CADRE THEORIQUE
Causalité
Causality can be understood as a direct and straightforward connection to a cause; however, this concept is broad and encompasses various fields, making it challenging to provide a comprehensive definition.
A Jackiewicz a même parlé de la “pluralité de points de vue” dans l’étude de la causalité
The concept of causality is a focal point of research across various disciplines, including physics, biology, medicine, philosophy, sociology, psychology, linguistics, and artificial intelligence, each adopting its own terminology and models (Jackiewicz, 1998) Jackiewicz has compiled tables that illustrate several definitions and criteria from different fields to define the notion of causality While this research does not aim to explore the full depth of the concept, these synthetic tables serve as a valuable reference for gaining a clearer understanding of the term.
N 0 Auteur Définitions ou critères définitoires
Quatre causes: cause formelle, cause matérielle, cause efficiente, cause finale
Le lien causal (passage objectif, mais non sensible entre la cause et l’effet) est reconstitué par l’intelligence (causa seu ratio)
Spinoza (1661-1677) defines an adequate cause as one whose effect can be clearly and distinctly perceived through itself, while an inadequate or partial cause is one whose effect cannot be fully understood by it alone, as outlined in his work, Ethics III.
4 Hume (1739-1740) Succession régulière; impression subjective de connexion nécessaire
5 Russell (1912) Rejette la notion de cause en science moderne
In his 1948 work, Roman Ingarden distinguishes between direct and indirect causes, stating that if there is a defined time interval during which a certain cause C no longer exists and the effect E has not yet occurred, then E cannot be considered the effect of C Instead, E may be the result of another cause C', which in turn is an effect of a different cause.
The concept of direct causation refers to a situation where the effect is a direct result of a specific cause, with no intervening time lapse When all other conditions for establishing a causal relationship are met, we classify this as a direct cause.
Critères d’identification des causes et des raisons:
(1) Hétérogénéité logique, (2) Connaissance avec ou sans observation (expérimentation), (3) L’allongement possible des chaợnes de causes et de raisons, (4) Rốgles d’interprétation et normes d’exécution
8 John Stuart Mill (1974) Notion de cause totale (“the whole cause”)
D Davidson (1982) identifies two levels of analysis: the first involves the direct causal relationship between observable events, while the second encompasses the causal explanation that overlays this direct observation and can be articulated in various, potentially competing theoretical languages.
Jean Largeault (1985, 1990) suggests that defining the concept of a cause may be futile, as it is often perceived as something that acts He identifies two primary perspectives on causes: the idealistic (or positivist) view and the realistic approach.
11 Dretske (1988, 1993a) Causes déclenchantes et causes structurantes
12 Jean-Franỗois Bordron (1996) “Une cause ne peut ne pas agir Un agent peut suspendre toute action.”
Tableau 1.1: Définitions ou critères définitoires de la causalité (philosophie)
N 0 Auteur Définitions ou critères définitoires
13 Emile Durkheim (1897) Dans son étude sur les causes du suicide, il déclare inintéressante pour le sociologue la prise en compte des itinéraires individuels des suicidés, menant à des
“insolubles problèmes de casuistique” Seules sont valables les “vraies causes déterminantes” d’ordre social, mises en évidence dans des analyses statistiques
14 Serge Moscovici (1979) Distinction entre causalité primaire (les imputations: recours spontané, recherche des intentions) et causalité dérivée (les attributions: opération d’objectivation)
15 Uli Windisch (1982) Cinq formes logico-discursives de l’explication causale: la causalité segmentée, la causalité circulaire, la causalité contingente, la sursaturation causale, la causalité multiple
16 Albert Michotte (1946) Causalité perceptive Michotte étend le domaine de la causalité à la perception elle-même
Jean Piaget (1950) highlights that the anthropomorphic impressions we form, whether more or less formalized, stem from our understanding of efficiency linked to causality This connection not only enhances the explanatory power of our concepts but also their psychological impact, rooted in the framework of our own actions.
Tableau 1.2: Définitions ou critères définitoires de la causalité (sociologie et psychologie)
En statistiques, mathématiques et Intelligence Artificielle (IA)
N 0 Auteur Définition ou critères définitoires
Définit formellement trois notions causales: cause prima facie, cause fallacieuse et cause véritable (genuine cause); citons la définition de la première:
“l’événement B est une cause prima facie de l’événement A si et seulement si (i) l’événement B se produit avant A; (ii) la probabilité (conditionnelle) que
A se produise lorsque B s’est produit est supérieure à la probabilité (non conditionnelle) de l’arrivée de A”
Le cours des phénomènes offre une causalité-spectacle qui consiste en concomitances ou en consécutions plus ou moins constantes Indépendamment de l’homme il n’y a pas de cohérence causale dans l’univers
Causes are stages or events that alter the likelihood of future occurrences Discussing causality involves exploring nature's predictive capabilities.
