Background of the study, statement of research problem and questions
Writing assessment is essential for writing teachers, as it serves both to shape students and to understand the outcomes of that shaping (Weigle, 2007; Yancey, 1999) This process is notably complex, leading some educators to feel overwhelmed or confused about effective assessment practices (Crusan, 2010) As a future English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher, I share this uncertainty and seek clarity on how to assess student writing effectively Traditionally, EFL writing assessment has focused on evaluating written products and student performance (Lee, 2011; Naghdipour, 2016; Guadu & Boersma, 2018) However, this measurement-centric approach often fails to enhance teaching and learning, lacking the formative potential necessary to promote student growth (Lee, 2011) Consequently, there is a pressing need to explore alternative writing assessment methods that offer deeper insights into student progress and foster improved educational outcomes.
Gielen, Dochy, and Dierick (2003, p 3) suggested that formative assessment ―explicitly directed at supporting, guiding and monitoring student learning‖, and is seen to have huge potential in promoting such learning (Murphy
Formative assessment in writing, especially in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), is a largely underexplored area of research (Yancey, 2008; Burner, 2015) Despite limited published studies on this topic (Ghoorchaei et al., 2010; Burner, 2014; Abdulahi et al., 2017), existing research primarily examines the impact of formative practices on student learning outcomes, with insufficient focus on the methods and strategies employed in these assessments.
2 teachers Moreover, it is essential that teachers understand formative assessment to be able to properly carry out it in classroom practices (Widiastuti & Saukah,
Despite the positive beliefs teachers hold about formative assessment, research has identified a disconnect between these beliefs and their ongoing use of product-oriented writing assessments (Burner, 2015) To better understand this contradiction, it is essential to further explore teachers' cognition of formative assessment, which encompasses their knowledge, thinking, and beliefs (Borg, 2006; Lim, 2016), and how it influences their actual teaching practices.
In Vietnam, research on EFL formative assessment is limited, with only a few studies addressing this area (Vu, 2016; Ta et al., 2018; Nguyen & Hoang, 2019) Notably, Ta et al (2018) examined teachers' beliefs regarding formative assessment, yet this focus on a single psychological aspect does not encompass the broader concept of teacher cognition, which aims to unify the field (Borg, 2006) Additionally, there is a significant gap in studies related to teachers' cognition of formative assessment as a whole, particularly in the context of secondary education, where its implementation remains unclear (Bennett, 2011) This research aims to investigate the formative assessment practices of lower-secondary EFL teachers in Vietnam, shedding light on their cognition and assessment methods in writing lessons The results will contribute valuable insights to address the existing literature gap.
All in all, this study aims to answer the following questions:
1 What is EFL lower-secondary teachers’ cognition of formative assessment?
2 How do EFL teachers practice formative assessment strategies in writing lessons?
Scope of the study
This study investigates the cognition and formative assessment practices of lower-secondary EFL teachers in Vietnam, focusing on a case involving five teachers at a public school Due to limitations imposed by the Covid-19 pandemic, the research primarily examines the reported practices of four teachers and the actual practices of one teacher.
Significance of the study
This study, conducted in a lower-secondary school, offers valuable insights into EFL teachers' cognition and practices regarding formative assessment Its findings can enhance teachers' understanding of formative assessment processes and provide essential evidence for teacher educators and policymakers to develop professional support activities Such support aims to clarify teachers' conceptions of formative assessment and improve their practices within Vietnamese educational settings Additionally, this research serves as a foundation for future studies in the field, particularly within the context of EFL education in Vietnam.
Organisation
This paper is organized into five main parts: Introduction, Literature review, Methodology, Findings and discussions, and Conclusions The main content of each part is identified below
Chapter I (Introduction) illustrates an overview of the research problem, states the research questions and the scope of the study, as well as its contribution to existing literature
Chapter II of the literature review explores essential definitions and pertinent issues surrounding the study's topic, focusing on two primary concepts: "formative assessment" and "teachers' cognition." This section summarizes existing research related to these key areas, providing a foundational understanding for the study.
Chapter III (Methodology) outlines the research methods employed in this study to arrive at the final conclusions, detailing the research approach, design, procedures, and the techniques used for data collection and analysis.
Chapter IV (Findings and discussion) reports and discusses the findings of the study
In the conclusion of Chapter V, the study summarizes its findings and addresses the two research questions posed It also highlights the limitations encountered during the research and offers valuable implications for teachers, policy-makers, and researchers for future exploration.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of Formative Assessment
Formative assessment is a multifaceted concept that remains subject to diverse interpretations (Milawati, 2017) Despite its significance in education, the definition of formative assessment continues to lack clarity, with no universal agreement on its meaning (Arrafi & Sumarni, 2018).
Formative assessment encompasses activities by teachers and students that provide feedback to enhance teaching and learning (Black & Wiliam, 1998) It is a bidirectional process aimed at improving and responding to student learning (Cowie & Bell, 1999) This assessment approach utilizes judgments about competencies to foster further learning for the assessed individual (Threlfall, 2005) Additionally, formative assessment is viewed as a planned process where teachers and students use evidence-based assessments to adjust ongoing learning and instruction (Popham, 2008).
While varying in focus, these definitions collectively enhance the overall understanding of formative assessment For this study, I have opted to utilize McManus's (2008) definition, which encapsulates key characteristics highlighted in other definitions Consequently, formative assessment in this research is defined as:
Formative assessment is a collaborative process between teachers and students that provides essential feedback to enhance teaching and learning, ultimately improving student achievement (McManus, 2008) This approach encompasses three key elements: the participants involved, the purpose of the assessment, and the strategies employed As Hattie (2007) notes, a comprehensive understanding of formative assessment must incorporate a learning theory, recognizing that adjustments may be needed not only for students facing challenges but also for teachers and their instructional methods Thus, formative assessment serves a dual purpose: it aids students in refining their learning while also guiding teachers in optimizing their instructional practices.
