Rationale of the research
In today's digital age, the rapid advancement of technology has elevated the role of mass media, particularly online news, as a key information source While news is often perceived as objective and unbiased, varying narratives about the same events across different outlets raise questions about the neutrality of the information provided Critical discourse analysis (CDA) reveals that media language is inherently biased, shaped by underlying values and ideologies, as noted by Fowler (1991) This manipulation of language can significantly influence public perception, especially during political conflicts, where media is leveraged to sway opinions and bolster support against opponents (Nhung, 2012) To uncover the complexities of news reporting, including the social dynamics, hidden ideologies, and portrayals of people and issues, employing CDA is essential.
The relationship between Vietnam and China is marked by complexity and tension, despite their geographical proximity and historical ties Ongoing efforts aim to foster cooperation between these two nations, yet political disputes, particularly over sovereignty claims in the South China Sea (referred to as the East Sea in Vietnam), frequently disrupt this connection This enduring conflict has garnered significant attention from politicians, journalists, and scholars, especially in light of recent media coverage As a Vietnamese citizen, I am particularly concerned about this issue, and there has been a lack of analysis regarding language use in online news coverage from both countries Therefore, I conducted a study utilizing critical discourse analysis to examine how Chinese and Vietnamese media represent the East Sea dispute in English, highlighting the ideologies that shape their portrayal of reality for readers.
Scope of the research
This study focuses on online news reports regarding the East Sea dispute from May 1 to July 16, 2014 While a broader data range typically enhances the reliability of research findings, the constraints of time and the limited scope of a minor thesis necessitate a focus on only twelve selected reports from Global.
Times, Xinhua Agency News of China and the Vietnamplus, Vietnamnet of Vietnam
This study is strictly linguistic in nature and does not reflect the author's political views It does not endorse any political parties or seek to influence individuals' political beliefs, serving solely for academic purposes.
Aim and objectives of the research
The study primarily aims to analyze Chinese and Vietnamese online media coverage of the East Sea dispute under the light of critical discourse analysis
To achieve this aim, the following objectives are set:
to investigate the manner in which the conflict and main participants are approached and represented in the media discourse
This article investigates the underlying ideologies of journalists by analyzing the grammatical and lexical features of news reports, highlighting the strong connection between media language and political purposes.
In order to realize these objectives, the study is intended to answer the following questions:
What are the underlying ideologies of each side with respect to the issue of the dispute?
News agencies encode ideologies in their discourse through the influence of the values held by journalists and media institutions Each agency presents varying perspectives on contentious issues and the parties involved, leading to the expression of distinct ideologies Consequently, the portrayal of news is shaped by these underlying beliefs, resulting in diverse interpretations of the same events.
Significance of the research
This study aims to offer both theoretical and practical benefits, enhancing understanding of critical discourse analysis while equipping researchers and readers with the tools to develop critical awareness of everyday news.
Research methodology
To carry out this study, the following procedures and techniques involving both qualitative and quantitative research method will be employed
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) will be utilized in this text analysis to reveal underlying ideologies This approach incorporates the three stages of CDA outlined by Norman Fairclough (2001) alongside Halliday's Systemic-Functional Grammar.
This article analyzes twelve genuine news reports from prominent news agencies in China and Vietnam It includes five reports from China's leading media outlets, the Global Times and Xinhua News Agency, along with seven reports from Vietnam's most authoritative and influential media sources.
Vietnamplus, Vietnamnet The news reports in the research are selected in a range of time from May 1, 2014 to July 16, 2014
For further description of the research method, see chapter 2.
Design of the research
The study consists of three parts They are:
Part A – Introduction – presents the rationale, scope, aim and objectives, significance, general methodology, and design of the study
Part B – Development – constitutes the main part and consists of three chapters
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), including its definitions, principles, and approaches It explores Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework and Halliday’s Systemic-Functional Theory, with a particular focus on transitivity Additionally, the chapter presents a summary of related studies that enhance the understanding of CDA.
Chapter 2: Methodology and analytical procedures
This chapter presents the background to the dispute After that, the methodology and data analysis procedures are mentioned
Chapter 3: A critical discourse analysis of online news about the East Sea dispute
The CDA procedure addressed by Fairclough and Halliday‟s Systemic-functional theory are used to analyze the news reports to find out the connection between ideologies and language use
In conclusion, this study highlights the key findings regarding transitivity and overwording in online media coverage of both perspectives, identifying both commonalities and differences Additionally, it presents recommendations for future research to further explore these linguistic features.
LITERATURE REVIEW
An overview of CDA
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) originated from Critical Linguistics (CL) in the 1970s, pioneered by linguists such as Fowler, Kress, and Hodge It gained further development in the early 1990s through the contributions of scholars like Norman Fairclough, Ruth Wodak, and Teun A van Dijk CDA has since evolved into a significant branch of discourse analysis, shifting the focus of linguistic research from formal structures to the functional aspects of language.
Discourse, whether written or spoken, is shaped by social structures and practices, as highlighted by Fairclough (2001) Language serves as a social semiotic that reflects and is influenced by its social context (Titscher et al., 2000; Weiss and Wodak, 2003) Additionally, discourse plays a crucial role in shaping and altering social relationships, demonstrating a reciprocal influence between language and society (Wodak and Meyer, 2001; Jørgensen and Phillips, 2002).
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) serves as a method for examining the relationship between language use and social factors, particularly the dynamics of power and conflicts that shape discourse Through CDA, one can uncover the ideological influences related to power relations embedded within language.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) systematically examines the complex relationships between discursive practices, events, and texts, and the broader social and cultural structures that influence them It investigates how these elements are shaped by power dynamics and ideological struggles, revealing the ways in which discourse contributes to the maintenance of power and hegemony By uncovering the often opaque connections between discourse and society, CDA highlights the role these relationships play in securing dominance within social contexts.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a specialized form of discourse analysis that examines how social power abuse, dominance, discrimination, and inequality are expressed and resisted in discourse within social and political contexts Building on Fairclough's concepts, scholars like Van Dijk, Wodak, and Meyer emphasize the significance of understanding power relations in communication As Van Dijk noted, CDA serves as a vital diagnostic tool for assessing social and political dominance, highlighting the intricate ways in which language reflects and shapes societal structures.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an analytical approach that explores the intricate relationships between language, power, and ideology By providing detailed descriptions, explanations, and critiques, CDA seeks to challenge and reframe conventional understandings of discourse.
