INTRODUCTION
Background of research problem
For much of the 20th century, English Language Teaching (ELT) has favored a monolingual approach, advocating for English-only instruction Recently, this perspective has been challenged, leading to a re-evaluation of code-switching between the target language (TL) and students' first language (L1) in classrooms There is growing recognition that theoretical trends in ELT do not always align with actual classroom practices globally In Vietnam, despite the rising interest in this topic, there is limited data on the prevalence and purpose of code-switching in English Language Teaching This research seeks to fill that gap by exploring the role of code-switching in the Vietnamese ELT context.
Code-switching is the practice of alternating between two or more languages or language varieties during a single speech event, as defined by Gumperz (1982) This phenomenon is commonly observed in bilingual and multilingual contexts, as noted by researchers like Hlavac (2006) and Montes-Alcala (2000) The terms bilingual and multilingual are often used interchangeably, according to Bhatia and Ritchie (2008) and Romaine (2006), and they typically refer to a speaker's proficiency in multiple languages Bilingualism specifically denotes the ability to utilize both a first and a second language effectively.
Multilingualism refers to the ability to use three or more languages (Edwards, 2004; Haugen, 1953; Nomura, 2003) Multilingual speakers may not utilize all their known languages at all times; instead, they often switch between languages during conversation This phenomenon of code-switching among multilingual individuals is well-documented in various studies (Bhattacherjee, Rahman & Chengappa, 2009; Hlavac, 2006; Montes-Alcala, 2000; Myers-Scotton, 1993; Nomura, 2003).
The negative impacts of code-switching, often viewed through a monolingual lens, highlight concerns about linguistic and cognitive deficiencies, as well as societal rejection by nativists Common fears surrounding code-switching include parental anxiety about children's development, cultural apprehensions regarding acculturation, educational worries about academic progress, and politico-ideological concerns about national identity These fears are particularly prevalent among immigrant families in bilingual education, contrasting with those who choose to teach their children additional languages Overall, these sentiments indicate that code-switching is not widely accepted in monolingual environments.
Research indicates that code-switching plays a functional role in multilingual environments, as supported by Crystal (2001) and Skiba (1997), who highlighted its ability to help speakers express themselves, show solidarity with social groups, and convey attitudes Additionally, code-switching facilitates communication among diverse linguistic groups (Myers-Scotton, 1993) However, the complexity of code-switching in monolingual contexts remains underexplored Studies have shown that this strategy is prevalent in both language and content classrooms (Flyman-Mattsson & Burenhult, 1999; Greggio & Gil, 2007; Martin, 2005; Reini, 2008).
Research indicates that code-switching in classrooms serves various functional purposes, as highlighted by Butzkamm (1998), Martin (1996, 1999), and Zabrodskaja (2007) Instances of code-switching have been categorized based on their functions, including annotating talk (Martin, 1996, 1999, 2005), specifying the addressee (Huerta-Macias & Quintero, 1992; Then & Ting, 2009), quoting (Then & Ting, 2009; Zheng, 2009), and situational code-switching (Gumperz, 1982; Seidlitz, 2003) However, the variation in code-switching practices across different contexts remains unclear (Then, 2010).
Statement of the problem
Vietnamese society and education are deeply rooted in Confucian traditions, which emphasize the importance of moral and academic guidance from teachers Confucianism, originating from the philosophies of Confucius and ancient Chinese thinkers, positions teachers as respected mentors and moral leaders within the community In Vietnam, the role of educators extends beyond academic instruction to include the cultivation of ethical behavior, highlighting the significant impact teachers have on students' lives Well-known Vietnamese proverbs further reinforce the vital role of teachers in shaping both knowledge and character.
The Confucian heritage emphasizes the importance of student-teacher hierarchical relationships, where respect for teachers is paramount Students are expected to greet their teachers by standing when they enter the classroom and remain silent to attentively listen during lessons Participation, such as responding in chorus or collaboratively to teacher questions, demonstrates respect and willingness to engage These practices of respect are prevalent not only in primary education but also extend to secondary schools and universities, highlighting the enduring significance of teacher-student dynamics in Confucian culture.
Respect for teachers is highly emphasized in Confucian culture, which can lead to students remaining silent until prompted by their instructors This dynamic may limit students' opportunities and motivation to actively participate in English classes.
Since joining ASEAN in 1995 and the WTO as its 150th member, Vietnam has significantly expanded its international relations, necessitating a common language for effective communication English has emerged as the preferred global language, increasingly required by foreign investors and demanded in the Vietnamese labor market As a result, English has become the most popular foreign language taught in Vietnam's educational institutions since the 1990s, surpassing other languages like Chinese, French, and Japanese.
In September 2008, the Vietnamese Prime Minister sanctioned a national initiative titled “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Educational System from 2008 to 2020” (Nguyen, 2013) This project, overseen by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training, aims to implement strategies and practices that enhance the teaching and learning of foreign languages across all educational levels in Vietnam.
The national foreign language education policy aims to enhance learners' communication skills with individuals from diverse countries and cultures However, it lacks a clear framework on how to achieve these objectives effectively.
Teachers should incorporate various languages in their English classroom instruction to meet educational objectives Currently, there is no official policy from the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training regarding the languages that teachers in private educational institutions should use during English lessons.
The private educational institution in Hanoi, Vietnam, has been a pioneering English center for young learners aged 5 to 12 for 20 years, with three locations established during its development Within the classroom, students from diverse linguistic backgrounds primarily practice English through repetition and responding to the teacher, but outside of these EFL classes, opportunities for English practice are limited, as most communication occurs in Vietnamese.
