; Li, 1998; Littlewood, 2007) Additionally, studies indicate that many students in Asian countries exhibit reluctance to engage in English language use in the classroom, stemming from low motivation and insufficient proficiency among both teachers and students (Lee & Azman, 2004) Furthermore, a lack of adequate professional training for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers has contributed to misconceptions regarding the principles of CLT (Sato, 2002; Wu, 2008).
A significant concern in the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in Asian contexts is the clash between CLT principles and traditional educational values, where teachers are seen as authoritative figures and students as passive recipients of knowledge This entrenched teacher-centered approach hinders the necessary shift towards a learner-centered orientation that CLT promotes Additionally, traditional methodologies focus more on content delivery rather than the process of learning, further complicating the integration of CLT Moreover, assessment systems that prioritize learning outcomes over communicative competence pose further challenges to effectively applying CLT in these educational settings.
Despite existing concerns, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) remains widely endorsed by educators and language instructors It plays a crucial role in enhancing students' communicative competence, particularly among primary-aged children.
&Azman, 2004), it is considered more appropriate than a grammar-based methodology for English teaching.
S TUDIES OF CLT IN V IETNAM
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) was introduced in Vietnam later than in many other countries in the region The Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) officially incorporated CLT into the national English language curriculum in 2006, applying it to all grades and types of schools across the country.
The official introduction of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) into the curriculum for grades 6 to 12 in Vietnam occurred in 2009 (Le & Barnard, 2009) Prior to this, several articles advocated for CLT's adoption in the country (Ellis, 1996; Kramsch & Sullivan, 1996; Lewis & McCook, 2002) Despite the support for CLT, research indicated that many teachers were hesitant to implement it due to a lack of professional readiness.
A survey by Tomlinson and Dat (2004) revealed a significant disconnect between teachers' beliefs and L2 learners' expectations, with students desiring more social interaction and meaningful communication in their lessons In contrast, many teachers expressed satisfaction with their current teaching methods, with over half unwilling to make changes to their approach.
In a study by Lewis and McCook (2002), teachers expressed a keen interest in implementing Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) principles, emphasizing the importance of both fluency and accuracy, contextualized language use, and collaborative pair work activities However, they also retained traditional language teaching methods, including grammar explanations, memorization techniques, and conventional exercises displayed on the board.
The implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in Vietnam faces several challenges, primarily due to its status as a relatively new methodology among many language teachers, who often rely on traditional approaches like grammar-translation and audio-lingual methods Additionally, the influence of Confucian ideals in Vietnamese education emphasizes teacher-led instruction and high academic achievement, which can hinder learner autonomy and creativity—key components of CLT Other obstacles, such as insufficient teacher training, large class sizes, and a shortage of qualified educators, further complicate the effective adoption of CLT practices The upcoming section will define CLT and critically review related concepts and practices.
C OMMUNICATIVE L ANGUAGE T EACHING
Since its introduction in the 1970s, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has significantly influenced global language education, emerging as a response to the need for enhanced communicative competence among learners Over the years, CLT has evolved, focusing on both language structures and their communicative functions to foster a comprehensive understanding of communication According to Littlewood, learners should be given opportunities to engage with the target language for practical communication, aligning with Widdowson's view that the primary aim of CLT is to concentrate on effective language use in real-life contexts.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is defined as an approach to foreign or second language instruction that prioritizes communicative competence as the primary goal of language learning This method emphasizes meaningful communication and active language use in all classroom activities, encouraging learners to engage with the language through various communicative acts This article will further explore the implications and applications of CLT in language education.
The term communicative competence was coined by Hymes (1972) in response to Noam Chomsky’s (1965) distinction between language competence and language performance
He raised four questions in reviewing the connection of linguistic and cultural aspects:
1 Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;
2 Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible;
3 Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate;
4 Whether (and to what degree) something is done
Chomsky's concept of 'competence' emphasizes the ideal linguistic knowledge within a speech community, whereas Hymes's notion of communicative competence expands this definition to include the practical application of linguistic knowledge in diverse communicative contexts Hymes's perspective is considered broader and more realistic, further refined by proponents of the communicative approach As a result, 'communicative competence' has emerged as a fundamental concept in communicative language teaching.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) diverges from traditional grammar-focused methods by prioritizing learners' ability to effectively use language in real-life social situations to meet communication objectives The primary aim of CLT is to develop communicative competence, which encompasses not just linguistic knowledge but also an understanding of the social and cultural norms associated with the language, as well as strategies for effective communication, as outlined by Canale and Swain (1980).