“naturalized” language used in the discourse, then reveal the power or struggles over power as well as ideologies hidden
Although the pioneers in CDA such as Fairclough, Wodak, and Van Dijk contributed different methods for CDA, they all shared the same viewpoints of CDA‟s principles
CDA‟s primary interest is to address social problems It does not rely solely on any particular discipline or discourse theory but a multidisciplinary approach and methodology to reveal such problems
Power relations are discursive That is CDA explains how social relations of power are exercised and negotiated in and through discourse
Discourse constitutes society and culture It means that the language use in discourse can contribute to reproducing and transforming social structures and practice, including relations of power
Discourse is ideological because linguistic features and structures are not arbitrary but purposeful in a particular social context By means of discourse, power relations are produced, exercised, and reproduced
Discourse is historical in the sense that texts attain their meanings by existing in specific social, cultural and ideological contexts, time and space
A socio-cognitive approach is needed to understand how relations between texts and society are mediated
Discourse analysis is interpretive and explanatory
Discourse is a form of social action
1.1.3.1 Van Dijk’s socio-cognitive approach
Van Dijk‟s approach to CDA is a socio-cognitive approach It is concerned with the relationship between discourse, cognition and society
Discourse is a multifaceted communicative event that encompasses not only textual or dialogic structures but also social contexts It involves participants with specific attributes and includes processes of production and reception, highlighting the complexity of communication.
Van Dijk highlights the significance of social cognition in linking discourse structures with social structures, revealing the social representations, attitudes, and ideologies of social actors He defines social cognition as the mental representations and processes of group members that influence their actions, speech, writing, and comprehension of others' social practices To explore this relationship, Van Dijk developed a socio-cognitive framework that encompasses three components: social analysis, cognitive analysis, and discourse analysis.
Van Dijk emphasized that a key aspect of discourse analysis is recognizing how mental representations often reflect an "Us versus Them" perspective He noted that speakers typically portray their own group positively while depicting opposing groups negatively To elucidate this ideological dichotomy in discourse, he proposed a structured framework.
1 Examining the context of the discourse: historical, political or social background of a conflict and its main participants
2 Analyzing groups, power relations, and conflicts involved
3 Identifying positive and negative opinions about Us versus Them
4 Making explicit the presupposed and the implied
5 Examining all formal structures: lexical choice and syntactic structure, in a way that helps to (de)emphasize polarized group opinions (Van Dijk, 1998: 61-63)
1.1.3.2 Fairclough’s systemic functional grammar approach
Fairclough's approach, as described by Jü rgensen and Phillips (2002), emphasizes the dialectic relationship between language and society, where language both shapes and is shaped by social practices and structures This perspective highlights how language reproduces and transforms knowledge, identities, and power relations According to Fairclough (2003), this dialectic relationship is manifested through three interconnected aspects: social events (texts), social practices (orders of discourse), and social structures His framework encompasses the analysis of text, discursive practice, and sociocultural practice, providing a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between language and society.
1 Text analysis is concerned with linguistic analysis pertaining to four criteria: vocabulary, grammar, semantics and cohesion-organization above the sentence level (Fairclough, 2003) Halliday‟s Systemic functional linguistics is exploited for detailed textual analysis
2 As Fairclough (2003) defined, “discursive practices” involves the production and consumption of texts Thus, the second analysis – analysis of discursive practice – is an analysis of how texts are produced, received and interpreted
In other words, this stage of analysis depends on background information the participants have, which affects the text production and consumption process
3 The sociocultural analysis is concerned with economy, politics and culture of a communicative event (Fairclough, 2003)
(The detailed framework with three stages will be discussed later in Part 1.2)
Fairclough's three-dimensional framework closely resembles Van Dijk's ideology analysis, yet they differ in their approach to the relationship between discourse and society Van Dijk emphasizes the role of social cognition as a mediator, while Fairclough focuses on the processes of text production and consumption as the mediators connecting discourse to social structures (Wodak and Meyer, 2001).
Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework offers a structured approach for textual analysis, making it particularly beneficial for novice analysts By providing a step-by-step analysis and a comprehensive list of targeted questions, this framework simplifies the analytical process Consequently, the researcher opted to utilize Fairclough’s framework for her thesis.
Fairclough‟s three-dimension framework of CDA
The initial stage of text analysis focuses on its formal properties, specifically vocabulary, grammar, and textual structure, as outlined by Fairclough (2001) He identifies three key values that influence these formal features: experiential value, which reflects the text producer's personal experiences and beliefs; relational value, which reveals social relationships; and expressive value, which evaluates aspects of reality or social identities (Al Ghazali, 2007) Fairclough further elaborates that the formal properties of a text can be examined through ten primary questions, each with sub-questions, aiding analysts in uncovering the ideologies embedded in the language used (Fairclough, 2001).
This stage focuses on the interplay between text and interaction, viewing text not just as a final product but also as a valuable resource for interpretation The characteristics of both text and context—encompassing situational and intertextual elements—act as indicators for interpretation, grounded in shared common-sense assumptions.
Figure 1 illustrates six key elements of Meaning Representation (MR), highlighting the need to differentiate between MR for situational context and intertextual context Situational context encompasses external cues like the physical environment and participant characteristics, requiring an understanding of social orders In contrast, intertextual context, as noted by Fairclough (2001), necessitates knowledge of the interactional history.
In the interpretative stage, various factors are essential for understanding how individuals produce and interpret discourse These include textual features, contextual elements, and the background assumptions of the reader By considering these aspects, one can achieve a more accurate interpretation of the discourse.