Rationale for this study
In the Vietnamese EFL teaching environment, code-switching between Vietnamese (L1) and English (TL) is prevalent, particularly among English teachers during classroom instruction and communication with colleagues Despite its common usage, there is a lack of comprehensive information about the frequency and pedagogical functions of code-switching in this context, particularly based on teachers' self-reports Furthermore, no official classroom language policy exists to guide EFL teachers on the appropriate use of either language in their classrooms.
6 teaching an FL in the classroom in Vietnam (Nguyen, 2013)
Numerous studies have explored code-switching practices among teachers in classrooms globally, particularly in Asian contexts where English is taught as a foreign language (FL) Research methods often include surveys (Ahmad & Jusoff, 2009; Lee, 2010), classroom observations, and interviews (Eftekhari, 2001; Greggio & Gil, 2007; Liu et al., 2004; Raschka, Sercombe & Huang, 2009) In Vietnam, while studies have examined EFL educational issues such as educational development (Vo & Nguyen, 2009) and the communicative approach to language teaching (Hiep, 2007), there is a notable lack of research on teachers' code-switching practices, despite its prevalence Kieu (2012) investigated the use of Vietnamese in English classrooms through surveys and limited teacher interviews, while Nguyen (2013) focused on EFL teachers' code-switching at the tertiary level Le (2014) further analyzed a Vietnamese EFL university teacher's code-switching using class recordings and stimulated recall interviews However, the code-switching practices in classes for young learners remain under-researched.
My desire to explore the phenomenon of code-switching among young learners stems from various issues I've observed Primarily, I believe this research will be advantageous for teachers, as it offers a chance for self-reflection on their teaching methods By analyzing recordings of their practices and conducting interviews, I aim to uncover their experiences, perspectives, and beliefs regarding code-switching in the classroom.
The study enhances awareness of language alternation in classroom settings, benefiting not only the EFL teachers at the participating private institution but also other Vietnamese educators working within the same environment.
The study is crucial for educators and educational institutions as it informs the development of official language policies in EFL classrooms, determining whether to use exclusively English, a combination of English and Vietnamese, and identifying the appropriate contexts for each approach.
The focus of the study
This study addressed the following research questions:
How often do the teachers code switch in the lesson?
What pedagogical functions does the teachers‟ code-switching serve according to their self-reports?
Operational definition of terms
Many experts of linguistic give definitions of code-switching They are as following:
According to Wardaugh (1986, p.100), code-switching serves as a conversational strategy that can establish, cross, or dismantle group boundaries, as well as alter interpersonal relationships and their associated rights and obligations Metaphorical code-switching occurs when there is a shift in perception, purpose, or topic during a conversation This type of code-switching is influenced by factors such as Ends, Act Sequences, and Key, while the situation remains unchanged.
Hymess (2005) defines code-switching as the practice of alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language during communication He highlights that this phenomenon occurs when speakers utilize multiple languages while engaging in a speech act.
Code-switching, as defined by Victoria and Rodman (1998), refers to the practice of using multiple languages or dialects in a single conversation This linguistic phenomenon is distinct from other language contact occurrences, including loan translations (calques), borrowing, pidgins, creoles, and language transfer or interference.
Myers and Scotton (2006) define code-switching as the practice of using two different language varieties within a single conversation This linguistic phenomenon is distinct from other forms of language contact, such as borrowing words from one language into another.
Translation methods such as calques, borrowing, pidgins, and creoles, as well as transfer or interference, highlight the complexities of language use The choice of code is influenced not only by conceptual factors but also by social identity and educational background, which significantly shape a speaker's language selection.
Fischer (1965) defines code-switching, or inter-sentential code-alternation, as the use of multiple languages by a bilingual speaker within a single utterance, particularly above the clause level, to effectively communicate their intentions This language choice in bilingual or multilingual communities must be analyzed within the context of the speech produced Ahmad (2009) adds that code-mixing, also known as intra-sentential code-switching, occurs when speakers incorporate two or more languages below the clause level in a social setting The patterns of code-switching vary due to distinct processes such as insertion, alternation, and congruent lexicalization Additionally, Arifin & Susanti Husin (2011) emphasize the importance of considering three contextual factors in understanding these language dynamics.
1) the relationship among speakers; 2) the setting where the talk takes place and; 3) the topic being discussed
Code-switching is commonly observed among bilingual or multilingual speakers, occurring within a single conversation This phenomenon involves speakers intentionally shifting from one language or dialect to another, demonstrating their linguistic versatility.
LITERTURE REVIEW
Bilingualism
Bilingualism is a multifaceted concept traditionally viewed from various linguistic perspectives, primarily focusing on the speaker's language proficiency The first perspective defines bilinguals as those who master two languages equally, emphasizing balanced fluency (Mackey, 1970, 2000; Romaine, 1995) In contrast, the second perspective recognizes individuals as bilingual if they can demonstrate minimal use of two languages, regardless of their proficiency level, as noted by Haugen (1953) and supported by Hamers and Blanc (2000) and Myers-Scotton (2006) A third viewpoint seeks to bridge these definitions, proposing an in-between understanding of bilingualism that includes speakers who alternate between two or more languages, reflecting varying levels of proficiency (Beardsmore, 1986; Edwards, 2004; Mackey, 2000; Romaine, 1995).
The article highlights that there is no universally accepted definition of bilingualism, as it varies by context and does not specify the proficiency levels of speakers It suggests that bilingualism should be defined based on specific situations In this thesis, the focus is on a definition proposed by a particular group of scholars, which emphasizes the alternating use of English and Vietnamese by teachers in their English classes as a form of bilingualism.
Code-switching in bilingualism
Code-switching, a prominent aspect of bilingualism, is a complex topic explored by various scholars (Bell, 2013) This article aims to examine different perspectives on code-switching, including its definitions, the differences between code-switching and code-mixing, as well as between code-switching and borrowing Additionally, it will discuss the various types, functions, and models associated with code-switching.
