CADRE THÉORIQUE
Traduction
Translation inspires numerous researchers worldwide, leading to studies aimed at clarifying the definition of translation both nationally and globally However, tracing the origin of this term proves to be a challenging task.
Alors, qu’est-ce que la traduction ?
According to the reliable information site universalis.fr, the term "translation" originates from the Latin verb "traducere," meaning "to lead across." The most common interpretation refers to the process of transferring text from one language to another In languages like English and German, the etymology also relates to the concept of movement The verb "traduire" first appeared in French in 1539, followed by the noun "traduction" in 1540 Notably, the nominal expression is exclusively reserved for its most common meaning, which can refer to either the act of translating or the final product.
For centuries, numerous theorists and translators worldwide have confidently shared their definitions of translation, yet this topic remains a source of ongoing debate and controversy.
According to larousse.fr, a well-known online linguistic dictionary, translation involves expressing what has been stated in one language (the source language) into another language (the target language), while maintaining semantic and stylistic equivalences Therefore, achieving these equivalences is the primary goal of translation.
Translation is the process of converting a text from a source language into a target language, making it an essential written task While this definition captures the essence of translation, it lacks depth in explaining the complexities involved in the process.
Sur le plan linguistique, Andrội Fedorov affirme que ô toute la thộorie de la traduction doit ờtre incorporộe dans l’ensemble des disciplines linguistiques ằ
(Larousse, 1989 : 11) dans son ouvrage et dans lequel il a effectué une étude de manière systématique de la traduction
Georges Mounin, a prominent French linguist, asserts that translation involves creating the closest natural equivalent in the target language to the message conveyed in the source language, focusing first on meaning and then on style.
In his book "A Linguistic Theory of Translation," Catford asserts that translation is an operation performed on a language, defined as the process of substituting a text in one language with a text in another language (1965).
20) On peut voir qu’il définie la traduction en se basant sur la correspondance et l’équivalence
Jean-René Ladmiral, a French translator, aligns with Mounin's ideas but offers a slightly different definition of translation He asserts that translation is a specific form of linguistic convergence, broadly referring to any linguistic mediation that facilitates the transmission of information between speakers of different languages (1979: 11).
Pourtant, certaines idées indiquent une relation indissociable entre les langues et la culture
José Lambert, a translator from the University of Louvain in Belgium, emphasizes that translation involves more than just converting text between two languages; it encompasses the transfer between two cultures or encyclopedias He asserts that a translator must consider not only linguistic rules but also cultural elements in the broadest sense.
Pour Edmond Cary, il donne une définition très claire et pertinente :
Translation is an operation aimed at establishing equivalences between two texts in different languages These equivalences depend on the nature of the texts, their intended purpose, the cultural relationships between the two peoples, and the moral, intellectual, and emotional climates Additionally, they are influenced by the specific contingencies of the time and place of both departure and arrival.
According to Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer in their book "The Theory of Meaning or the Interpretative Theory," translation is a process consisting of three interconnected yet distinct stages: interpretation, understanding, and expression.
According to Marianne Lederer in her book "La traduction d’aujourd’hui," translation is fundamentally the act of understanding a text and then re-expressing it in another language This process involves not only linguistic knowledge but also extralinguistic factors Consequently, the quality of the re-expression is influenced by the translator's proficiency in the target language and their writing talent.
En bref, à travers ces définitions, j’ai proposé quelques idées principales suivantes :
- La traduction consiste à restituer une identité de sens dans une équivalence des formes ; à cela s`ajoutent les paramètres de la communication et les contraintes imposées aux traducteurs
- La traduction est la transmission de la complexité, des significations d’un texte ou d’un énoncé, d’un discours d’une langue à une autre
Translation is not merely a linguistic operation; it fosters interactions and exchanges between two cultures, resulting in a cultural product that corresponds to an earlier product from a different culture.