The final stage focuses on the interplay between interaction and social context, emphasizing how social factors influence the processes of production and interpretation, as noted by Fairclough (2001:21-22) Social structures shape media representation (MR), while MR simultaneously influences discourses; these discourses can either reinforce or transform MR, ultimately affecting the underlying social structures.
At this stage, usually the underlying ideological perspectives are exposed
Halliday‟s systemic functional approach and CDA
Systemic functional grammar (SFG) is an approach that views language use as purposeful within specific social contexts rather than as arbitrary selections By analyzing the formal features of a text through the systemic functional approach, one can uncover the producer's intentions behind their linguistic choices, revealing underlying ideologies and social structures present in the discourse This analytical method aligns closely with the goals of critical discourse analysts, making SFG a common framework utilized in critical discourse analysis (CDA).
In Systemic functional linguistics, language is structured to perform three metafunctions:
The ideational metafunction is essential for expressing both people's experiences of the external world and their inner consciousness According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2013), it is divided into experiential and logical metafunctions The experiential metafunction focuses on representing experiences and perceptions of the natural world, addressing the question, "What is going on?" This is realized through a transitivity system that categorizes experiences into six distinct process types (Thompson, 2004; Halliday and Matthiessen, 2013).
The interpersonal metafunction emphasizes the social dynamics between speakers and listeners, focusing on how language facilitates exchanges It allows speakers to express comments, attitudes, and evaluations, thereby establishing, maintaining, or altering social relationships with their interlocutors This function plays a crucial role in understanding the nuances of communication.
“How do we use language to exchange?”, it is realized mainly through mood and modality
The textual metafunction focuses on the verbal world and the flow of information within a text, emphasizing the importance of creating relevance between different parts of the content and the surrounding context Effective communication requires individuals to present their experiences and interactions as a coherent message To understand how a text is organized, one can analyze its thematic structure through the Theme/Rheme system, which helps identify the organization of content.
Transitivity
Transitivity categorizes our experiences into distinct process types, serving as a key component of the ideational function of clauses These processes, whether physical, state-based, or relational, reflect our perceptions of the world and are conveyed through language (Halliday, 1970, as cited in Zhang).
The selection of "processes" in a text holds ideological significance, as transitivity helps uncover the social, cultural, ideological, and political factors influencing these choices in discourse This analytical tool reveals the writer's underlying meanings and motivations behind specific linguistic expressions.
Transitivity encompasses various process types, participants involved in these actions, and circumstances that provide context such as time, place, cause, and manner The nature of participants in a clause is influenced by the process type, highlighting the significance of verbal groups within clauses (Thompson, 2004:89).
In their 2013 work, "Introduction to Functional Grammar," Halliday and Matthiessen identified six distinct process types, each comprising three key elements: the process itself, the participants engaged in the process, and any relevant circumstances The process is generally expressed through a verbal group, while the participants are represented by nominal groups, and circumstances are conveyed using adverbial groups or prepositional phrases.
Material process: concerns actions, events taking place in the domain of
The concept of "outer experience" refers to the tangible actions taken by an entity, highlighting the process of doing In this context, two key participants emerge: the Actor, who performs the action, and the Goal, which is the person or entity impacted by this action.
The mental process refers to the internal activities occurring within an individual's mind, encompassing perception (such as seeing and hearing), affection (including emotions like love and hate), and cognition (involving thinking, knowing, and understanding) This process involves two key participants: the Senser, who is the conscious being experiencing these mental activities, and the Phenomenon, which represents the object or person that is perceived, felt, or thought about by the Senser.
The verbal process refers to the act of expressing thoughts or statements through speech Within a verbal clause, key components include the Sayer, which is the entity delivering the utterance; the Receiver, who is the intended audience; the Verbiage, which encompasses the content of the spoken message; and the Target, the entity that is subject to the verbal judgment or commentary.
The relational process encompasses the concepts of "being," "having," and "being at," and includes three main types of relational clauses: intensive, circumstantial, and possessive These clauses can be further categorized into attributive and identifying modes In the attributive intensive mode, a quality is assigned to an entity known as the Carrier, while in the identifying intensive mode, an identity is attributed to the entity referred to as the Identified Additionally, the possessive mode defines the relationship between a Possessor and the Possessed, indicating ownership or belonging.
Behavioral process: is the process of physiological and psychological behavior The obligatory participant is Behaver (a conscious entity that behaves)
Existential process: is the process of existing, indicating that something or some natural force exists.
Overview of related studies
The ongoing maritime confrontation between Vietnam and China has sparked significant controversy and media attention Despite this, critical discourse analysis of English-language news coverage on the East Sea dispute from both Vietnamese and Chinese perspectives remains underexplored This study aims to examine the ideologies of journalists from both countries in their reporting of the conflict.
Studies employing the Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) approach reveal that media institutions tend to maintain a positive self-image while portraying negative representations of others, particularly when reporting on issues related to their own countries or allies.
He and Zhou (2015) examined the lexical choices in six news articles covering three safety accidents in China, published in China Daily and The Washington Post Their study revealed that the two newspapers depicted the same events differently, highlighting their distinct ideological perspectives and national interests Specifically, China Daily employed derogatory terms for the terrorists responsible for the accidents while using more neutral language to describe government actions In contrast, The Washington Post opted for neutral terms regarding the terrorists but used derogatory language when discussing government responses.
Taiwo and Ota (2015) conducted an analysis of news reports regarding the Bakassi Peninsula conflicts in Nigeria and Cameroon, revealing that newspapers in both countries aimed to project positive images while portraying themselves as victims of the other Nigerian media highlighted human rights violations and injustices perpetrated by Cameroonian security forces, while Cameroonian newspapers depicted their security forces as effective and responsive in managing the conflict.
Zhang (2014) examined the political news reports on Iraq war in the New York
Using Fairclough's three-dimensional framework and Halliday's functional grammar, the analysis of Times revealed underlying ideologies in its reporting The findings indicated that the Bush administration was depicted positively as a friendly liberator, while the Iraqi community, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, was portrayed negatively and labeled as an enemy.