Code-switching refers to the practice of alternating between two languages or dialects within a single conversation or utterance (Hoffmann, 2014) From a sociolinguistic viewpoint, each dialect functions as a distinct language code, and this phenomenon is further explored by Gardner-Chloros.
Code-switching refers to the practice of bilingual individuals alternating between different language dialects within a single conversation or sentence (2009, p 4) This phenomenon involves speakers shifting back and forth between distinct linguistic codes in their communication (Bell, 2014) Gumperz (1982) further elaborates on conversational code-switching as the juxtaposition of speech segments from two different language systems within the same dialogue (p 59).
Muysken (2004) introduces the terms "insertion" and "alternation" to describe the process of mixing elements from different languages Insertional code-mixing occurs within the same clause or sentence, where syntactic constituents—such as nouns, verbs, or prepositional phrases—are typically inserted Conversely, alternation involves switching between languages at a broader structural level.
Code-switching often involves mixing languages, where a clause in language A follows a clause in language B However, scholars differentiate between insertion and alternation in various ways Myers-Scotton (1993) defines insertion as a type of borrowing, emphasizing that the distinction between mixing and borrowing lies in the size and type of the inserted element In contrast, Poplack (1980) describes alternation as the switching of codes between turns or utterances Overall, code-switching can be broadly understood as the alternation of two languages within the same discourse.
Code-switching in the language classroom can be understood as the alternation of languages within a sentence or across sentences This phenomenon can also be viewed neutrally, taking into account the different perspectives on code-switching According to Levine (2011), this concept is defined by examining these various viewpoints, particularly referencing Hoffman's work.
Code-switching, defined in 2014 as the systematic, alternating use of two or more languages within a single conversation, involves a speaker transitioning between their first language (L1) and second language (L2) G Cook (2010) specifically highlights the role of teachers' code-switching, noting that it often entails the use of L1 in L2 classrooms and recognizes translation as one method for bilinguals to code-switch However, he emphasizes that teachers' use of L1 does not always equate to translation, as it is not the sole strategy available to bilingual individuals In Vietnam, code-switching by teachers has become a prevalent practice in English language instruction.
In this study, I utilize Crystal's (2008) definitions of an utterance and a turn to explore the concept of code-switching An utterance is defined as "a stretch of speech preceded and followed by silence or a change of speaker" (Crystal, 2008, p [insert page number]) This framework provides a clear understanding of how code-switching occurs within conversational exchanges.
In this article, the term "utterance" refers specifically to the recorded speech of teachers As defined by Crystal (2008), an utterance can consist of a single word or a combination of words, including discourse markers like "Okay."
“Understand” can be seen as words, and they can become utterances An utterance
Turn-taking in conversation is influenced by various features such as speakers' pauses and pitch changes According to Crystal (2008), a turn refers to the contribution made by each participant in a dialogue Code-switching is defined as the alternation between two languages within a single utterance or across different utterances or turns.
2.2.2 Code-switching and code-mixing
Code-switching, often confused with code-mixing, is defined by some authors as the alternation of languages between clauses or sentences, while code-mixing occurs at the lexical level within a sentence According to Muysken (2004) and Wardhaugh (1992), code-mixing involves the integration of linguistic units such as morphemes and words, whereas code-switching involves switching between larger units like phrases and clauses Ritchie and Bhatia (2004) emphasize this distinction, noting that code-switching occurs across sentence boundaries Despite these distinctions, some scholars, including Barnard and McLellan (2013), use the terms interchangeably, suggesting that both phenomena represent aspects of speech rather than strict linguistic categories Hamers and Blanc (2000) support this view, arguing that the differentiation between code-switching and code-mixing is not clearly defined.
Code-mixing and code-switching are related linguistic phenomena, as noted by Hamers and Blanc (2000), where elements from one language (language A) are integrated into another (language B) The primary difference lies in their occurrence: code-switching happens at an inter-sentential level, allowing for language changes between sentences, while code-mixing occurs at an intra-sentential level, within a single sentence In this study, the term code-switching encompasses both forms, referring to transitions between utterances and within utterances.
Borrowed words, or loan words, are defined by Hoffmann (1991) as elements of "langue," indicating that they are integrated into another language's vocabulary after a process of assimilation This assimilation can manifest in pronunciation, grammar, or spelling Unlike "parole," which refers to individual language production (Mackey, 2000), borrowing represents a collective linguistic feature Scholars such as Haugen (1956) and Poplack (1980) differentiate between borrowing and code-switching, focusing on assimilation and the level of language unit involved Poplack (1980) specifically notes that borrowing involves adapting lexical items to fit the morphological, syntactic, and phonological rules of the recipient language, while code-switching refers to the alternating use of two languages.
Other authors (Gardner-Chloros, 2009; Hamers & Blanc, 2000; Myers-Scotton,
In the discussion of language dynamics, some scholars, like Baker (2011), argue that borrowing and code-switching exist on a continuum, making it challenging to differentiate between the two Initially, when individuals introduce words from a second language (L2), these are perceived as code-switches However, as these terms gain frequent usage and acceptance within a community, they transition into borrowings Other researchers, such as Eastman (1992) and Hoffmann (2014), suggest that code-switching often serves as the preliminary stage in the borrowing process, facilitating the integration of foreign words or phrases into communicative interactions Overall, the relationship between code-switching and borrowing remains a complex and debated topic.
Borrowing and code-switching are two distinct linguistic phenomena Code-switching occurs when words from one language are inserted into another language's utterance without assimilation, while borrowing involves the integration of these words at the lexical level Some scholars argue that code-switching is a form of borrowing, suggesting that frequent use of a word or phrase from one language in another can transition it from code-switching to borrowing In this study, loan words are defined as those from English that have been assimilated into Vietnamese in aspects like pronunciation or grammar, while borrowing refers to the use of English words in Vietnamese without such adaptation Thus, borrowing is considered a type of code-switching, where speakers directly incorporate English words or phrases into their Vietnamese speech without modification.