1.1.2 Trois phases du processus de la traduction
The translation process is not directly observable; what can be observed are only the products that result from this process In "Today's Translation," the schema of the translation process is presented.
M Lederer (1994) est le suivant : compréhension, déverbalisation et réexpression
Understanding is crucial not only for effective communication but also for translation To accurately translate a text, one must first comprehend its content This requires linguistic proficiency, as well as a broad knowledge base and cognitive skills.
Compréhension
Understanding is the first step in the translation process, essential for achieving a high-quality translation It refers to the ability to grasp and assimilate concepts, reflecting an attitude of tolerance and the qualities that encompass an idea However, various theorists and translators have offered differing perspectives on this term in relation to translation.
Dans l’ouvrage ô Grand - Le Robert de la langue franỗaise - Dictionnaire alphabộtique et analogique de la langue franỗaise ằ (1986), nous avons: ô - Comprộhension : Facultộ de comprendre, d'embrasser par la pensộe
- Comprendre : Appréhender par la connaissance, être capable de faire correspondre à (qqch.) une idée claire
1 Donner à (qqch.) un sens clair.ằ
According to Galisson and Coste in their 1976 work "Dictionnaire de didactique des langues," the term "comprehension" is defined as a mental operation resulting from decoding a message This process enables a reader (in written comprehension) or a listener (in oral comprehension) to grasp the meaning conveyed by written or spoken signs.
Understanding linguistic signs is crucial for comprehension; however, it is not sufficient on its own, as grasping what another person says or writes is more complex than it seems (Gile, 2005: 104) To fully understand a text or discourse, one needs not only linguistic knowledge but also an awareness of the extralinguistic realities it involves, or encyclopedic knowledge Therefore, to enhance comprehension of a text or discourse, it is essential to draw on both linguistic competence and encyclopedic knowledge simultaneously (Lederer).
Seleskovitch, echoing Lederer's perspective, defines understanding as a process that does not adhere to vertical organization or strict linearity of language structures Instead, discourse comprehension involves a dynamic interplay of constant back-and-forth between partial perceptions and cognitive associations, resulting in sudden syntheses.
Reading comprehension is the process of deriving meaning from a text by understanding its main ideas and connecting them with prior knowledge Throughout this process, the reader actively engages with the text.
According to theorists like Dan Sperber, understanding involves two key stages The first stage focuses on grasping the language of the text, including grammar, lexicon, and vocabulary The second stage aims to clarify the meaning using extralinguistic knowledge However, the comprehension of meaning is not a linear process but rather a singular cognitive effort We do not first understand a text at the language level and then at the discourse level; instead, we comprehend it directly at the discourse level.
Mais qu’est-ce que le sens ?
According to Jean-Paul Sartre, the renowned 20th-century intellectual, the essence of literature lies beyond the words themselves In his work "What is Literature?", he argues that meaning is not inherent in the individual words, but rather, it is the understanding of those words that reveals their significance He emphasizes that while a literary object is expressed through language, it cannot be fully captured by it Thus, even when reading the countless words in a book, the meaning of the work does not emerge simply from their arrangement; instead, meaning is an organic totality that transcends the sum of its parts.
According to him, meaning is a de-verbalized concept linked to extralinguistic knowledge It is typically characteristic of human nature and manifests in varying degrees of clarity, always accompanying the perception of linguistic signs.
Seleskovitch stated that meaning is an intention that exists outside of language, preceding expression in the speaker and following the reception of discourse in the listener (1976) According to her, the meaning of a sentence is what the author aims to convey, rather than the reasons for speaking or the causes and consequences of what is said (1984: 269).
Understanding a text requires a strong command of the source language, including its lexicon and syntax, as well as cognitive frameworks that help interpret the provided information Without these elements, comprehension may be incomplete or uncertain Mastering the linguistic component involves knowledge of pronunciation, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary These aspects are part of what is known as an interpretative theory of translation, reflecting the cognitive language of the translator Therefore, comprehending a text engages both linguistic competence and encyclopedic knowledge, making understanding a holistic activity with two key components: linguistic and encyclopedic.