Formative assessment is a process rather than a test, aimed at gaining qualitative insights into student understanding rather than simply providing scores (Popham, 2008; Shepard, 2008) Its primary goal is to enhance student learning by identifying strengths and weaknesses This approach emphasizes the importance of feedback, which is a critical component of formative assessment and significantly influences learning outcomes (McManus, 2008; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Crooks, 1988; Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
In short, due to the three above mentioned factors, McManus’s (2008) definition of formative assessment was chosen to adopt in this study
Formative Assessment Strategies
Formative assessment is defined by Bennet (2011) as requiring both a theory of action and a concrete instantiation An example of this is the "Keep Learning on Track" (KLT or ETS) program, which is based on the foundational work of Black and Wiliam (1998c, 2009) The core concept of KLT is that teachers utilize evidence to adapt their teaching and learning approaches to address students' immediate needs This program is centered around five key strategies: sharing learning expectations by clarifying goals and success criteria, effective questioning to foster classroom discussions and gauge student understanding, and providing constructive feedback.
Self-assessment empowers students to take ownership of their learning, while peer-assessment encourages them to serve as instructional resources for each other According to Bennet (2011), this approach can effectively guide teachers in implementing formative assessments in the classroom, ultimately enhancing student learning outcomes.
In this study, I only focused on exploring teachers’ practices of three formative strategies, which are Questioning, Feedback, and Peer-assessment
Previous studies (Büyükkarcı, 2014; Burner, 2015; Guadu & Boersma, 2018) identified the most common strategies employed by teachers By concentrating specifically on three formative strategies, I can streamline my research and delve deeper into the topic while also facilitating comparisons with existing literature The following sections provide a summary of the findings related to these three formative strategies.
There is no doubt that questioning is a vital aspect of the teaching and learning process It is also an important strategy in formative assessment (Harlen,
2007) Previous studies reported on numerous benefits of using questioning as a
Formative assessment strategies, such as questioning, play a crucial role in enhancing student engagement and learning According to Burns (2005), questioning allows students to actively participate in their assessment, providing teachers with valuable insights into student thinking that can inform future lessons This practice not only encourages students to reflect on their thought processes (Büyükkarcı, 2014) but also helps them activate and develop prior knowledge, as identified by Black and Wiliam (1998b) By requiring students to articulate answers with explanations, questioning fosters connections between existing knowledge and new information, thereby preventing superficial conclusions.
In 2014, it was noted that the effectiveness of student assessments is significantly influenced by the quality of questions posed by teachers To optimize assessment strategies, educators must meticulously plan and prepare questions that effectively elicit meaningful responses from students, demonstrating their knowledge, skills, and understanding.
Feedback is a crucial element of formative assessment and significantly impacts student learning (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Burner, 2015) According to Ramaprasad (1983), feedback provides information about the discrepancy between a student's current performance and desired standards, facilitating necessary adjustments (p 120) Additionally, Murphy and Yancey (2008) emphasized that the goal of formative assessment is to bridge this gap in understanding and performance.
―promote teaching and learning‖, feedback, thus became one of the basic and crucial steps
According to Black and Wiliam (1998), feedback serves two primary functions: directive and facilitative Directive feedback focuses on informing students about necessary adjustments and actions for improvement, while facilitative feedback supports the learning process by promoting self-reflection and understanding.
Effective feedback is crucial for student learning, as it offers precise comments and suggestions that guide students in their revisions and future learning Teachers can utilize various methods to deliver feedback, ensuring that it clearly indicates what students understand and where they need improvement Both individual and group feedback have been shown to enhance learning outcomes, highlighting the importance of tailored guidance in the educational process (Hattie & Jaeger, 1998).
Peer-assessment is a formative evaluation method where students evaluate the achievements and performances of their classmates (Lindblom-ylọnne et al., 2006) This practice allows students to critically analyze and provide feedback on their peers' work while also reflecting on their own, fostering a deeper understanding of the subject matter (Basnet, Brodie, & Worden).
A study by Ballantyne, Hughes, and Mylonas (2002) revealed that peer assessment significantly enhances learners' metacognitive skills and deepens their understanding of subject matter.
Peer assessment significantly enhances student motivation and fosters interaction among peers, as highlighted in research by 2003 It can be effectively implemented in diverse educational contexts, including presentations, group discussions, collaborative projects, and written assignments (Büyükkarcı, 2014).
Formative strategies empower teachers to effectively implement formative assessment in the classroom, leading to positive impacts on student learning (Bennet, 2011) Additionally, Widiastuti and Saukah emphasize the importance of these strategies in enhancing educational outcomes.
(2017) that teachers’ understanding and belief of formative assessment will certainly affect their ability in determining the actions above mentioned To have a
In this article, I explore teachers' cognition and its relationship with their practices, providing a comprehensive overview of how these concepts are interpreted in the context of this study Additionally, I introduce the theoretical framework of language teachers' cognition that guided the analysis of the study's findings.
Language teacher cognition
Borg has emerged as a prominent researcher in the realm of language teacher cognition, with his influential concepts extensively referenced in the literature (e.g., Lim, 2016; Li, 2017) In his 2003 review, Borg defined language teacher cognition as "the unobservable cognitive dimension of teaching—what teachers know, believe, and think" (Borg, 2003b, p 81), highlighting knowledge, belief, and thinking as the three fundamental constructs His subsequent work in 2006 further elaborated on this definition, refining the understanding of language teacher cognition.