Types and models of code-switching
Blom and Gumperz (1972, 2000) categorize code-switching into two types: situational code-switching, which occurs with changes in setting or participants, and metaphorical code-switching, which involves topic changes while maintaining the same setting and participants Their classification is based on the functional aspects of code-switching, which will be explored further Additionally, Poplack (1980) identifies three linguistic types of code-switching: extra-sentential (or tag-switching), intra-sentential, and inter-sentential switching Extra-sentential code-switching involves inserting a tag from one language into a sentence entirely in another language, such as using English tags like "you know" or "I mean."
“umm” (fillers), “oh, my God” (interjection), “no way” (idiomatic expression),
“understand?”, “right?”, and so on Intra-sentential switching refers to switches
16 occurring within the clause or sentence boundary Inter-sentential switching involves a switch at a clause or sentence boundary (i.e., one independent clause/sentence in one language, the other in another language)
Myers-Scotton's Matrix Language Frame (MLF) model, proposed in 2001 and 2006, serves to identify the matrix language (ML) and embedded language (EL) in code-switching situations involving two languages The ML is defined as the source of the abstract grammatical structure, while the EL contributes limited material This indicates that one language dominates the grammatical framework of an utterance, with the ML being the dominant language and the EL being dependent According to Myers-Scotton, the ML can be identified through morpheme order and system morpheme principles, meaning that the constituent order—such as nouns and adjectives—will reflect that of the ML Consequently, the language that dictates the morpheme order becomes the ML of the clause The MLF model effectively identifies the matrix language, particularly when two grammars overlap, as illustrated by code-switching between Malay and English in plural nouns, as noted by McLellan.
In sentences that switch between English and Malay, there are three methods to pluralize an English noun: using the English plural form, employing the English singular noun with Malay reduplication to signify plurality, and interpreting the English singular noun as plural based on context McLellan notes that in instances of code-switching, one language often serves as the dominant language (ML), while in other cases, both languages function equally.
The Matrix Language Frame (MLF) model, as described by MacLellan (2009), aids in identifying the matrix language (ML) or embedded language (EL) within a clause, particularly in intra-sentential code-switching However, Bell (2014) highlights the difficulties researchers face in pinpointing the matrix language, especially in instances with multiple utterances or when the two grammars do not align, making the application of the MLF model challenging.
Functions of code-switching
In language classrooms, teachers' code-switching serves four primary functions: linguistic, social, discourse-related, and additional roles specific to the educational environment.
Code-switching serves crucial linguistic functions by enabling individuals to address gaps in their language proficiency, such as a lack of vocabulary or expressions in their primary language This phenomenon is particularly evident in educational settings, where teachers utilize code-switching to bridge linguistic competence between two languages, as highlighted in studies like those conducted by Merritt et al.
In the multilingual context of Kenya, Merritt et al (1992) identified the phenomenon of "linguistic insecurity," noting that teachers often resorted to code-switching when they struggled to explain new concepts due to limited vocabulary in their second language (L2) This finding was further supported by Raschka et al (2009), highlighting the challenges educators face in effectively communicating in a multilingual environment.
(2009) study of two Taiwan teachers of English
Research has shown that teachers' code-switching serves significant social functions in the classroom, as highlighted in studies by Merritt et al (1992), Flyman-Mattson and Burenhult (1996), Raskha et al (2009), and Camilleri (1996) Merritt et al (1992) emphasized that teachers not only impart academic rules but also instill social values For instance, a teacher may switch languages while addressing a student who is misusing resources during an exam, demonstrating the dual role of educators in promoting both academic and social responsibility.
Code-switching serves important social functions beyond the classroom, such as expressing group identity and influencing speaker relationships In educational settings, it helps teachers establish closer connections with students, as demonstrated in Flyman-Mattson and Burenhult’s study, where positive teacher attitudes were shown through praise However, contrasting perspectives exist, as noted by Merritt et al., who suggest that some teacher comments may reflect criticism rather than support In Asian contexts, studies by Raschka et al., Tien, Martin, and Xu highlight how code-switching fosters solidarity and rapport between teachers and students Additionally, Liu et al found that humor and personal conversations are common strategies for socializing through code-switching, a phenomenon also noted by Canagarajah, Sert, and Lee in their research.
Reiteration, one of Gumperz's five discourse functions, is the most frequently observed function in research on teachers' code-switching during classroom instruction It involves teachers repeating their statements in a different language, whether in their first language (L1) or second language (L2) Notable studies highlighting this phenomenon include those by Merritt et al (1992), Then and Ting (2011), and Flyman-Mattson and Burenhult (1996).
Merritt et al (1992) conducted a study in Kenya highlighting that teachers' use of exact repetition in bilingual or trilingual environments helps mitigate negative impacts on students' learning, particularly by addressing inconsistencies in grammar and instruction This repetition aids in preventing grammatical errors during examinations, thereby improving student outcomes Similarly, Then and Ting (2011) found that teachers' code-switching in Malaysia served the same purpose of reiteration to enhance comprehension Flyman-Mattson and Burenhult (1996) also observed that teachers employed code-switching to repeat instructions in French language classrooms, demonstrating a common goal across these studies: to facilitate student understanding Additional research, including studies by Arthur (1996), Sultana and Gulza (2010), and Raschka et al (2009), further supports the significance of reiteration in teaching practices.
Teachers' code-switching in the classroom plays a crucial role in facilitating English grammar and vocabulary instruction, as well as managing classroom dynamics Research has consistently highlighted these functions, demonstrating how effective code-switching can enhance language learning and improve classroom management.