1.2.2.1 Présupposés et sous-entendus (Implicite et explicite)
Understanding a language and its source text involves not only explicit components but also implicit elements, which include assumptions and underlying meanings These implicit aspects are crucial for grasping the full context and significance of the text, playing an equally important role in comprehension alongside the linguistic components.
Dans l’ộnoncộ : ô Pierre a cessộ de fumer ằ, nous retrouvons les informations suivantes :
Pierre ne fume pas actuellement et Pierre fumait avant
When placed in a communication context, this statement can carry implications such as: "You should really take action now, unlike you who continues to smoke."
The interpretative theory of translation emphasizes that language presupposes the ability to associate meanings with world knowledge Implicit meanings arise from deductive reasoning but are not part of the message the translator needs to convey For instance, no translator would translate "Oh Pierre has stopped smoking" as "Oh Pierre, you should stop smoking."
The phenomenon of the implicit is ubiquitous, as we never express ourselves in a completely explicit manner Statements imply as much as they express All translators engage with both the implicit and explicit to comprehend texts, which also applies to readers and listeners Presuppositions are understood through language, while implications remain external to the act of translation.
Both in written and spoken communication, interlocutors rely on a wealth of unexpressed knowledge to convey or understand meaning According to Ducrot, it is misleading to assume that speakers derive meaning solely from their language proficiency, independent of context Understanding, therefore, emerges from two sources of information: the text itself and cognitive structures Cognitive complements come in two forms: notional and emotional While all texts invoke these complements, distinguishing between the conceptual and the affective can be challenging.
ANALYSE DU CORPUS
Apprentissage de la traduction à l’Université de Langues et d’Études
The University of Languages and International Studies - Vietnam National University in Hanoi (ULEI-UNH) offers various French language training programs tailored to different learner orientations.
Currently, this university focuses on training French students in two main specializations: didactics and linguistics Within these fields, there are three orientations offered: translation and interpretation, tourism, and economics.
In the French Department, approximately 50-60% of students are beginners, while the remaining students have been learning French for 3, 7, or 12 years Translation is introduced in the first semester of the third year for translation and interpretation majors, starting with Level 1 courses in both translation and interpretation In the second semester of the third year, students progress to Level 2 courses, followed by specialized translation in the first semester of the fourth year The curriculum integrates translation theory and research methods alongside practical training in translation and interpretation.
1 er semestre de la 4 e annộe au Dộpartement de franỗais, les ộtudiants ont acquis des connaissances de base sur les activités professionnelles du métier.
Présentation du corpus
I have selected texts that meet several key criteria for the training of translation students in the French Department at the University of Languages and International Studies These texts present challenges related to understanding complex terms or phrases, syntactic components, characters, phenomena, and social, cultural, and political events They require aspiring translators to possess adequate linguistic and extralinguistic knowledge acquired during their translation studies to effectively convey the author's intent from the source text Additionally, these texts assist students in developing their translation skills.
23 étudiants à améliorer ou développer les techniques de traduction des textes du franỗais en vietnamien
Secondly, the texts should cover diverse themes relevant to the current world These documents are authored by native writers or journalists and sourced from reputable French online newspapers and websites, such as lemonde.fr, lexpress.fr, courrierinternational.com, and fr.irefeurope, ensuring reliable information.
The first text addresses food security, a critical concern of our time The second focuses on human development globally, with a particular emphasis on France The third document discusses the most well-known communication tool, the Internet Finally, the last text explores solutions to environmental pollution faced by countries worldwide Together, these four texts highlight challenges encountered by aspiring translators.