Yang (2012) analyzed the news coverage of the New York Times and China Daily to examine how the Chinese government was portrayed The findings indicated that, despite some similarities, each newspaper presented a distinct representation of the Chinese government The New York Times leaned towards an "anti" perspective, highlighting critical views, while China Daily offered a more favorable depiction.
Chinese government frame”, a “pro-government frame” is preferable in the China Daily
In a study by Chen (2008), news reports on Sino-Japan conflicts in the New York Times were analyzed using Fairclough’s framework and Halliday’s three metafunctions This analysis focused on linguistic features such as lexicalization, transitivity, and thematization to explore the representations of China and Japan The results revealed that the New York Times often depicted China as aggressive, dominant, and violent.
In contrast, Japanese government and its people were depicted more rational and courteous
Ahmadian and Farahani (2014) conducted an analysis of editorials from the Los Angeles Times and Tehran Times to explore ideological differences in their coverage of Iran's nuclear program Their findings revealed a significant media bias, with each outlet portraying Iran's nuclear activities favorably in relation to their own perspective while expressing negative sentiments towards the opposing viewpoint.
METHODOLOGY AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
The background to the event
On May 1, 2014, tensions in the East Sea escalated when China deployed the HD-981 drilling rig, claiming the waters near the Hoang Sa Archipelagos as its territory, prompting strong protests from Vietnam In response, Vietnam sent 29 ships to challenge the rig's operations but faced fierce resistance from Chinese vessels The situation intensified after several incidents, including China firing water cannons on May 7, causing significant damage to Vietnam's side, and anti-China protests in Vietnam on May 13 and 14 that erupted into riots against Chinese businesses and workers The conflict culminated on May 26 when a Vietnamese fishing boat sank after being rammed by Chinese ships.
Data collection
This thesis analyzes twelve genuine news reports in English sourced from leading news agencies in China and Vietnam It includes five reports from China's prominent media outlets, the Global Times and Xinhua News Agency, and seven reports from Vietnam's top authoritative online media platforms.
Between May 1 and July 16, 2014, Vietnamplus and Vietnamnet provided extensive coverage of the East Sea dispute This analysis selected pairs of news reports from both Vietnamese and foreign sources to explore the similarities and differences in their journalistic approaches By examining these reports, the study reveals the underlying ideologies of each party regarding the conflict.
These newspapers were selected due to their status as leading and influential publications in China and Vietnam Their popularity, along with their hierarchical position in media management, raises important questions regarding the varying degrees of news censorship and political manipulation that may affect each outlet.
The Global Times, a state-run newspaper in China, is recognized as one of the country's most reliable and authoritative sources It offers valuable insights and perspectives on both domestic and international events, making it a key player in shaping public understanding of China's viewpoints.
As a prominent English-language newspaper in China, it is widely published and distributed across most cities in the country and in over 150 countries and regions worldwide, significantly influencing its readership.
Xinhua is considered as “official mouthpiece” of the Chinese Communist
Party It plays a unique role in creating China‟s national image and in articulating the Chinese government‟s policies with its ideological orientations (Li, 2010)
Vietnamnet is a leading online newspaper in Vietnam, recognized for its reliability and popularity as a trusted information source Operated under the Ministry of Information and Technology, it significantly influences readers' emotions and thoughts, serving as a potential channel for disseminating political ideologies (Nhung, 2012).
Vietnamplus of the Vietnam News Agency is directly under the Communist
Party management Therefore, it is considered as the “mouthpiece” of the Party
The thesis aims to explore the beliefs surrounding the actions of both sides and how these beliefs are communicated to a foreign audience through public diplomacy messages in online media Given that news reports in the native language are often seen as tools for governments to shape domestic opinion (Nhung, 2012), the study focuses on English-language media to effectively inform international audiences about the relevant issues.
Research method
This study utilizes Fairclough's three-dimensional approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Halliday's Systemic-Functional Theory to uncover the ideologies of reporters in news articles By employing both quantitative and qualitative methods, the research intertwines Fairclough's three stages—description, interpretation, and explanation—rather than presenting them separately, highlighting the connection between each step Specifically, the formal properties identified during textual analysis are directly linked to the underlying ideologies of the reporters.
Fairclough's approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) serves as a flexible guide rather than a strict blueprint, allowing researchers to adapt their focus based on specific research objectives By utilizing Fairclough's ten questions to examine the formal properties of texts, researchers can concentrate on particular linguistic features that reveal how journalists encode ideologies through their language choices This analysis includes a detailed examination of transitivity in grammatical structures and a focused investigation of overwording in lexical choices.
Data analysis procedure
Fairclough's framework is applied through three distinct steps: the descriptive stage, where transitivity and overwording reveal the journalists' embedded ideologies; the interpretation stage, which utilizes Fairclough's guiding questions to analyze the situational context, including the dynamics of involvement and relationships; and finally, the explanation stage, where the interplay between interaction and social context is explored to understand how discourse production and interpretation are influenced by social structures and their potential effects.
A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF ONLINE NEWS
Transitivity analysis
The analysis of news coverage regarding the dispute between Vietnam and China reveals a similar transitivity pattern, as illustrated in Figure 3 Both countries predominantly utilize material processes, with Vietnam at 61.9% and China at 44.9% Following this, verbal processes are the second most frequent, accounting for 17.2% in Vietnamese media and 32.9% in Chinese media Lastly, relational processes appear next, representing 15.7% in Vietnam and 13.9% in China.
The frequent use of these three processes is understandable, particularly in the context of relational processes These processes were primarily employed to illustrate the country's rightful claim to the waters, which ultimately sparked a conflict between the two nations as each asserted its legal ownership.
Pm Pv Pr Pmen Px
Figure 3: The distribution of processes in Vietnamese news and Chinese news
Vietnamese and Chinese news often portray each other as oppositional and disruptive This trend is evident in the emphasis on material and verbal processes, as both countries primarily report on conflicting actions and events in disputed areas, rather than exploring subjective feelings or perspectives.