In their 2011 study of multilingual classrooms, Then and Ting found that teachers frequently code-switched to clarify vocabulary, engage students, and maintain classroom discipline Similar findings were reported in Arthur's 1996 study in Botswana and the 2010 research by Sultana and Gulza in Malaysia, highlighting consistent functions of code-switching in language classrooms Additional studies, such as Addendorff's 1993 research, further corroborate these functions in foreign and second language contexts.
Research on code-switching in Asian foreign language contexts highlights its classroom-related functions Studies by Ahmad and Jusoff (2009) in Malaysia, Liu et al (2004) in Korea, Tian (2014) in China, Martin (2014) in the Philippines, and Canh (2014) in Vietnam reveal that teachers often switch to the first language (L1) to explain grammar rules, clarify vocabulary, maintain instructional flow, and evaluate student tasks These practices align with Cook's (2001, 2002, 2016) recommendations for using L1 in foreign language settings Furthermore, Schweers (1999) emphasized that raising awareness of the similarities and differences between L1 and L2 can enhance second language acquisition.
The effective use of students' native language (L1) in English classrooms underscores its importance as a primary means of communication and cultural expression Research by Rolin-Ianziti and Brownlie (2002) highlights that incorporating L1 facilitates language acquisition during foreign language immersion De la Campa and Nassaji (2009) support this finding, despite differing opinions on L1 usage among L2 researchers Furthermore, Jingxia (2009) and Lin (1998) assert that teachers’ code-switching is influenced by their adaptation to linguistic realities, as well as the language proficiency and communicative needs of their students Bista (2010) adds that most fluent code-switching occurs unconsciously, often surprising speakers when they realize they have switched languages.
Numerous studies have explored the pedagogical implications of teachers' code-switching, identifying it as an effective teaching strategy (Makulloluma, 2013) Researchers have investigated the underlying pedagogical motivations for this practice, highlighting its significance in the classroom (Wu, 2013).
2013) on the pedagogical functions of code-switching (Ibrahim, Shah, & Armia,
2013) For example, Makulloluma (2013) examined teachers‟ code-switching in the English classroom in a university in Sri Lanka, using both quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative data (audio recordings, interviews, and observation)
Teachers often utilize L1 as a strategic tool to improve L2 comprehension, alleviate student anxiety, and address complex concepts While many researchers have combined the contexts of teacher code-switching with its functions in their studies, a few, such as Greggio and Gil (2007) and Khresheh (2012), have made a clear distinction Greggio and Gil (2007) identified four specific situations where teachers engage in code-switching: 1) explaining grammar, 2) giving instructions, 3) monitoring and assisting students, and 4) correcting activities, including pronunciation and exercise errors.
In his study in the Saudi Arabian FL classrooms of 15 teachers, Khresheh
In 2012, it was discovered that teachers engaged in code-switching under three specific circumstances: when they spoke English for extended periods, when their instruction required translation, and when students struggled to express themselves in the second language (L2) In these situations, teachers switched to their first language (L1) to provide necessary vocabulary or to offer encouragement This practice aligns with Cook's (2016) pedagogical arguments for L1 use, which emphasize effective meaning conveyance, maintenance of classroom discipline and organization, and fostering genuine rapport between teachers and learners Polio and Duff (1994) support this perspective, highlighting the importance of teacher-learner connections in the educational process.
In 2008, researchers categorized pedagogic functions into two main types: "medium-oriented goals," which focus on teaching the new language itself, such as vocabulary and grammar, and "framework goals," which involve organizing and managing classroom activities like giving instructions and assigning homework Similarly, Kim and Elder (2008) highlighted that learners' native language is frequently utilized for social interactions within the classroom.
Classroom language policy
Language policy can be understood from two primary perspectives: the "text" perspective and the "discourse" perspective (Ball, 1993) The text perspective emphasizes that language choice is influenced by written documents created by authorities, focusing on the management level of policy (Spolsky, 2004, 2007) Conversely, the discourse perspective highlights how speakers' beliefs and attitudes shape their language behavior (Spolsky, 2004) It is essential to integrate both perspectives, as language policy should encompass not only management but also actual language practices Spolsky's model (2004, 2007) outlines three interrelated components that underscore the importance of combining text and discourse in effective language policy.
The concept of "practiced language policy," as introduced by Bonacina-Pugh (2012), encompasses three key elements: language management, language beliefs, and language practices In the realm of educational language policy, three main recommendations have emerged, reflecting these perspectives: the separation of language from content instruction, which discourages code-switching; the acceptance of controlled code-switching; and a focus on integrating language with content learning.
Incorporating teachers' awareness of code-switching in the classroom is essential for effective language instruction A key recommendation is to strictly separate languages during content subject teaching, as this approach discourages code-switching and aligns with educational authorities' views Consistent exposure to the target language (TL) is believed to facilitate second language (SL) acquisition (Ferguson, 2003) However, scholars like Cook (2002, 2016) and Macaro (2001) argue against this strict separation, suggesting that the use of both languages, including code-switching, is a natural and common practice among teachers.
The second recommendation advocates for the acceptance of code-switching under specific conditions, as outlined by Faltis (1989) in the “New Concurrent Approach” for bilingual Spanish-English classrooms This approach permits only inter-sentential switching, requires all switching to be initiated by the teacher, and mandates that teacher switches respond to a clearly identified cue, such as praise or subject matter review However, implementing these proposals in university foreign language classrooms in Vietnam may be impractical due to large class sizes and the natural occurrence of teacher code-switching, which is difficult to control (Ferguson, 2003) The third recommendation by Adendorff (1993) suggests that teacher education programs should include "consciousness-raising" about classroom code-switching to enhance understanding of this phenomenon.