Analyse du corpus
2.3.1 Problốmes rencontrộs par les ộtudiants en traduction du franỗais en vietnamien
Suivant la méthodologie de recherche présentée ci-dessus, les problèmes rencontrộs par les apprenants dans la traduction du franỗais en vietnamien seront présentés par le graphique ci-dessous:
Graphique 1 : Taux de nombre d’erreurs de la traduction dans la phase de compréhension et de réexpression dans le corpus
The analysis of the graph reveals that comprehension errors significantly outnumber reexpression errors In the first text, 87% of the errors stem from misunderstanding, while only 13% are attributed to reexpression mistakes Similarly, in the second and third texts, 84% of the errors occur during the comprehension phase, compared to 16% in reexpression The final document shows a distribution of 62% for comprehension errors and 38% for reexpression errors.
We will examine the issues and their origins in greater detail during the understanding phase, using examples from the translation assignments of trainee translators in the following section.
2.3.2 Problèmes rencontrés par les étudiants dans la phase de compréhension en traduction du franỗais en vietnamien et leurs causes
The comprehension phase is a crucial step in translation, as one can only accurately and clearly express what has been previously understood (Durieux, 1988: 39) In fact, numerous factors influence the understanding of the source text among trainee translators.
Phase de compréhensionPhase de réexpression
La mauvaise compréhension peut être causée par la maitrise insuffisante des connaissances linguistiques et connaissances extralinguistiques
The understanding of linguistic signs is essential for comprehension Insufficient linguistic knowledge or a challenging source text can lead students to make numerous errors in understanding.
2.3.2.1.1 Mauvaise saisie du sens du terme à traduire
Graphique 2 : Taux de nombre d’erreurs de la traduction dans la phase de compréhension et de réexpression des termes dans le corpus
La premiốre cause est provoquộe par l’instabilitộ du sens des mots franỗais
The meaning of words is context-dependent and evolves throughout the spoken communication process Aspiring translators often overlook this aspect, relying heavily on a single interpretation of words without considering their various possible meanings.
Ex 2.1 – Texte 1 : ô 85 % des consommateurs de fast-food souhaiteraient trouver une proposition de menu ộquilibrộ ằ
Phase de compréhensionPhase de réexpression
Over half of apprentice translators (80%) make a nonsensical error when translating the term "menu équilibré," incorrectly rendering it as "menu cõn đối" or "menu cõn bằng." In Vietnamese, the phrase "Thực đơn cõn bằng" lacks meaning In this context, consumers are seeking a nutritionally balanced menu However, 20% of students provide accurate translations, such as "thực đơn cõn đối hơn về mặt dinh dưỡng" or "thực đơn cõn bằng dinh dưỡng." Alarmingly, one student's translation of this term as "chế độ ăn cõn đối hơn" indicates a clear misunderstanding of the concept.
Ex 2.2 – Texte 1 : ô 63 % une offre de desserts allộgộs; 62 % un plus grand choix de sauces allộgộes ằ
According to a study, 88% of trainee translators mistakenly translate the term "allégés" as "nhẹ," while the renowned Larousse online dictionary defines "allégés" as products with reduced carbohydrate and/or fat content, aimed at offering consumers lower-calorie options to help prevent weight gain These products primarily include dairy items, meats, ready-made meals, fats, dressings, sweet foods, and industrial beverages, and their production is strictly regulated Only 12% of translators successfully provide the correct translation, with examples including "các món trỏng miệng ít béo" and "các món trỏng miệng ít calo."
Dans certains devoirs, il existe aussi des faux-sens, c’est-à-dire les étudiants ne comprennent pas complètement le sens des termes
Ex 2.3 – Texte 1 : Le titre ô Alimentation – Du fast-food ộquilibrộ pour ộduquer le consommateur ! ằ
Eighty-eight percent of students translated the term as "food." In reality, the term "nutrition" refers to the act of nourishing or feeding (Larousse) The remaining students provided a suitable translation by interpreting "nutrition" as "eating habits."