Language teacher cognition encompasses the intricate, practical, and individualized networks of knowledge, thoughts, and beliefs that educators utilize in their teaching practices This concept highlights the context-sensitive nature of how language teachers approach their work, reflecting their unique experiences and insights.
Lim (2016) offers a more insightful definition that acknowledges the interconnectedness of constructs while detailing their characteristics This definition emphasizes the context-sensitive nature of language teacher cognition and highlights the relationship between teachers' beliefs and their actions in the classroom.
17) The concepts of teachers’ belief and teachers’ knowledge are frequently used and studied in the literature of language teacher cognition I, therefore, discuss these two terms below
Teacher belief is a widely recognized term in literature that pertains to teacher cognition (Li, 2017) Although extensive research has been conducted on teachers' beliefs, the existence of various labels for the same concept highlights the diversity within this field.
Teachers' beliefs play a crucial role in shaping their instructional practices and decision-making processes, often outweighing their knowledge in influencing lesson planning and classroom behavior (Ajzen, 1988; Pajares, 1992) In the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), these beliefs are reflected in individual teaching practices and are largely influenced by teachers' personal experiences and interactions within their teaching environments (Li, 2017; Guadu & Boersma, 2018) Previous literature has consistently highlighted the significant impact of teachers' beliefs on their actual teaching and assessment methods in the classroom (Burner, 2015; Guadu & Boersma, 2018).
Teacher knowledge is a complex, multi-dimensional concept that encompasses various aspects of teaching and learning (Lim, 2016) It is defined as personal practical knowledge, reflecting the significance of experience in education (Grossman & Richert, 1988) Woods (1996) elaborates that knowledge influences thinking, interpretation, and planning, indicating that it is more than just information; it is a cognitive feature intertwined with an individual's thoughts and actions Similarly, Connelly and Clandinin (1988) emphasize that knowledge exists not only in the mind but also in practical contexts.
Teacher knowledge encompasses both the information acquired through prior education and the foundation for planning effective teaching practices According to Wood (1996), there is a significant correlation among teachers' knowledge, beliefs, thinking, and actions, indicating that these elements influence and reflect one another in the educational process.
In the realm of language teacher cognition, knowledge and beliefs are pivotal concepts that shed light on their relationship with teacher decision-making However, prior research has also highlighted various terms such as teachers’ perceptions, perspectives, understanding, and conceptions (Lim, 2016) While the variety of terminology reflects the evolution of this field, it simultaneously hinders the establishment of a unified and coherent framework (Borg, 2006, p 321).
In the study of language teacher cognition, it is essential to view knowledge and beliefs as interconnected rather than distinct entities, as emphasized by Borg (2016) This approach advocates for a holistic perspective, avoiding the separation of different cognitive attributes to foster a unified understanding within the field Establishing a consistent set of concepts and definitions is crucial for the ongoing development of research in this area.
Teachers’ cognition and practice
Research on teacher cognition in mainstream and language education highlights that teachers are proactive decision-makers According to Borg (2003), they make instructional choices based on a complex and personalized network of practical knowledge that is sensitive to their specific contexts.
Teachers' cognition significantly influences their teaching practices, as highlighted by Li (2017) Research indicates that teachers' prior experiences as learners shape their pedagogical beliefs and affect their teaching throughout their careers (Borg, 2003) This aligns with findings from various studies over the past three decades, which emphasize the connection between teachers' beliefs and their classroom actions (Ng & Farrell, 2003; Mangubhai et al., 2004) Farrell (2003) demonstrated that teachers' beliefs facilitate their classroom behaviors, while Mangubhai et al (2004) supported this notion with similar observations.
―teachers’ deep-rooted beliefs about how language is learned will pervade their classroom actions more than a particular methodology they are told to adopt or coursebook they follow‖
Divergences between teachers' cognition and classroom practices stem from various contextual factors, with the most significant being the learning methods, preferences, and proficiency levels of students (Li, 2017; Shavelson & Stern, 1981) Additionally, school environments and culture, including student management and alignment with peers' teaching methods, play a critical role in shaping teachers' practices (Davis, 2003) These factors significantly influence teachers' initial perceptions of teaching and learning, leading them to adopt uniform approaches for common assessments and prioritize classroom management (Li, 2017).
Recent studies on language teacher cognition have greatly enhanced our understanding of teacher learning, actions, and the motivations behind their decisions These findings affirm the complexity of teachers' thought processes and their impact on educational practices.
14 cognition shapes teacher’s behavior but also suggest that classroom contextual factors actually influence the successive decisions a teacher may make (Li, 2017).
What have been studied about EFL teachers’ cognition?
While there has been a growing body of research in this field, not all such studies have explicitly adopted the label language teacher cognition (Lim, 2016, p
Numerous studies have explored various aspects of teachers' insights, including their perceptions, perspectives, understanding, and conceptions (Kader, 2019; Dinkel et al., 2017; Polesel et al., 2014; Nassaji, 2012; Silver, 2008; Sutherland et al., 2010; Baleghizadeh & Shahri, 2014; Remesal, 2011) These studies consistently aim to uncover the relationship between these concepts and actual classroom practices, highlighting the crucial link between teachers' beliefs and their instructional methods.
What have been studied about EFL formative assessment?
Previous research highlights the significance of formative assessment in enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in classrooms (Guadu & Boersma, 2018; Afarri, 2017; Burner, 2015; Lee, 2011; Ta et al., 2018) Many studies have concentrated on the advantages of formative assessment and its effects on student learning outcomes, along with various contextual factors that can influence classroom interactions (Widiastuti & Saukah, 2017).