A notable observation is that the behavioral processes are absent in the analyzed news articles This absence is understandable, as news reporting primarily focuses on the intense confrontations between opposing sides, rather than on the physiological and psychological behaviors that journalists aim to communicate to their audience.
A notable difference in the use of material and verbal processes is evident in the press coverage of Vietnam and China, with material processes comprising 61.9% of Vietnamese news compared to 44.9% in Chinese news, indicating a variance of nearly 1.5 times Conversely, Chinese news employs verbal processes almost twice as much as Vietnamese news This suggests that Vietnamese online news focuses on narrating actions and events of the dispute, portraying journalists as eyewitnesses who detail the confrontation for readers In contrast, Chinese journalists prioritize reporting authorities' statements about the sea dispute, aiming for a more objective perspective rather than sharing personal experiences.
The analysis reveals that newspapers in both countries primarily focused on reporting actions and events, with writers adopting a seemingly objective third-person perspective However, a closer examination of the distribution of the three most frequently used processes indicates that the news reports may not be as impartial as they initially appear.
The analysis of material processes in journalism from Vietnam and China reveals a striking similarity in focus, with each nation predominantly highlighting the actions of the opposing party In Vietnamese media, China emerges as the primary actor responsible for "aggressive actions," comprising 53.2% of the coverage Conversely, Chinese news outlets predominantly blame Vietnam for "provocative actions," representing 48.3% of their reports This pattern underscores a mutual tendency in both countries' news coverage to emphasize the activities of the rival side in the context of regional tensions.
Take the following sentences as examples when the writers presented their country‟s opponent:
(1) …the Vietnamese side deployed a large number of vessels to forcefully disrupt and obstruct China's operations, and rammed Chinese government vessels (news.xinhuanet.com/english)
(2) Vietnam slammed a Chinese oil company's launch of an oil rig
(3) …thousands of people smashed and looted foreign plants in industrial zones (globaltimes.cn)
(4) Vietnam's actions have violated international laws, infringed on China's sovereignty and jurisdiction, and endangered navigational freedom
Figure 4: The distribution of Actors in the material processes
(5) China has so far deployed many vessels, up to 80 at peak time…
(6) Chinese ships encircled and intentionally rammed at, fired high-pressure water cannons on Vietnamese coast guard and fisheries surveillance vessels… (english.vietnamnet.vn)
(7) Vietnamese fishermen were beaten with two badly injured and their tools were destroyed (english.vietnamnet.vn)
China's recent unlawful actions in the East Sea have significantly violated Vietnam's sovereignty, contradicting international law and norms, and undermining global trust.
Journalists exhibit a clear pattern in their use of material processes when portraying opposing parties, as evidenced by the strong action verbs employed in examples (1-4) and (5-8) Terms like “deployed,” “rammed,” “slammed,” “smashed,” and “looted” emphasize aggressive actions, highlighting the intensity of the narrative.
Vietnam has been portrayed in Chinese online media as an aggressive nation exhibiting irrational behavior that disregards legal norms This narrative positions Vietnam as the instigator of conflict, characterized by a series of anti-Vietnam actions, including strategic encirclement.
“(intentionally) rammed”, “fired”, “beat”, “destroyed”, China was displayed on Vietnam‟s media coverage as a bully neighbor who is belligerent and could act brashly, illegally in the rule-based community
However, when portraying their own country, writers rendered the opposite images
Chinese news predominantly highlights two main themes regarding the country's actions: the use of peaceful measures to safeguard its sovereignty and citizens (57.1%) and normal drilling operations in the sea (28.6%) These themes reflect the journalists' ideologies, portraying China as a calm and rational actor focused on maintaining regional stability through diplomacy rather than resorting to violence.
(9) Taking into consideration the overall bilateral relations and peace and stability in the South China Sea, China has exercised great restraint towards Vietnam's actions (news.xinhuanet.com/english)
(10) It would be the last way to organize nationals to withdraw from Vietnam…to protect our nationals (globaltimes.cn)
Over 25% of the material processes describing China's oil drilling activities suggest that journalists perceived these operations as legal, reinforcing the notion that the waters in question are recognized as part of China's territory.
Vietnamese online news consistently portrays the country as a peace-loving nation that values the respect of its sovereign rights Approximately 60.4% of the content in these reports emphasizes this perspective The coverage highlights Vietnam's flexibility in prioritizing peaceful resolutions to disputes while also acknowledging the need for a firm and assertive stance on sovereignty issues.
(11) The Vietnam Fisheries Surveillance Force has exercised their utmost restraint (english.vietnamnet.vn)
(12) Vietnam will take all necessary and proper measures to defend its legitimate rights and benefits and safeguard its sovereignty (en.vietnamplus.vn)
With respect to the role of participants as Goals taking place in the subject position (see Figure 5), there witnesses a different pattern
In Vietnam's news discourse, the primary focus is on Vietnam, which constitutes 8.5% of the content Notably, Vietnam is often depicted as a victim of China's irrational and hegemonic actions.
(13) [Boat DNa 90152] was deliberately encircled by 40 fishing vessels of China before it was attacked by the Chinese ship 11209 (en.vietnamplus.vn)
Figure 5: The distribution of Goals in the material processes
In Chinese news, foreign corporations resembling Chinese entities (6.1%) and Chinese citizens (4.1%) are primarily portrayed as victims of Vietnam's violent actions during the riots against China's operations This negative portrayal suggests that Vietnam is viewed as an aggressive nation, acting recklessly and unwisely due to its extreme patriotism.
(14) …at least two Chinese nationals were killed and more than 100 injured
(15) 16 other people described as Chinese were killed on Wednesday night in rioting (globaltimes.cn)
Overwording
Overwording, as discussed by Fairclough (2001) and Fowler (1991), refers to the excessive use of near synonyms or quasi-synonyms in writing Jackson and Amvela (2004) expand this concept by including hyponyms and antonyms, highlighting the complexity of word choice Despite differing classifications, it is widely accepted that overwording can effectively convey the writer's intended meanings, reflecting a central ideology.