Ex 2.4 – Texte 3 : ô le jugement du tribunal de grande instance de Paris qui, le 29 octobre, a dộboutộ des plaignants ằ
More than half of the learners (57%) translate "plaignant" as "nạn nhân" or "those who complain." According to Larousse, the term "plaignant" refers to a person who files a complaint in court, which in Vietnamese is translated as "người khiếu nại" or "bên nguyên." Additionally, 43% of students correctly understand the term and offer suitable translation suggestions such as "bỏc bỏ đơn khiếu nại của bên nguyên" or "bỏc bỏ khiếu nại của các nguyên đơn."
Ex 2.5 – Texte 3 : ô des plaignants dont la vie privộe, en l'espốce leurs prộfộrences sexuelles ằ
The term "preference" refers to an individual's inclination towards something or someone (larousse.fr) A study reveals that 65% of aspiring translators misinterpret "sexual preference" by translating it as "sexual orientation," while 35% of students who grasp the term's meaning accurately translate "sexual preference" as "sexual inclination."
In the translations produced by novice translators, numerous issues arise from the inaccurate interpretation of term meanings Students who deliver quality translations possess strong linguistic skills Furthermore, the mistakes made by learners extend beyond merely misinterpreting the meanings of source text terms; poor grammatical structure analysis also contributes to their errors.
2.3.2.1.2 Mauvaise saisie des structures syntaxiques
Every language in the world has its own system of syntactic relations and grammar, which are essential for constructing sentences French features various structures that can pose challenges for novice translators Indeed, the word order in French differs significantly from that in Vietnamese, leading many translation students to encounter difficulties.
Graphique 3 : Taux de nombre d’erreurs de la traduction dans la phase de compréhension et de réexpression des phrases dans le corpus
Ex 2.6 – Texte 2 : ô le monde ne s’est jamais mieux portộ ằ
86% người học mắc phải lỗi nghiêm trọng khi đưa ra bản dịch sai nghĩa: ô viễn cảnh thế giới vẫn không được cải thiện ô viễn cảnh thế giới vẫn không được tươi đẹp cho lắm ô viễn cảnh thế giới/tình hình thế giới chưa bao giờ được cải thiện ô thế giới vẫn chưa làm tốt hơn ô tình hình thế giới không khá lên chút nào ô thế giới đang ở mức phát triển nhất từ trước đến nay.
The translation errors mentioned stem from students' misunderstanding of the sentence's syntactic structure In this case, the subject is "the world," and the verb "to improve" is conjugated in the past tense The complex negation "never" is combined with the adverb "better." Currently, this sentence conveys a positive meaning, indicating that while the world was not good before, it is now improving Only 14% of students fully grasp this structure and, as a result, provide accurate translations.
Phase de compréhensionPhase de réexpression
29 meilleures propositions de traduction : ô thế giới chưa bao giờ tốt đẹp hơn như hiện nay ằ ou ô thế giới chưa bao giờ ở tốt hơn thế ằ
Ex 2.7 – Texte 3 : ô Tout ce qui est interdit aux mộdias classiques ộcrits et audiovisuels est permis sur Internet Cette constatation inquiétante est renforcée par le jugement du tribunal de grande instance de Paris qui, le 29 octobre, a dộboutộ des plaignants dont la vie privộe ằ
Techniques de saisie du sens des termes à traduire
Understanding new words can be challenging, as translators must read critically to select the most appropriate expression or meaning based on context Numerous tools, such as dictionaries and online resources, are available to assist in grasping the meanings of terms.
To effectively utilize dictionaries, learners must first identify the nature of the word and then refer to a French-French dictionary to understand all its meanings This understanding should be applied within the specific context of the text or sentence being translated to provide the most appropriate translation suggestions However, relying solely on dictionaries may not always be sufficient.
In the field of translation, certain terms cannot be found in linguistic dictionaries To grasp the meaning of these terms, one must turn to online resources that offer a more systematic, comprehensive, and objective analysis of language usage and translation equivalents, facilitated by the availability of extensive text corpora on the internet.