Previous studies have shown that teachers generally hold positive beliefs and attitudes toward formative assessment However, these studies also indicate that teachers often infrequently utilize these assessments or employ ineffective practices.
A comprehensive study by Foster and Poppers (2009) revealed that many teachers struggle to create effective formative assessments in their teaching practices Additionally, Widiastuti and Saukah (2017) noted that most existing forms of formative assessment are inadequately designed, highlighting a significant gap in educational assessment methods.
Formative assessments are often designed to evaluate students' current abilities rather than to support their learning development This suggests that teachers' insufficient knowledge of formative assessment methods can impede their effective implementation in the classroom This issue has been highlighted in various studies, including those by Brookhart (2008) and Husain (2013).
What gaps does this study fill-in?
Research on EFL teachers' cognition and practice of formative assessment has been conducted across various regions, including Asia, Europe, North and South America, and Africa (Borg, 2011; Büyükkarcı, 2014; Young & Jackman, 2014; Karim, 2015; Quyen & Khairani, 2016; Widiastuti & Saukah, 2017; Guadu & Boersma, 2018; Widiastuti et al., 2019) However, there is a notable scarcity of studies focusing on Southeast Asian countries, particularly Vietnam (Lee, 2011; Widiastuti, 2016; Ta et al., 2018).
Previous studies on teacher cognition have primarily concentrated on singular aspects, such as teachers' perceptions (Kader, 2019; Dinkel et al., 2017; Brannan & Bleistein, 2012), perspectives (Polesel et al., 2014; Nassaji, 2012), and understanding (Silver, 2008; Sutherland et al.) This focus on specific constructs highlights the need for a more comprehensive exploration of teacher cognition as a whole.
Research on teacher cognition remains limited, as highlighted in Section 2.3.2, hindering the development of a unified understanding within the field This gap underscores the need for comprehensive studies that explore teachers' conceptions and beliefs to enhance coherence among researchers.
Previous research on formative assessment has primarily focused on the effects of teachers' practices on student learning outcomes (Ghoorchaei et al., 2010; Burner, 2014; Abdulahi et al., 2017) However, there has been limited exploration into the actual implementation of formative assessment strategies by teachers in their classrooms.
Previous research, such as that by Burner (2015), highlighted a discrepancy between teachers' ongoing use of product-oriented writing assessments and their favorable views on formative assessment This indicates a need for deeper exploration into teachers' understanding and beliefs regarding formative assessment, as well as how these cognitions influence their teaching practices.
This study aims to explore teachers' cognition and practices regarding formative assessment in Vietnam, utilizing Borg's (2006) adapted framework for language teacher cognition, which will be detailed in the following section.
Framework for language teacher cognition research
Despite the extensive history of over 30 years in researching language teacher cognition, there remains a notable absence of a comprehensive terminological framework that outlines essential dimensions for researchers in this field (Borg, 2006) This framework, developed and refined by Borg, aims to address this gap in the literature.
In 2006, the author expanded on their 2003 framework to explore four key concepts related to language teacher cognition: teacher cognition itself, teacher learning—which encompasses both formal education and professional development—contextual factors, and classroom practices.
Figure 2.1 Borg’s (2006) framework for language teacher cognition of formative assessment
Borg’s (2006) adapted framework for language teacher cognition
This study utilized a data analysis framework adapted from Borg’s (2006) model of language teacher cognition, as discussed in Section 2.8 The adaptation focused specifically on emphasizing the cognitive aspects of language teachers related to formative assessment.
Figure 2.2 Borg’s (2006) adapted framework for language teacher cognition of formative assessment
I clarify the concepts in the adapted framework as below:
Teacher cognition encompasses various psychological constructs such as beliefs, knowledge, theories, attitudes, assumptions, and thinking This research focuses on how these elements influence teachers' understanding and perspectives on formative assessment.
Teacher learning encompasses the educational and teaching experiences, as well as assessment backgrounds of educators These prior experiences with formative assessment, both as learners and instructors, shape teachers' cognition, which in turn influences their classroom practices Additionally, contextual factors play a crucial role in shaping these experiences, highlighting the importance of understanding teacher learning in educational settings.
19 account the role of personal learning and experience in the development of preconceptions about formative assessment
● Contextual factors: This concept includes what happens around and inside the classroom It plays an instrumental role in mediating teachers’ cognition and practices
● Classroom practice: This concept is defined by the interaction of teacher cognition and contextual factors, which in turn consciously or unconsciously shapes the cognition of teachers
Borg (2006) emphasizes the importance of a framework in language teacher cognition research, as it identifies key themes, gaps, and conceptual relationships, particularly in exploring teachers' cognitions regarding formative assessment This framework is crucial for preventing the isolation of studies that lack context and for offering researchers essential dimensions in their investigations By employing Borg’s adapted framework, I systematically coded and organized emerging themes from the data, aligning them with the research questions to draw meaningful conclusions.
This study examines the understanding and classroom practices of lower-secondary EFL teachers regarding formative assessment The subsequent chapters detail the research methodology and findings.
METHODOLOGY
Case study as the research approach
This research study employs a case study methodology, defined by Yin (1989) as an empirical inquiry that examines a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, particularly when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not distinctly defined, utilizing multiple sources of evidence Baxter and Jack (2008) further describe a case study as a research approach that explores a phenomenon within its context through various data sources, ensuring a comprehensive understanding by revealing multiple facets of the issue.
The 2008 case study delves into various sources of evidence to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem It addresses two key research questions focused on cognition and the practice of formative assessment, necessitating the use of multiple data sources for conclusive findings According to Yin (2003), a case study research design is particularly effective for exploring "how" and "why" questions related to the subject Specifically, this study investigates how EFL teachers implement formative assessment strategies in writing lessons, making the case study method a suitable choice for this research.