Overwording refers to the excessive repetition of words or phrases related to a single entity or concept, aimed at uncovering underlying ideologies.
The repetitive words and inter-related terms with high degree of frequency in a series of news analyzed are divided into six main themes for each side (See Tables 1 and
Table 1:The main themes in
Table 2:The main themes in Chinese online news coverage
Key concept Time of occurrence Key concept Time of occurrence
China‟s illegal operation and disruptive activities 170 China‟s sovereignty over the waters 69
Vietnam‟s sovereignty over the waters 95 Vietnam‟s disruptive activities 66
Vietnam‟s legal operation and defense 49 China‟s legal operation 33
Viewpoints on China‟s activities of Vietnam and 42 China‟s peaceful measures and strategies 32 international community
Vietnam‟s peaceful measures and strategies 23 China‟s viewpoints on
Vietnam‟s activities 27 International law/Acts 16 International law/Acts 13
Media institutions in both Vietnam and China focus on six main topics, emphasizing their nations' legitimate ownership of territorial waters and condemning foreign intrusions as illegal and provocative These actions are seen as disrespectful to international law, yet both countries prioritize peace over aggression, resorting to violence only as a last defense Despite sharing a similar narrative, the storytelling techniques reflect the ideologies of the journalists This analysis will explore how reiteration is employed in these six key concepts to effectively communicate their perspectives to readers.
The analysis of Tables 1 and 2 reveals that media coverage from China and Vietnam took distinct approaches to the story, with Chinese outlets highlighting both their sovereign rights over the waters and Vietnam's provocative actions equally (69 and 66 mentions, respectively) This balanced focus is understandable from China's viewpoint, especially given the international criticism it faces for its claims and activities in the disputed area Chinese reporters aimed to convince the global audience of their legitimacy while also exposing Vietnam's aggressive moves, thereby portraying Vietnam in a negative light to the world.
Vietnam's news coverage predominantly focused on China's illegal operations and disruptive activities, mentioned 170 times, while discussions on Vietnam's sovereign rights were noted 95 times This disparity highlights Vietnam's differing priorities compared to China, emphasizing the need to portray China as a belligerent and law-breaking entity Despite the emphasis on China's actions, Vietnam's legitimate ownership of the waters remains indisputable, which is reflected in the significant attention given to sovereignty-related topics in the discourse.
Sovereignty-related issues are a primary focus for journalists, as evidenced by their frequent mention in news reports, with Vietnam referencing this topic 95 times and China 69 times, according to Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3: The frequency of inter-related words to sovereignty in Vietnamese online news coverage
Vietnam’s sovereignty over the waters 95
(Vietnam‟s/ its/ Vietnamese) waters sovereignty, sovereign rights, jurisdiction continental shelf of Vietnam, Vietnam‟s continental shelf mainland coast of Vietnam, its coast exclusive economic zone the East Sea
Hoang Sa (archipelago/area), Tri Ton Island, Ly Son Island
Table 4: The frequency of inter-related words to sovereignty in Chinese online news coverage
China’s sovereignty over the waters 69
(Chinese/ its/ territorial) waters sovereignty, sovereign rights, jurisdiction
Xisha Islands, China‟s islands the South China Sea (waters)
China‟s inherent territory, Chinese territory
China‟s maritime rights disputed waters,controversial islands
The terminology used in discussions about territorial waters, such as "Vietnamese continental shelf," "mainland coast of Vietnam," "Vietnam's waters," and "Vietnam's exclusive economic zone," highlights the significance of Vietnam's maritime claims In contrast, references to "China's inherent territory" underscore the ongoing geopolitical tensions in the region.
“Chinese territorial waters” (in China‟s news) To make that territorial claim more persuasive, the exact position of the zone was also described Take these following as examples:
(37) “The location was 80 nautical miles deep in Vietnam’s continental shelf and was 119 nautical miles to Vietnam’s Ly Son Island and 130 nautical miles to its coast.” (en.vietnamplus.vn)
(38) “…the waters where Chinese company operates is close to China's Xisha Islands, being only 17 nautical miles away from China's Zhongjian Island…” (news.xinhuanet.com/english)
Additionally, with any territorial violation, “sovereignty”, “sovereign rights” and
“jurisdiction” were always stated as an affirmation of their motherland‟s entitlement of the waters
(39) “China has irrefutable sovereignty over the Nansha Islands and their adjacent waters.” (globaltimes.com)
Vietnam possesses strong legal and historical evidence to assert its sovereignty over the Hoang Sa and Truong Sa archipelagos, along with its sovereign rights and jurisdiction over its exclusive economic zones and continental shelf.
The naming of the maritime zone reflects ownership claims, with Chinese media referring to it as the "South China Sea" 14 times, while Vietnamese journalists labeled it the "East Sea" 16 times.
Likewise, the islands by which the oil rig was located were named Xisha in Chinese but “Hoang Sa” in Vietnamese (14 and 16 times respectively)
Apparently, the use of overwording indicates the reporters‟ political stance However, it is noteworthy that in Chinese news, there are three times “disputed” and
“controversial” was tagged as the attribute of the zone It shows the reporters‟ strong belief to China‟s legal ownership of the waters, to some degree, seemed to be shaken
Both sides firmly believe that the waters in question belong to their respective maritime territories, leading residents to view their activities as entirely legal Any actions taken by the opposing party in these waters are perceived as illegal and a threat to sovereignty Consequently, reporters from each side tend to portray their own position positively while casting their opponent in a negative light.
Table 5: The frequency of inter-related words to China’s legal operation in
China's legal oil drilling operations involve comprehensive field investigations and development activities for oil and gas exploration These operations are supported by civil and government vessels tasked with escort and security missions to ensure safe and efficient drilling tasks.