For aspiring translators, developing glossaries is crucial as they save time by providing context-specific meanings for terms already encountered These glossaries can be organized into a table with four columns: terms in French/Vietnamese, explanations/definitions, terms in Vietnamese/French, and their corresponding explanations/definitions Creating these glossaries in Microsoft Word and arranging them alphabetically enhances accessibility and efficiency, ultimately aiding in the translation process.
38 enrichir nos connaissances sur des thèmes différents et collectionner des termes spécialisés au fil du temps.
Techniques d’analyses des structures syntaxiques
Understanding the syntax structures in source texts can be challenging, especially for students whose native language is Vietnamese This difficulty arises from the influence of their mother tongue's grammar, as the word order in source sentences often differs from that of the target text.
To fully grasp the sentences in French text, it is essential to simplify the phrases and clearly identify their core components, including the subject, verb, and complement Additionally, novice translators can engage in exercises like permutation or substitution to better recognize grammatical structures within each sentence, which will enhance their understanding of the document to be translated for accurate communication in the target language.
A strong understanding of the grammar of both languages is essential for accurately translating complex sentences Similarly, French constructions that require the subjunctive are not translated in the same way in Vietnamese Mastery of verb tenses and syntax in each language is also crucial for effective translation.
In French, logical connectors play an essential role in the cohesion of a text by ensuring the organization of conversation and the progression of information (Schneuwly, 1988: 49).
To develop these techniques, students must practice exercises involving sentences or paragraphs with complex syntactic structures, enhancing their ability to identify the core components of a sentence.
Technique de faire la recherche documentaire
To excel in translation, it's essential to read regularly in both languages and practice translating as often as possible Additionally, having a strong understanding of your native language is crucial for effective translation.
To effectively translate a text from one language to another, it is essential to conduct a detailed analytical reading, similar to text explanation The historical context of the text plays a significant role, as languages evolve over time Attention must be paid to the narrator's perspective, temporal shifts (such as anticipation of future events or references to the past), character mentions, and the frequency of their appearances, as well as the locations described Understanding the author's intent—why they wrote the text, what they aimed to convey, their approach, and the tone used—is crucial for an accurate translation After identifying these elements, you can proceed with the translation while refining your style.
Source texts often contain various cultural aspects such as borrowings, neologisms, idiomatic expressions, proverbs, fixed phrases, and cultural events specific to the source language These elements may not be found in bilingual or monolingual dictionaries, making it challenging for novice translators to fully comprehend the source text, even if they do not encounter linguistic issues.
To enhance their understanding of the text, learners must develop effective research skills While documentary research is not always a mandatory component of the translation process, it becomes essential when needed, playing a crucial role in the comprehension phase (Durieux, 1990: 669).
Currently, everyone has their own knowledge on a subject or theme of the text to be translated Therefore, research is conducted individually, as the need for it depends on the connection that exists between the topics.
The process of conducting research can be time-consuming for novice translators; however, it is essential for acquiring valuable knowledge that will aid in future translations By utilizing the internet, translators can access crucial information related to the source text and important specialized terminology.
The source text includes extralinguistic elements such as quotes, proverbs, and cultural references that are not found in dictionaries, which can hinder comprehension and translation To better understand the original text, translators need to conduct thorough research on the topic at hand Learners must develop effective research skills to find relevant documents related to the subject they are translating They should continue their research until they have gathered sufficient information, and then apply their newfound knowledge reasonably in the translation process.
This thesis focuses on translation theory, specifically examining the comprehension phase in the translation of French to Vietnamese by fourth-year translation and interpretation students at the French Department It identifies and categorizes translation issues from French to Vietnamese based on established criteria Clearly, novice translators face significant challenges in translating the source text to the target text due to poor understanding of the text to be translated.
The research method employed in our study is descriptive, enabling us to effectively detail the errors made by students, present various situations and circumstances, and analyze specific cases to uncover the underlying causes of these issues.