& Swain, 1980, Savignon, 2002) From this perspective, communicative competence is seen as the combination of four components:
1 Grammatical competence: learners know how to use linguistic elements such as grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation
2 Discourse competence: learners know to connect sentences to convey the meaning within larger contexts
3 Sociocultural competence: learners know how to understand and respond to language appropriately in a given social context, depending on topic and functions of communication and the relationship of the participants
4 Strategic competence: learners know how to avoid and compensate for communication failures
Communicative competence, as defined by CLT theorists like Bachman (1994), Savignon (1983b), and Widdowson (1983), consists of interrelated components that must be addressed together To effectively enhance learner communicative skills, it is essential to give equal and simultaneous attention to each component rather than treating them in isolation.
Improving communicative competence relies on the interconnectedness of its components, where enhancement in one area positively influences others According to Savignon (2002), the development of any single component is essential for fostering overall communicative skills.
Leung (2005) critiques the notion of communicative competence in English language learning, arguing that the four competencies are more idealized for educational purposes than applicable in real-world social and cultural contexts He highlights that Canale and Swain's definition is primarily rooted in the perspectives of native speakers regarding language knowledge and usage Furthermore, Leung emphasizes that 'native-speakerness' is often viewed as more desirable and valuable compared to other forms of language expertise.
The concept of native English speakers is complex, as there is no universal model for their language use, leading to questions about what is considered standard and appropriate across different varieties, such as British, Australian, and American English Additionally, native speakers now represent a minority among global English users, with many learners acquiring the language to communicate with non-native speakers as well This shift results in diverse standards and appropriateness shaped by various socio-cultural contexts, as highlighted by Leung's critique.
English is evolving with structural, semantic, and discourse innovations, reflecting diverse global uses As many English learners do not aim to interact solely with native speakers, it is essential to recognize the various English varieties This awareness should be a fundamental aspect of curriculum design and classroom teaching to address practical and pedagogical needs effectively.
Communicative competence should be understood in the context of specific community communication practices rather than being restricted to an idealized native-speaker model.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is characterized as an approach rather than a theory, encompassing a collection of guiding principles (Brandl, 2008; Doughty & Long, 2003; Richards, 2006a) This section will outline the fundamental principles that define CLT.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emphasizes not only linguistic skills but also sociocultural competence, highlighting the importance of meaning in language learning Through engaging in 'meaningful' activities, learners enhance their communicative competence Rather than being a strict method, CLT is an approach defined by a set of principles, allowing for diverse interpretations and practices Despite this variability, CLT is generally recognized by five key features that define its framework.
1 An emphasis on interaction in the target language in learning to communicate;
2 The use of authentic texts in the learning process;
3 A focus not only on the target language but also on the learning process;
4 The connection of the students’ personal experience with the language learning;
5 The linkage of language learning with the language outside the classroom (Nunan, 1991, p 279)
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) prioritizes meaningful interaction in the classroom, emphasizing the importance of using the target language authentically Key elements include authentic texts, learner experiences, and the integration of language use both inside and outside the classroom, all of which foster genuine communication among students (Nunan, 1987, p 142).
Focusing solely on meaning in language teaching proved inadequate, leading to the introduction of 'form-focused instruction' as a key principle of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) (Doughty & Long, 2003) While fluency was recognized as a crucial aspect of communication and errors were tolerated (Richards & Rodgers, 2001), error correction, initially dismissed as a behaviorist approach, was later deemed essential in CLT (Doughty & Long, 2003).
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a collection of principles that can effectively support second language acquisition (Long & Doughty, 2005) Key guidelines for implementing CLT, adapted from the works of Doughty and Long (2003) as well as Richards and Richards (2002), provide a framework for enhancing language learning through communication-focused approaches.
1 Learners learn a language through using it to communicate
2 Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities
3 Fluency and accuracy are both important goals in language learning
4 Cooperative and collaborative learning are promoted
5 Learners are made aware of language features through communicative activities
6 Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and error
C ONCLUSION
This chapter reviews the literature on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and its implementation in Asian contexts, particularly focusing on Vietnam's primary school English curriculum The Vietnamese government's long-term foreign language education plan emphasizes the importance of CLT as a teaching innovation to enhance learners' communicative competence (Thủ Tướng Chính Phủ, 2008) The effectiveness of this program is closely linked to how well CLT is implemented, which may vary based on teachers' adaptations to the Vietnamese sociocultural context Littlewood (2013) highlights that top-down approaches imposed by policymakers may not be effectively executed, advocating for a CLT implementation that is sensitive to local contexts.
This chapter will detail the research methodology developed to explore teachers' perspectives on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and examine how they implement and adapt this curriculum in their teaching practices.