China asserts its authority over its territorial claims, emphasizing its right to conduct "oil and gas exploration and development activities." The repetition of terms such as "China's legal drilling operation" and "legitimate oil drilling" throughout the discourse—totaling 24 occurrences—suggests that China operates within legal norms Additionally, the presence of civil vessels performing routine tasks and government vessels engaged in "escort and security missions," mentioned 9 times in the news, further supports the justification of these activities within its territory.
Vietnam's actions are portrayed as illegal disruptions to the operations of Chinese companies, leading to a perception of Vietnam as hostile and irrational The frequent use of terms like "armed" and "military"—mentioned 12 times—along with strong action verbs and negative descriptors such as "rammed," "slammed," "smashed," and "rampaged," emphasizes the aggressive nature of Vietnam's activities.
The article highlights the intense portrayal of Vietnam's turmoil through the repeated use of terms like "damage," "collision," and "disruptive," which appeared 28 times, effectively illustrating the country's chaotic situation Additionally, the frequent mention of related words such as "atrocity," "rioting," and "rioters"—13 times—reflects the brutality and fervent nationalism of the Vietnamese people This language clearly indicates a negative bias from the reporters towards Vietnam.
Table 6: The frequency of inter-related words to Vietnam’s disruptive activities in Chinese online news coverage
Military vessels have been deployed to target and disrupt hostile activities, often leading to aggressive encounters These armed forces have encountered rioters, resulting in significant clashes that can escalate into violent attacks Collisions between vessels can cause considerable damage, further complicating the situation The presence of military ships aims to prevent obstruction and maintain order, but the potential for escalation remains high in the face of ongoing unrest and atrocities.
A summary of the findings
This article employs Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework and Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar to explore the intricate relationship between language, ideology, and political stance The analysis reveals the underlying ideologies that shape the distinction between "us" and "them," highlighting how language reflects and constructs social and political identities.
The online media coverage from both sides aimed to shape readers' perceptions by highlighting their own positive portrayals while undermining the opposing side This article will summarize the similarities and differences in how journalists from the two countries utilized transitivity and overwording to express their ideologies.
Reporters predominantly utilized material clauses to emphasize the "aggressive" and "irrational" actions of the opposing party, portraying them as the source of regional tension In contrast, they highlighted their own side's legal operations and peace-loving nature A self-victimization strategy was often employed to depict the opponent's actions as illegal and reckless, damaging their image Verbal clauses showed a bias, favoring one's own side while largely excluding the voice of the "other." Similarly, relational clauses reflected this bias, focusing on the legitimacy of each side's operations to justify their actions.
The opponent's unlawful actions were highlighted to underscore their disregard for international law, portraying them as a warmonger, lawbreaker, and regional troublemaker.
Both sides emphasized six key themes regarding their legitimate rights and operations in the disputed area, highlighting their preference for peaceful measures in response to perceived provocations and their commitment to international law Additionally, both parties demonstrated a tendency to assert their sovereignty by naming the contested region, with Vietnam prominently utilizing its designated name.
“East Sea” and “Hoang Sa Archipelagos” to refer to the zone, China insisted on the
“South China Sea” and “Xisha Islands” Another similarity is in the lexical choices used to depict each side Positive or neutral lexis was likely to be employed to portray
The language used to describe "our" side employed positive lexicalization, while "their" side was characterized by negative lexicalization This contrast was evident through the use of strong verbs and negatively charged words that highlighted the law-breaking actions of the opposing party, which they viewed as entirely legal from their perspective.
The common features highlighted reveal the ideologies of news reporters, who aim to portray their own countries positively to garner international support in water ownership disputes In contrast, opposing nations are depicted negatively, characterized as aggressors acting recklessly and unlawfully within the framework of international norms.
The differences between the online media coverage of both sides mainly lay in the proportion of their attention paid to each matter
Vietnamese online news coverage tends to emphasize material processes to portray China's actions as disruptive and to position Vietnam as a victim of Chinese aggression This approach reflects journalists' ideologies aimed at diminishing China's image and garnering international disapproval of its operations The use of third-party voices further illustrates China's isolation in territorial disputes, as the global community largely condemns its actions In contrast, Vietnamese coverage often highlights external support for Vietnam, framing China's behavior as belligerent and threatening While Chinese narratives focus on their territorial claims and legitimacy regarding oil drilling, Vietnamese reporters concentrate on exposing the illegitimacy of China's actions This strategy serves two main purposes: reinforcing Vietnam's rightful claim to the disputed waters and portraying China as aggressive and irrational.
The analysis of lexical choices reveals distinct priorities between Chinese and Vietnamese media in conveying their respective ideologies Chinese online coverage emphasizes equal attention to sovereign rights and Vietnam's provocative actions, aiming to persuade the international community of China's legitimacy in the region while portraying Vietnam as irrational and aggressive In contrast, Vietnamese news prioritizes China's illegal operations and disruptive activities, framing China as warlike and law-breaking to garner international support Notably, Chinese journalists express uncertainty about their jurisdiction by referring to "the disputed waters," a term absent in Vietnamese reports, highlighting differing perceptions of sovereignty in the narrative.
The analysis reveals a notable disparity in how two political parties are portrayed in news reports, indicating a clear connection between media coverage and political ideologies This suggests that journalists and media organizations may be subject to political manipulation, influencing the way news is presented to the public.
In conclusion, language serves as a powerful tool for asserting control and shaping ideology, particularly in the context of news media Its ability to manipulate can significantly influence readers' thoughts and actions Consequently, it is essential for readers to remain vigilant about the ways language is employed in news articles to reveal the underlying ideological messages.
Limitation and recommendation for further studies
One significant limitation of this study is its reliance on a small-scale database, as it is based on only twelve news reports Consequently, the findings cannot be generalized to represent the broader characteristics of Vietnamese and Chinese news coverage regarding the dispute.
Due to the researcher's limited time and capabilities, this study focused on specific textual features of language Future research could explore additional aspects of news discourse, including passivization, nominalization, sentence modes, and thematization.
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APPENDIX 1: THE 10-QUESTIONS MODEL OF THE DESCRIPTION
1 What experiential values do words have?
What classification schemes are drawn upon?