The author emphasizes the importance of teachers recognizing code-switching as a common behavior in the classroom By understanding the functions of code-switching, such as fostering a positive classroom atmosphere and managing student behavior, educators can better determine when it is beneficial for themselves and their students Various studies, including those by Ljosland (2011), Willans (2011), Brock-Utne and Holmarsdottir (2003), Anh (2012), and Rasckha et al., have explored language use policies and the role of code-switching in educational contexts.
Numerous studies, including those by Sultana and Gulzar (2010), reveal that educational policies often discourage code-switching in classrooms, primarily reflecting the perspective of authorities or management However, these policies have not deterred teachers from code-switching, as evidenced by Ljosland's (2011) case study at a Norwegian university Despite the requirement for English-medium instruction, the study found that Norwegian was frequently used in various spoken contexts, highlighting the prevalence of bilingual communication among speakers who share a common language other than English.
Ljosland argues that designating a course as English-medium does not imply that communication will exclusively occur in English Willans (2011) observed this phenomenon in a Vanuatu secondary school, where students were restricted to using only English or French; however, frequent code-switching to Bislama, the national language, emerged due to students' inadequate proficiency in the primary languages of instruction Similarly, Brock-Utne and Holmarsdottir (2003) examined language policies in educational settings in Tanzania and South Africa, highlighting the discrepancies between policy intentions and actual practices.
Teachers often prioritize the language that is most comfortable for them and their students, regardless of official policies Research indicates that learners frequently struggle with academic content when policies are implemented in classrooms (Liu et al., 2004; Raschka et al., 2009; Sultana & Gulzar, 2010) Willans (2011) asserts that an effective classroom language policy should first encourage the use of language practices that enhance understanding and engagement Additionally, it should support the effective teaching of English, preparing students for further education and participation in an increasingly globalized world (Willans, 2011, pp 36-37).
Code-switching, often practiced covertly due to conflicts with school policy, can hinder learning outcomes Anh (2012) conducted a study across three Vietnamese universities, revealing that teachers recognize the significant role of the L1 in L2 classrooms, particularly in grammar, vocabulary, and comprehension checks This study emphasizes the necessity of understanding language policy as a practice, rather than just a management-level directive Effective language policy should integrate both management perspectives and the beliefs and practices of educators Additionally, the study highlights teachers' views on L1 and L2 usage, serving as a valuable reference for language policy-makers in Vietnam.
This chapter addresses three key topics: code-switching in bilingualism, its role in the language classroom, and the implications of classroom language policy Code-switching is a common characteristic of bilingual individuals, highlighting its significance in understanding language use in educational settings.
Bilingualism lacks a universally accepted definition, particularly in the context of foreign language education, where it emphasizes a speaker's ability to effectively use two of the four language skills—one receptive and one productive The understanding of code-switching varies among individuals; in this study, it encompasses both code-mixing and code-switching, referring to the alternation of two languages within a conversation Additionally, borrowing is considered a form of code-switching Various types of code-switching are classified primarily based on sociolinguistic and linguistic factors.
The matrix frame model by Myers-Scotton (1993, 2006) presents challenges in identifying the matrix language during multiple utterances Code-switching serves diverse functions, particularly in social and discourse contexts outside of classrooms, but it also plays a significant role in language education In language classrooms, common functions of code-switching include addressing grammar and vocabulary, managing classroom dynamics, ensuring instructional flow, clarifying instructions, and providing feedback on student tasks There is ongoing debate regarding the use of the first language (L1) versus the foreign or second language (FL/SL) in language classes, where maximal use of the L2 is encouraged, yet L1 usage occurs naturally Consequently, code-switching is a frequent phenomenon in FL classes While many educational researchers have focused on the linguistic aspects of teachers' code-switching, this study examines it through two lenses: the frequency of code-switching occurrences and the pedagogical functions these switches serve.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research questions
As stated in Chapter 1, the present study addresses the two following questions:
How often do teachers code switch in the lesson?
What pedagogical functions does the teachers‟ code-switching serve according to their self-reports?
To address the research questions, I utilized a qualitative case study methodology as outlined by Yin (2009) This section will detail the approach taken in conducting the current study.
Research design
This section describes the data collection phase, including a description of the research site, access to the research site, and the processes and methods used in collecting data
This qualitative case study investigates the frequency and pedagogical functions of code-switching among three teachers, relying on their self-reports Conducted in a private English center in Hanoi, Vietnam, which has been educating young learners for two decades, the research focuses on three EFL classrooms Each classroom consists of approximately 15 students aged seven to eight years old, facilitating an in-depth exploration of code-switching practices in the context of English language instruction.
In every classroom observed, English is taught for 120 minutes twice a week, with half of the class time led by Vietnamese teachers Upon explaining the data collection procedure and the role of the teachers, I received approval from the center manager.
To recruit participants for my research, I first obtained permission from the manager and then engaged in informal conversations with colleagues during their breaks to identify potential participants I specifically targeted teachers who utilized both Vietnamese and English in their instruction, noting their names for follow-up Subsequently, I sent emails to three teachers who expressed interest in joining my study, providing them with details about the data collection process and their potential contributions All three teachers, who taught the same level of English proficiency to young learners (movers), quickly agreed to have their classes observed and audio-recorded Although I initially considered video recording the sessions, I respected their reluctance and proceeded with audio recordings instead Following the observations, I planned to conduct stimulated-recall interviews to gain deeper insights.
I consulted with the teachers regarding their language preference for interviews, and all of them expressed a desire to be interviewed in Vietnamese, believing it would facilitate better self-expression As the observations commenced, I realized I needed to adjust my schedule since the stimulated recall interviews could not be conducted immediately after each observation The teachers worked part-time at the English center, with lessons starting at 5 p.m and ending around 8 or 9 p.m Additionally, they held full-time positions at three different state schools during the day, making it challenging to arrange interviews outside of school hours.