Our research is structured into three main chapters The first section aims to clarify theoretical questions related to history, define translation, and outline the three phases of the translation process as proposed by Seleskovitch.
Lederer emphasizes the importance of understanding and grasping meaning, which plays a crucial role in the comprehension phase Key factors influencing understanding include assumptions and implications (both implicit and explicit), cognitive complements, cognitive background, contextual cognition, and textual competence.
In the second chapter of this research, we identified the challenges faced by fourth-year translation students after translating four texts from French online newspapers during translation courses We then classified and analyzed these issues based on their underlying causes Two primary reasons were identified for these problems The first cause is a poor mastery of linguistic knowledge, which includes understanding terminology and syntax structure.
La deuxième est le manque des connaissances extralinguistiques ou les connaissances culturelles
We have proposed several solutions to address the comprehension issues faced by students in the final chapter Utilizing tools such as monolingual dictionaries, websites, and creating glossaries can facilitate translation activities We highlighted measures to enhance the analysis of syntactic structures, particularly complex sentences, and to improve the mastery of extralinguistic knowledge Conducting documentary research on characters, cultural, social, economic, or political events is crucial for understanding the author's intended meaning in the source text Through statistics and analysis, it is evident that the challenges encountered by novice translators stem from a poor grasp of both linguistic and extralinguistic knowledge.
This research highlights the real challenges faced by trainee translators in the comprehension process Additionally, we propose several measures to enhance the learning of French-Vietnamese translation, hoping that these solutions will enable students to perform translation activities more effectively.
1 CARY E, (1958), Comment faut-il traduire ?, Presses Universitaires de Lille,
2 CATFORD, J.C., (1965), A Linguistic Theory of Translation : an Essay on Applied Linguistics, Oxford University Press, London
3 DURIEUX, C., (1990), La recherche documentaire en traduction technique : conditions nécessaires et suffisantes, Meta, Vol 35, n°4, décembre 1990, p 669-675
4 GALISSON, R & COSTE, D., (1976), Dictionnaire de didactique des langues, Hachette Groupe Livre, Paris
5 GILE, D., (2005), La traduction, la comprendre, l’apprendre, Presse
6 LEDERER, M., (1994), La traduction aujourd’hui, Hachette FLE, Paris
7 MOUNIN, G., (1963), Les problèmes théoriques de la traduction, Gallimard, Paris
8 PLASSARD, F., (2007), Lire pour traduire, Presses de la Sorbonne Nouvelle,
9 SARTRE, J.-P, (1985), Qu’est-ce que la littérature ?, Gallimard
SCHNEUWLY, B., (1988), Le langage écrit chez l'enfant, Paris
10 SELESKOVITCH, D., (1968), L’interprète dans les conférences internationales, problèmes de langage et de communication, Minard Lettres Modernes, Paris
11 SELESKOVITCH, D & LEDERER, M., (1984), Interpréter pour traduire, Didier Érudition, Paris
Sites Internet : http://repository.vnu.edu.vn/flowpaper/simple_document.php?subfolder%2F03
4461013a735f&uid=&fbclid=IwAR3qj5Q7mvq2MephucVW4jZLHI3- f5Fmf7QiCgnWFs16hZjQRkIGj-6MFf0 https://www.universalis.fr/dictionnaire/traduction/
44 https://jlvtraductions.com/fr/la-traduction-son-role-dans-la-societe/ https://www.larousse.fr/ https://www.academia.edu/10970310/Traductologie?fbclid=IwAR3vDgczSCDycf5 GWaMdIw5-Wsah8zU1OJIO_R-shYR7qcE0BD1Ccg05WM http://www.llsh.univsavoie.fr/lea/perdrieau/conseils.htm?fbclid=IwAR2K8khxfRt6 qhVdRJ-TdBVqL72hYIXM77tliCURpyQUD-PT0fVfw6sYqe8
Alimentation : Du fast-food équilibré pour éduquer le consommateur !