According to Merriam (1998), the defining characteristic of case study research is the delimitation of the case Meriam’s (1998) definition is in line with
Smith (1978) defines a case as a bounded system, while Stake (1995) describes it as an integrated system, viewing the case as a singular entity with defined boundaries This perspective allows for various interpretations of a case, including individuals, programs, groups, or institutions In this study, the focus is on the EFL teachers currently employed at School A, who are considered the case under examination.
Research design
In this article, I outline the reasoning behind my choice of research sites and provide a summary of the research participants involved Additionally, I explore the application of qualitative methods to address the two primary research questions.
The study took place at School A, a prestigious public lower-secondary school in Cau Giay district, Hanoi, Vietnam, established in the late 1980s and recognized for its high-quality education Under the oversight of the Cau Giay Department of Education and Training, the school excels in organization, human resources, finance, and facilities In 2018, it partnered with Vietnam Education Consultants Ltd (VEC) to launch dual degree classes that integrated the Ministry of Education and Training's mainstream curriculum with the Cambridge A-level program This competitive English language environment made School A an ideal location for research.
In this study, five female teachers from the English department at School A participated, having teaching experiences ranging from five to twenty-nine years, with some holding M.A degrees in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) Initially, eleven teachers were invited, but six (one male and five females) declined to participate, resulting in a final participant count of five females.
The participants of this study will be addressed by pseudonyms as specified in the table below, with a view to protecting their identities
Pseudonym Gender Qualification Years of teaching
Helen Female Master degree 29 years
Tracy Female Bachelor degree 5 years
Vee Female Master degree 7 years
Gwen Female Bachelor degree 6 years
Lucy Female Bachelor degree 6 years
Data collection procedure
The data collection process spanned approximately two months, utilizing various methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of the research problem (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004) To address the first question regarding EFL lower-secondary teachers’ cognitions of formative assessment, a semi-structured interview approach was employed For the second question on how EFL teachers implement formative assessment strategies in writing classes, data was gathered through pre-teaching and post-teaching interviews, class observations, and document analysis The procedures for each participant are detailed in Figure 3.1, with rationales for the selected methods provided in the following section.
Before data collection began, participants were provided with an introductory letter detailing the study's purpose and a consent form outlining the data collection procedure They were allowed time to read the materials and ask questions to address any concerns Upon agreeing to the procedure, participants signed the consent form Subsequently, the researcher and participants coordinated schedules for interviews and classroom observations.
The preliminary interview, lasting around 45 minutes, aimed to assess teachers' backgrounds and their understanding of formative assessment in writing Following this, each participant's teaching was observed during two lessons Prior to each lesson, individual interviews of 15 to 20 minutes were conducted to discuss the planned formative assessments After the lessons, teachers were interviewed again to gather insights on their experiences.
24 the second time in about 20 to 30 minutes to explore any changes in assessment practices that were made in their lessons and the reasons for that.
Data collection instruments
Three data collection instruments were employed in this study These instruments included documents, interviews, and classroom observation Each instrument is specified in the following sections
In this study context of Vietnam, ―all educational policies and activities are made top down from the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET)‖ (Albright,
In 2018, Vietnamese EFL lower-secondary teachers, along with educators at other levels, must adhere to the guidelines set by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) for teaching and assessment To gain insights into teachers' classroom practices and their implementation of formative assessment, I collected and analyzed the official documents that outline these assessment guidelines This analysis provided a comprehensive overview of how teachers are directed to conduct assessments in their teaching.
The document analysis approach, as highlighted by Guedu & Boersma (2018), is extensively utilized in research, offering essential background information and comprehensive data coverage This method enables researchers to effectively contextualize their studies within specific subjects or fields (Bowen, 2009) Utilizing this instrument can provide valuable insights into the second research question: “How do EFL teachers practice formative assessment strategies in writing lessons?”
The researcher intends to observe two teaching lessons from each participant using a non-participant method, characterized as a "non-invasive and objective examination of the researched phenomenon in its usual setting" (Berg, 2001) This approach aligns with the assertion by Parke and Griffiths (2008) that emphasizes the value of objective observation in educational research.
25 feature of this method is that ―observers can scrutinize the behavior in its natural context without changing the conditions‖
In this study, by observing participants’ classroom practice, the researcher could search for the evidence in the classroom to answer the proposed research question
In a study examining how EFL teachers implement formative assessment strategies in writing lessons, classroom observations were conducted to analyze teacher-student interactions without disrupting the learning environment Data collection involved both written notes and video recordings, with participants consenting to the process A checklist of formative assessment strategies was utilized to effectively capture the teachers' application of these methods during lessons As noted by Oswalt (2013), using an observational instrument is essential for accurately evaluating a teacher's use of formative assessment in the classroom.
In this study, the researcher utilized a well-established formative assessment observation checklist by Oswalt (2013) By utilizing the observation checklist of previous researcher in the field along with appropriate modifications,
The checklist utilized in this study comprises five formative assessment components aligned with corresponding strategies, as outlined in section 2.2 It rates 20 specific items grouped by component using a Likert-type scale from 1 to 5, where 1 indicates no evidence of use and 5 signifies pervasive or highly effective use Additionally, a column was included to record further details about the observed items, ensuring the validity, reliability, and contextual relevance of the assessment.