I transcribed 29 recordings immediately after the observations to emphasize significant episodes featuring the teachers' code-switching These transcriptions were sent to the participant teachers a day prior to our interviews, allowing them time to review their interactions before listening to the recordings during the stimulated recall sessions.
This study employed a qualitative case study methodology, as outlined by Yin (2009), focusing on three Vietnamese EFL teachers who instruct young learners at an English language center in Hanoi, Vietnam The participants were chosen through convenience-case sampling, ensuring they were easily accessible, contactable, and familiar to the researcher, as noted by Wellington.
The study involved three teachers, all aged 27-30, with university degrees in teaching English as a foreign language and similar teaching experience Initial informal discussions indicated that these teachers used code-switching (CS) in the classroom for various purposes Subsequently, three selected participants were observed teaching 60-minute lessons over two weeks, with audio recordings made due to their reluctance for video The audio recorder was discreetly placed on the teacher's desk, ensuring clear sound quality After the observations, the recordings were transcribed to analyze the frequency of code-switching, which informed the focus of stimulated recall sessions conducted with each participant afterward.
(pseudonyms) Sex Age Year of graduation
Number of years of teaching experience
Research on teachers' code-switching (CS) should involve multiple observations and interviews with a limited number of teachers to ensure depth, as suggested by Liu et al (2004) To address the research questions, data were collected through a combination of observations and stimulated recall interviews With the consent of the school manager and participating teachers, audio recordings were made of all observed lessons, with each teacher recorded during three 60-minute sessions Following the completion of class visits, these recordings were meticulously transcribed to identify instances of code-switching, while the pedagogical functions of code-switching were explored through face-to-face stimulated recall interviews.
The face-to-face stimulated recall sessions, lasting approximately twenty minutes, involved replaying recorded lessons and pausing at moments where the teacher used code-switching To enhance comfort and enable more accurate expression of thoughts, I opted to conduct these sessions in Vietnamese, aligning with the findings of Barnard & Burns (2012).
Observation serves as a valuable method for gathering information from participants in their natural environments By engaging in direct observation, researchers can gain deeper insights into the context and the practices of the participants.
Observation is a vital method in second language (SL) research, providing in-depth insights into language phenomena (Mackey & Gass, 2015) It allows researchers to gather first-hand accounts of the setting and participants, fostering an inductive approach to data collection (Merriam, 1998) Observers can identify practices that participants may not recognize and uncover information that they might be reluctant to disclose during interviews (Patton, 2002) In this study, the practice of code-switching among teachers was analyzed through observation, complemented by interviews and field notes, ensuring a triangulation of data that minimized potential biases.
In my study, I utilized a digital voice recorder to capture three classes, each recorded three times, totaling nine hours of audio These recordings served as a vital resource, providing transcripts that highlighted instances of teachers' code-switching in the classroom By analyzing these recordings, I gained deeper insights into the teachers' language usage during instruction, which will be crucial for discussing the findings in the following chapter.
Interviewing is a powerful method for exploring educational issues by capturing participants' experiences and reflections (Seidman, 2006) This data collection technique offers several advantages (Mackey & Gass, 2015) Firstly, it enables researchers to examine phenomena that are not easily observable, such as participants' self-reported opinions and attitudes.
Interviews are an effective method for gathering information from participants who may struggle with other forms of communication, as they allow individuals to express themselves more comfortably through conversation rather than writing Additionally, these interactions enable researchers to seek clarification and follow up on observations, enhancing the depth of the information collected.
Field notes served as a crucial source of information in this study, enhancing my understanding of the context surrounding the phenomenon of code-switching They complemented other data sources, such as observations and interviews, by documenting my experiences throughout the fieldwork process, including gaining access to the private school, recruiting teachers as participants, and conducting data collection.
Data analysis
In this exploratory study, we reviewed audio recordings and field notes to identify instances of teachers' code-switching We then analyzed these materials using data-driven methods, including organizing, cataloging, and determining themes, as outlined by Holliday (2007) This approach was essential for addressing the first research question effectively.
Before conducting the stimulated recall interviews, I meticulously reviewed the transcripts to identify key episodes where participant teachers engaged in code-switching between languages This process not only guided the formulation of interview questions but also enhanced my understanding of the participants' experiences For the second research question, I utilized audio recordings, which required careful listening to extract meaningful insights and identify recurring patterns This analysis enabled me to manually categorize the data into initial themes, which I then labeled with abbreviated codes, following the methodology outlined by Miles & Huberman (1994).
33 these general categories carefully, I created a descriptive label for each However, the categories were reviewed with reference to the research questions as well (Duff,
2012) for analysis and interpretation Since the data illustrated clear instances of
„moves‟ by teachers from one CS function (e.g praising students) to another (e.g explaining a grammatical point), the researcher opted to examine the data at the functional level.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
In what follows, I first present the frequency of code-switching, and then the pedagogical functions of code-switching according to the participants‟ self-reports
Research question 1: How often do teachers code switch in the lesson?
In chapter three, participant teachers were observed during three 60-minute lessons, and the audio recordings from these sessions were meticulously transcribed Instances of code switching, identified through lexical, syntactic, or grammatical elements from both languages, were marked and quantified to assess their frequency in each class.
The tables below present the length of teachers‟ talk in L1 against their talk in TL
Length of teacher talk (min/s)
Length of teacher talk (min/s)
Teacher talk in TL(min/s)
Length of teacher talk (min/s)
Teach er talk in L1 (min/s )
In the observed lessons, teacher talk varied significantly, with Anh leading at 51.6%, 46.8%, and 43.0%, while Chi spoke the least with percentages of 33.4%, 42.8%, and 48.4% Anh also exhibited the highest frequency of code-switching to L1, recorded at 58.4%, 8.4%, and 7.3% across the three hours Notably, her code-switching dropped sharply after the first lesson, attributed to the departure of a special student who required her attention This shift resulted in her code-switching primarily serving to maintain discipline and foster rapport with the remaining students.