Are there words which are ideologically contested?
Is there rewording or overwording?
What ideologically significant meaning relations (synonymy, hyponymy, antonymy) are there between words?
2 What relational values do words have?
Are there markedly formal or informal words?
3 What expressive values do words have?
5 What experiential values do grammatical features have?
What types of process and participants predominate?
Are processes what they seem?
Are sentences active or passive?
Are sentences positive or negative?
6 What relational values do grammatical features have?
What modes (declarative, grammatical question, imperative) are used?
Are there important features of relational modality?
Are the pronouns we and you used and if so, how?
7 What expressive values do grammatical features have?
Are there important features of expressive modality?
8 How are (simple) sentences linked together?
What logical connectors are used?
Are complex sentences characterized by coordination or/ subordination? What means are used for referring inside and outside the text?
9 What interactional conventions are used?
Are there ways in which one participant controls the turns of others?
10 What larger scale structures does the text have?
China urges Vietnam to respect its sovereign rights over Xisha Islands
Source: globaltimes.cn Published: May 9, 2014 – 21:40:14
China on Friday again urged Vietnam to respect China's sovereign rights and jurisdiction over the Xisha Islands in the South China Sea and stop provocative actions
During a regular press briefing, Foreign Ministry Spokeswoman Hua Chunying emphasized that the Xisha Islands are an integral part of China's territory, asserting that there are no disputes regarding this region.
The waters of China's drilling operations are only 17 nautical miles from China's Xisha Islands, she said, adding that the operations are about 150 nautical mies from Vietnam
Chinese companies' activities in the waters surrounding the Xisha Islands are fully within China's sovereign rights It is unacceptable for any nation to make irresponsible statements or obstruct China's legitimate oil drilling operations in its territorial waters.
From May 3 to 7, Vietnam dispatched 36 vessels, which rammed Chinese vessels up to 171 times
According to Yi Xianliang, deputy director-general of the Department of Boundary and Ocean Affairs at China's Foreign Ministry, the vessels present in the area are exclusively Chinese government and civil ships, whereas the Vietnamese side has dispatched numerous armed vessels.
During the recent collisions, Chinese officials identified Vietnamese frogmen operating just 5 meters from Chinese government vessels Additionally, the Vietnamese side deployed numerous fishing nets and large obstacles in the waters, which not only posed security threats to Chinese vessels and facilities but also compromised normal navigation safety.
Hua said Vietnam's actions have violated international laws, infringed on China's sovereignty and jurisdiction, and endangered navigational freedom
The situation is detrimental to regional peace and stability, prompting the Chinese side to implement enhanced security measures in response to Vietnam's disruptions, ensuring the safety of maritime operations and navigation.
The US State Department, represented by spokeswoman Jen Psaki, expressed opposition to provocative or unilateral actions that threaten peace and security in the South China Sea Additionally, the US criticized China's exploration activities, labeling them as "provocative and unhelpful" to the region's peace and stability.
Hua said the US has made irresponsible remarks over the maritime issues in recent days, which have encouraged some countries' provocative activities
She called on the United States to speak and act cautiously, stop making irresponsible remarks, and do more to safeguard regional peace and stability
Japanese Foreign Minister Fumio Kishida stated that Japan views China's drilling operations in the South China Sea as "provocative" to regional security He urged Beijing to clarify the basis of its escalating maritime activities to Vietnam and the international community.
In response to Kishida's remarks, Hua said relevant Japanese officials should not make comments before figuring out basic facts
"Japan itself should respect the basic facts and international laws through concrete actions," she added
On May 16, 2014, China officially protested against Vietnam following violent riots targeting Chinese companies, sparked by ongoing South China Sea disputes These riots resulted in the deaths of at least two Chinese nationals and left over 100 others injured.
The riots have spread to central Vietnam, after thousands of people smashed and looted foreign plants in industrial zones in the country's south Tuesday
One casualty was caused in an overnight riot at an iron and steel complex in Ha Tinh Province, invested in by Taipei-based Formosa Plastics Group
Formosa reported that a strike by hundreds of Vietnamese workers at its plant escalated into violence, with workers attacking Chinese mainland employees and causing damage to offices and equipment.
China 19th Metallurgical Corporation (MCC19), a contractor for construction of the plant, was one of the worst hit companies
"As we counted, the hospital has received 75 Chinese nationals, while the hospital says 101 are admitted," a high-ranking official with MCC19 was quoted by the Xinhua News Agency as saying
The official said the Chinese victims died before reaching hospital, and around 10 others still remain unaccounted for
Dang Quoc Khanh, a local official in the province, told state-run VTV that at least 149 people were injured, and police had arrested 76 people and opened an investigation
A worker from mainland China was discovered deceased at a Taiwan-funded factory located in Binh Duong Province, southern Vietnam, as reported by David Chen, the former chairman of the Council of Taiwanese Chambers of Commerce in the region.
A staff member of a Chinese business association in Hanoi told the Global Times that there have been around 90 Chinese people injured in riots as far as they know
According to Reuters, the death toll from recent riots has risen, with a doctor from a Ha Tinh hospital reporting that five Vietnamese workers and 16 individuals identified as Chinese were killed on Wednesday night.
However, Vietnam's foreign ministry spokesperson Le Hai Binh only confirmed one death in
Ha Tinh, and described media reports and accounts on social networking sites of higher casualties as "groundless," reported Reuters
China's Foreign Minister Wang Yi condemned the recent riots targeting Chinese firms and nationals during a phone call with Vietnamese counterpart Pham Binh Minh, asserting that Vietnam holds "inescapable responsibility" for the violence He urged Hanoi to promptly halt the attacks and ensure the safety of Chinese individuals and businesses, while also calling for a thorough investigation into the incidents and compensation for the damages incurred by Chinese entities.
Minh said more than 1,000 suspects have been arrested, and Hanoi will severely punish those responsible
The Chinese government has dispatched a work group to Vietnam