At first, I planned to observe all participants’ writing classes as mentioned in the data collection procedure (Section 3.3) However, due to the obstacle of the
26 coronavirus Covid-19 pandemic, which made School A be closed, I could only observe two writing lessons of one participant The limitations of this study will be later presented in Section 5.3
The table below indicates the specific details of Helen’s observation session
Participant’s Name Lesson Date Duration
Mangubhai et al (2004) highlight the significance of interviews in capturing teachers' cognitive processes, emphasizing that this method prioritizes teachers' perspectives over researchers' This approach is crucial for maintaining the authenticity of accounts regarding teaching practices and their underlying rationales.
To explore teachers' cognitive processes regarding formative assessment, semi-structured interviews were conducted, allowing participants to reflect deeply on their thoughts and practical theories These interviews provided a platform for teachers to express their insights, offering valuable evidence to address the two research questions All sessions were recorded with consent and transcribed for subsequent analysis.
In designing the interview protocols, I utilized Borg’s (2006) adapted Framework for Language Teacher Cognition to develop questions that investigate teachers' utilization of formative assessment across four key areas: teachers' cognition, teacher learning, and their educational and assessment backgrounds.
The preliminary interview explored participants' understanding of formative assessment, while the pre-teaching and post-teaching interviews examined their classroom assessment practices and the rationale behind these methods.
Interview protocols for preliminary, pre-teaching, post-teaching used in this study are attached in Appendix C of this paper
During the interviews, I adhered strictly to the established protocols for data collection Although participants had previously consented to the procedure by signing a consent form, I sought their permission once more to record the interviews Additionally, I allowed participants to select the locations for their interviews to ensure their comfort The specifics of each interview are detailed in Table 3.2 below.
Participant Name of interview Place Date Duration
Preliminary interview Helen’s home 12/1/2020 45 minutes Pre-lesson interview 1 Classroom 15/1/2020 12 minutes Post-lesson interview 1 Classroom 15/1/2020 20 minutes Pre-lesson interview 2 Classroom 15/1/2020 15 minutes Post-lesson interview 2 Classroom 15/1/2020 20 minutes Tracy
Preliminary interview Tracy’s home 21/2/2020 40 minutes Pre-lesson interview 1 Tracy’s home 21/2/2020 15 minutes
Vee Preliminary interview Vee’s home 28/2/2020 40 minutes
Pre-lesson interview 1 Vee’s home 28/2/2020 15 minutes
Gwen Preliminary interview Classroom 5/3/2020 42 minutes
Pre-lesson interview 1 Classroom 5/3/2020 15 minutes Lucy Preliminary interview Lucy’s home 5/3/2020 38 minutes
Pre-lesson interview 1 Lucy’s home 5/3/2020 12 minutes
All interviews were conducted in Vietnamese as participants felt more comfortable to express their ideas in mother tongue language.
Thematic data analysis
In this section, an attempt will be made to explain the process of analyzing the data, which I collected from the participants Thematic analysis, which is a
In this study, the foundational method for qualitative analysis, as outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006), was utilized due to its effectiveness in organizing and describing qualitative data in rich detail A key advantage of this method is its ability to accurately report the experiences, meanings, and realities of participants, providing valuable insights into their perspectives.
To conduct the thematic analysis, I utilized Braun and Clarke's six-phase approach (2006) Initially, I familiarized myself with the data by meticulously transcribing all interviews, carefully rereading them, and annotating transcripts, observation notes, and relevant documents to extract key information related to the research questions In the subsequent phase of generating initial codes, I systematically analyzed the transcripts and notes to develop codes that captured both the semantic (manifest) and latent levels of meaning within the data The semantic level represents what is directly observable, while the latent level delves into the underlying factors influencing the phenomenon, as outlined in Borg's adapted framework (2006).
After generating the codes, the next step is to categorize them into potential themes Once the data analysis for each participant is complete and sets of themes are established, a cross-analysis will be performed among the themes of five participants to identify common patterns.
This study utilized three data collection instruments: documents, interviews, and classroom observations To enhance the validity and reliability of the findings, evidence from the documents, observation notes, and checklists were compared and triangulated with the interview data (Baxter & Jack, 2008).
Illustration of interview transcript analysis
This section outlines the analysis of data collected from interviews, employing a two-stage coding process as described by Saldaña (2009) In the First Cycle Coding, I meticulously reviewed the interview transcripts line by line, identifying and coding information pertinent to the research questions Two coding methods were utilized, as proposed by Saldaña.
Descriptive Codes serve to encapsulate the main idea of a sentence or passage within transcripts using concise words or phrases (Saldaña, 2009, p 3) Examples of such codes include terms like "Gain experiences," "Passion in teaching," and "Conservative mind." Table 3.4 provides a detailed illustration of Descriptive Codes in action.
Table 3.4 Descriptive coding in interview analysis Example excerpt First-level coding Type of code
Khi bạn thực hiện bài báo cáo trước lớp, điều quan trọng là phải thể hiện sự tự tin và diễn đạt một cách trôi chảy Dù có thể mắc một vài lỗi ngữ pháp trong câu, nhưng điều này không ảnh hưởng đến đánh giá tổng thể của cô giáo Nếu bạn thể hiện tốt, cô có thể chấm điểm cao cho bạn.
The second coding method I used was In Vivo Code, which involves directly quoting the participant's own words, as noted by Saldaña (2009, p 3) An example of In Vivo Code can be found in Table 3.5 below.
Theo cô, định nghĩa về đánh giá quá trình hay đánh giá thường xuyên vẫn tuân theo quy định của điểm số và không có sự thay đổi.
In the Second Cycle Coding processes, all the initial codes were reviewed again and some codes were reworded or grouped together if they were overlapped
I used a new code when grouping all the overlapped ones together For example, such codes as ―Testing’s rules‖, ―Official document about assessment‖ and
―Mark’s regulation‖ were grouped together and became ―Testing and Assessment policy‖
In my analysis of data from official documents issued by MOET, I primarily employed In Vivo coding, as previously outlined The following table illustrates an example of my application of this coding method to document analysis.