Bich and Chi utilized the same functions of code-switching in their classrooms, but their frequency of use varied significantly Bich demonstrated the least code-switching among the three participants, opting to foster a collaborative learning environment by encouraging pair and group activities She believed that children are inherently social and enjoy engaging with one another, which allowed her to adopt a facilitator role in the classroom Consequently, her instances of code-switching diminished dramatically, dropping from 17.6% to just 2.4%.
Chi frequently had her students engage in pair and group work, resulting in the lowest teacher talk time among her peers However, she faced similar challenges as Anh, particularly when dealing with students who misbehaved or were uncooperative, which increased her use of L1 Despite this, Chi successfully maintained a code-switching frequency of approximately 22.3%, which was higher than Anh's.
The analysis reveals that while the frequency of code-switching varied among different classes taught by three teachers, it generally decreased throughout the lessons, with the exception of Chi’s classes Anh’s lessons exhibited the highest rate of code-switching, exceeding fifty percent, attributed to her management of a class with a special student In contrast, Bich’s lessons demonstrated the lowest frequency of code-switching at just 2.4%, as she emphasized pair and group work during her instruction.
Research question 2: What pedagogical functions does the teachers‟ code- switching serve according to their self-reports?
In chapter three, the stimulated recall sessions conducted after class visits provided valuable data for this research question, with each participant interviewed three times following their observations These sessions aimed to gather teachers' insights on their code-switching during the observed lessons, using excerpts from the recordings to prompt discussion about the pedagogical functions of their code-switching For instance, participants were asked in Vietnamese, “why did you switch to Vietnamese here?” Based on their responses, follow-up questions were posed, such as, “could you have achieved the same purpose using English instead?” or “would it have been better to use Vietnamese in this utterance?” This approach allowed for a deeper understanding of their code-switching practices All three participants engaged positively in the discussions.
During break time, 36 participants coordinated their schedules to conduct twenty-minute interviews with me Prior to each interview, transcriptions of class interactions were provided a day in advance All interviews were recorded and analyzed using data-driven methods (Holliday, 2007) The analysis of teachers' self-reports revealed various pedagogical functions served by code-switching.
All three participants noted that they used code-switching as a classroom management strategy Anh emphasized that the issue was not the large class size, but rather the inherent characteristics of the learners that necessitated occasional use of the first language (L1).
Children are naturally energetic and active, which teachers must consider to effectively channel their energy into learning (Shin & JoAnn, 2014) Chi emphasized the importance of harnessing this dynamic energy in the classroom, while Bich noted that students often break school rules to gain attention from their peers and teachers To manage such situations efficiently, she sometimes resorts to using Vietnamese The following examples demonstrate how these teachers navigate classroom interactions by switching between languages to maintain discipline.
T: Gia Minh, come back to your seat…five, four, three, two, one
Gia Minh, Gia Minh đang phá đám các bạn đấy! con về chỗ ngay
In the observed lesson, the teacher utilized code-switching primarily for classroom management, issuing commands in English before reverting to Vietnamese Although this approach was prevalent, the teacher acknowledged that she occasionally overused her first language (L1) and recognized the need to explore varied pedagogical strategies for more effective class management Each classroom is distinct, and it is essential for teachers, regardless of their native language, to select appropriate techniques that enhance student understanding.
37 based upon their learners‟ needs In another extract, the teacher acted similarly; however, she switched in reverse:
T: Khôi Nguyên, con giấu dép của bạn à?
Chi inquired in Vietnamese whether the student had violated the rules and subsequently issued a reminder in English about appropriate behavior at school In the third instance, she communicated her message in English, then transitioned to Vietnamese, and returned to English to reinforce her point.
T: Don’t fold the card Đừng có để tranh như thế, con nhớ chưa?
Put all the pictures on the table nicely
The participants' insights align with Canh's 2014 research on code-switching, which identifies its key functions Specifically, the instances of code-switching observed in this study were categorized as inter-sentential, where one independent clause was expressed in one language and another in a different language Unlike previous studies at the tertiary level, this research highlights that young learners employed code-switching to address their dynamic characteristics rather than to manage large class sizes Notably, all instances of code-switching were initiated by students, emphasizing their active role in the learning process.
(2008) consider the function as one of the framework goals beside framing and organizing class events
Two out of the participants mentioned the problem of mixed ability students Even though their students had the same start, they are at different pace of learning
According to Lightbown & Spada (2013), it is challenging for teachers, whether managing 50 or even 10 students, to tailor instruction to meet individual abilities and preferences In primary education, students encounter CLIL (content and language integrated learning) lessons, where they are introduced to new terminology and concepts in the target language With classes and textbooks conducted in English, many students struggle to understand the material, prompting teachers to switch codes to facilitate comprehension.
T: Now, everyone, there are eleven girls and nineteen boys How many students are there? Minh Chau?
T: Now, you do the next exercise Các bạn ơi, cô giải thích bằng Tiếng Anh, một số bạn chưa hiểu hết
T: Một số bạn Các bạn đọc lại cho cô tất cả các phép tính tứ A đến E, chưa đọc bài 1 vội
Now, you will continue reading the fifth question For example: There are eleven girls and nine boys in the class How many children are there in total?
T: So, you have to do Maths Vậy đây là phép tính gì?
T: Đúng rồi, người ta hiển thị bằng chữ số là ở đáp án C ấy, nên 1 ghép với C, được chưa?
In a CLIL lesson, students engaged in learning Mathematics through English, having recently been introduced to basic calculations in their native language The teacher recognized the need for code-switching during instruction to enhance understanding, even though some students resisted this approach Despite the challenges, the lesson aimed to effectively integrate language learning with mathematical concepts.