Table 3.6 In Vivo coding in document analysis
Example excerpt Code Type of code
Bài kiểm tra thường xuyên sẽ gồm có bài kiểm tra hỏi-đáp cho kỹ năng nói và kiểm tra viết
Ask and answer test for speaking skill written test
Illustration of observation notes analysis
To analyze the observational data, I utilized the Process Code method, defined as a word or phrase that encapsulates action, with the goal of identifying repetitive patterns and consistencies in human behavior as reflected in the data (Saldaña, 2009, p 5) An example of this Process Code is illustrated in Table 3.7 below.
Example excerpt Code Type of code
When T shows picture 3, Ss say
―No‖ T asks ―Why do you say no?‖
Ss explain to the T the reasons for their answer
T asks Ss to work in groups of 4 and list out reasons for each type of pollution in each picture.
Ethical considerations
Participation in this study was entirely voluntary, with all participants receiving a thorough explanation of the data collection process and their roles prior to agreeing to take part Each participant signed a consent form and was provided with a copy for their records (see Appendix A).
To ensure confidentiality, the identities of participants in the research were protected by using pseudonyms, and their names have been altered in the study Additionally, all recorded videos and tapes will remain private, accessible only to the researcher and her supervisor, thereby safeguarding the participants' anonymity throughout the process.
In addition, before handing in the final paper, the participants read again the transcript of their interviews and findings of the research to ensure their agreement with the results
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
FINDINGS
4.1.1 Teachers’ educational, teaching, and assessment backgrounds
Helen, the most experienced EFL teacher in this study with nearly 30 years of teaching English in lower-secondary education, is known for her calm, careful, and passionate approach, viewing her role as a fulfilling hobby In addition to her position at School A, she has served as a teaching assistant for the English binder program in collaboration with Language Link English center Helen has enhanced her teaching skills by attending workshops organized by Apollo English center and the British Council, where she learned valuable techniques Her training in testing and assessment is limited to sessions conducted by the Hanoi Department of Education and Training, focusing on designing various assessment instruments.
Tracy has been an English teacher at School A for five years, holding a bachelor's degree in English Linguistics and completing a course in English Language Teacher Education to qualify as an EFL teacher She possesses high proficiency in English, evidenced by her impressive IELTS score of Band 8 Additionally, Tracy has participated in teaching methodology workshops organized by the British Council and assessment training provided by the Hanoi Department of Education and Training.
Vee gained valuable teaching experience at an English center after graduation, where she served as both a human resources manager and an English teaching assistant at an IELTS center During her tenure, she learned a variety of effective teaching methods from foreign instructors, enhancing her skills in education.
After obtaining her Master's degree, Vee began her career as an English teacher at a private school, instructing students at both lower and upper secondary levels Currently, she is in her second year of teaching at School A To enhance her skills, Vee participated in a teaching methodology workshop organized by the British Council.
Gwen has been an English teacher for nearly six years, holding a Bachelor's degree in English Teacher Education She began her career as an EFL teacher at School A and participated in a training program on testing and assessment organized by the Hanoi Department of Education and Training Additionally, Gwen enhanced her expertise through a university course on "Testing and Assessment," where she learned about various types of tests to evaluate student learning effectively.
Lucy earned her Bachelor's degree in English Linguistics three years ago and subsequently completed a course in English Teacher Education to pursue a career as an EFL teacher After teaching at a private school for several years, she transitioned to School A while also taking on a part-time role at Topica Native English Center, where she taught communicative English to working adults During her tenure at the private school, Lucy enhanced her skills by participating in formative assessment training, further enriching her teaching expertise.
―Testing and Assessment‖ course at her university, in which she learned about designing tests to assess students
Now I report on these five teachers’ cognition (what they know, believe, and think) (Borg, 2006) of formative assessment and their practices following the adapted framework in Figure 4.1
This section reports on five emerging themes in the EFL teachers’ cognition about formative assessment: teachers’ conception of formative assessment, teachers’
This article explores 35 misconceptions regarding the purposes of formative assessment, alongside teachers' perceptions of its benefits and drawbacks Additionally, it highlights the contradictions in teachers' views on formative assessment The findings aim to address the first research question: What is the cognition of EFL lower-secondary teachers regarding formative assessment?
4.1.2.1 Teachers’ conceptions of formative assessment
In this study, teachers demonstrated two distinct conceptions of formative assessment, with one aligning with established definitions in the literature while the other diverged significantly.
Teachers’ conception of formative assessment in alignment with the literature
Vee and Gwen view formative assessment as a dynamic process that involves both teachers and students, emphasizing its periodic nature Vee describes it as a method where teachers evaluate students over time using diverse teaching strategies and activities Likewise, Gwen articulates her understanding of formative assessment in a similar manner, highlighting the collaborative role of participants in the learning journey.
Formative assessment is a continuous process that evaluates student learning throughout the semester Teachers conduct assessments at the beginning, middle, and end of the term using various activities, including presentations, group work, and feedback from both teachers and peers This approach helps to monitor progress and enhance learning outcomes.
The personal conceptions of formative assessment held by the two teachers align with McManus’s (2008) definition, which is the foundation of this study In Chapter 2, Section 2.1, formative assessment is defined as a process that enhances learning by providing ongoing feedback.
―a process used by teachers and students during instruction that provides feedback to adjust ongoing teaching and learning to improve students’ achievement of intended instructional outcomes‖ (McManus, 2008, p 5)
Based on existing literature on formative assessment, the personal definitions provided by the two teachers align with the widely accepted understanding of the term, which is characterized as "activities undertaken by teachers and students."
& William, 1998, p 7) or a planned process that carried out with instructional activities (Popham, 2008; Shepard 2005)
Teachers’ conceptions of formative assessment in misalignment with the literature
Teachers Helen and Lucy demonstrated misconceptions about formative assessment, which do not align with its established definitions in the literature In this study, formative assessment is defined as a process utilized by both teachers and students during instruction (McManus, 2008, p 5) Effective strategies for implementing formative assessment include questioning, feedback, and peer-assessment.
In this study, two teachers described formative assessment as the utilization of various assessment tools, such as oral tests and conventional paper exams, to gauge students' learning capabilities either during or following the educational process Helen's perspective on formative assessment is particularly emphasized in the following extract.
Formative assessment can effectively be implemented through daily oral tests, where students participate at the start of each lesson, or through brief 15-minute paper tests This approach allows for continuous evaluation of student understanding and engagement.
DISCUSSION
This study investigates the formative assessment practices of Vietnamese EFL lower-secondary teachers by utilizing various data collection methods, including document analysis and interviews conducted before and after teaching The objective is to reveal teachers' beliefs and their assessment strategies during writing lessons Through a comprehensive analysis of data from documents, interviews, and observation sessions, the study offers valuable insights into these practices The findings are discussed in relation to existing literature, highlighting the implications for teaching and assessment in EFL contexts.
Teachers' understanding of formative assessment reveals significant misconceptions, as highlighted in Sections 4.1.2.1 and 4.1.2.2 While three out of five teachers viewed formative assessment primarily as assessment tools like tests, two recognized it as an ongoing process involving various stakeholders throughout the learning journey This latter perspective aligns with established definitions in existing literature, which emphasizes the broader purpose of formative assessment beyond mere testing.
Research by Black and Williams (1998), Cowie and Bell (1999), and Shepard (2005) highlights a common misconception among secondary school teachers who often equate formative assessment with traditional tests This misunderstanding has been documented in various studies, revealing a significant lack of clarity and comprehension regarding the true nature of formative assessment (Arrafii & Sumarni, 2018; Dixon & Williams, 2001; Alotaibi, 2018).
All teachers recognized that assessment was primarily for grading, likely influenced by their educational backgrounds where university lecturers taught them test design methods Contextually, EFL teachers were mandated to adhere to the national testing and assessment policy, which lacked detailed guidelines for formative assessment, potentially hindering teachers' understanding The policy referred to formative assessment as "tests," directing teachers to align it with summative assessment practices, such as speaking and 15-minute writing tests This guidance may explain why teachers misinterpreted formative assessment as merely "oral tests and 15-minute tests." Furthermore, teachers were instructed to evaluate student performance through formative assessments, treating them as a form of summative assessment while following specific marking regulations Consequently, the unclear distinctions between formative and summative assessment likely contributed to the misconception that grading was the primary purpose of formative assessment.
The national assessment policy significantly influenced teachers' understanding of formative assessment, while also restricting their autonomy in implementing such assessments.
Teachers adhered strictly to the policy's guidelines in their classroom practices, consistently employing three key formative assessment strategies: questioning, feedback, and peer assessment These strategies were implemented through various activities outlined in the policy, including guessing pictures, ask-and-answer sessions, pair and group work, and gallery walks.
4.1.2.3.2 and Section 4.1.5) he strong influence of assessment policy on teachers’ cognition and practice was also widely discussed in previous literature in various contexts (Hall & Harding, 2002; Jang & Sinclair, 2017)
Teachers' implementation of formative assessment is significantly influenced by contextual factors, including class size and lesson duration In large classes, such as those with 60 students, educators face challenges in effectively applying formative assessment strategies within limited time frames, such as a 45-minute lesson covering both listening and writing skills These constraints have been acknowledged in previous research highlighting the impact of heavy workloads and large class sizes in Vietnamese education However, the case study of Helen demonstrates that peer-assessment through group activities can be an effective strategy for managing large classes This indicates that while large class sizes present challenges, they can also prompt teachers to adopt adaptive strategies, a perspective that has been underexplored in existing literature on formative assessment.
Teachers generally held a positive view on the significance of formative assessment, recognizing its numerous benefits outweighing any drawbacks They deemed it crucial for implementation in their writing classes, highlighting its essential role in enhancing student learning.
Teachers perceive a contradiction in the purpose of formative assessment, viewing it both as a tool for grading and as a means to identify student learning This dual perspective aligns with existing literature, which emphasizes the primary role of formative assessment in enhancing learning (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Cowie & Bell, 1999; Popham, 2008) Despite this contradiction, teachers consistently implement formative assessment strategies in their classrooms, indicating a commitment to its formative purpose (Sections 4.1.3.2.1 and 4.1.5) This finding contrasts with previous studies that highlighted a gap between teachers' positive beliefs about formative assessment and their ongoing reliance on summative assessment practices (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Brookhart, 2008; Burner, 2015).
Borg’s (2006) adapted framework for language teacher cognition proved invaluable for analyzing key dimensions of the case study This framework facilitated an in-depth exploration of essential concepts such as teachers’ cognition, learning, practices, and contextual factors, along with their interrelationships Additionally, it helped establish a unified set of concepts, enhancing coherence in the examination of language teacher cognition amidst the diverse terminology prevalent in related research (Borg, 2006, p 321).
In summary, this chapter has illustrated emerging themes from the five
EFL teachers' understanding and implementation of formative assessment are significantly shaped by various contextual factors both within and outside the classroom This article also engages in a detailed discussion of the study's findings, situating them within the broader existing literature on the topic.