Distinction entre le résultat, la raison, la permissibilité, puis l’empêchement et l’initialisation
Tableau 1.3: Définitions ou critères définitoires de la causalité
N 0 Auteur Définition ou critères définitoires
Causality, in its broadest sense, involves attributing events and phenomena to identifiable objects that can produce them; legality governs their manifestation or progression over time.
23 Mario Bunge (1971) Une relation causale doit satisfaire aux conditions suivantes:
A relationship must involve at least two distinct systems, with causes and effects consistently linked There should be a positive or zero delay between the cause and its effect, and the feedback from the determined to the determining factor must be minimal Additionally, spontaneous effects should be absent, and the relationship between causes and effects must be one-to-one.
Tableau 1.4: Définitions et critères définitoires de la causalité (physique)
En logique naturelle et argumentation
N 0 Auteur Définition ou critères définitoires
24 Jean Blaise Grize (1990) Distinction entre une liaison causale, établie dans une explication, et un lien logique de raison à conséquence qui correspond à une justification (deux valeurs de parce que)
Causal links enable three types of arguments: first, those that connect two successive events through a causal relationship; second, those that aim to identify a cause behind a given event; and third, those that seek to highlight the effects resulting from a specific event.
26 Christian Plantin (1990, 1996) “La connaissance causale intervient sous diverses formes en argumentation, et il faut distinguer les argumentations établissant une relation causale des argumentations exploitant une relation causale.”
“L’argumentation est dans la cause qu’il construit”
Tableau 1.5: Définitions ou critères définitoires de la causalité
Dans les encyclopédies et dictionnaires
N 0 Source Définition ou critères définitoires
Causalité, principe suivant lequel “tout ce qui arrive a une cause par laquelle il arrive”
Causation: désigne l’opération même de la cause, l’effectivité de la production de l’effet
Cause efficace: fait d’un ờtre exerỗant une action, la cause efficiente est la cause à proprement parler”
The concept of "cause" consistently addresses the question of "why," a multifaceted inquiry that allows for a wide range of classifications of answers This variation enables the adaptation of different types of causes according to the specific demands of each philosophical perspective.
29 Le Robert: Dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue franỗaise (1991)
Causalité: rapport de la cause à l’effet qu’elle produit
Causation: rapport entre cause et effet; pouvoir d’agir en tant que cause
Cause: (1) ce qui produit un effet; (2) ce par quoi un événement arrive, une action se fait; (3) ce pour quoi on fait quelque chose
“Le principe de causalité peut être envisagé de deux points de vue radicalement différents; ou bien on suppose que notre raison saisit la réalité et le mot
"Causality" refers to a set of relationships that govern the permanence, succession, and interactions of things It can also be understood not as an inherent property of those things, but rather as a mode of understanding—significant or outdated—of the phenomena we experience.
Tableau 1.6: Définitions ou critères définitoires de la causalité (encyclopédies et dictionnaires)
N 0 Auteur Définition ou critères définitoires
31 James D McCawley (1968) Mise en évidence d’un prédicat CAUSE qui entrerait dans la signification des verbes de causation de changement:
The immediate components of a causative situation consist of two micro-situations connected by a causal relationship Nedjalkov identifies several types of causation: factitive causation, which implies necessity; permissive causation, indicating possibility; prohibitive causation, representing prevention or prohibition; contact causation, which involves physical interaction; indirect causation, occurring without direct contact; and discursive causation.
33 Masayoshi Schibatani (1976) voir aussi James D
“a The relation between the two events is such that the speaker believes that the occurrence of one event, the
Catégorisations des marqueurs de la causalité
Understanding a text relies on its semantic content and the reader's domain knowledge, as well as structural cues within the text These cues can be linguistic, syntactic (word order, sentences, paragraphs), lexical, or graphical (size, shape, bold, italic, etc.) They indicate the importance of information, such as the significance of the first sentence in a paragraph, the text genre, the sequence within the textual grammar, and the spatial, temporal, or conceptual structuring of a problem Causal markers are crucial for expressing relationships and can be classified by grammatical and semantic criteria The grammatical criterion encompasses nearly all expression means, while the semantic criterion reveals the nature of the causal link This classification aims to provide a comprehensive view of the means of expressing causality.
Regarding the semantic categorization of causal expression markers, we have adopted A Jackiewicz's semantic organization, which clearly highlights the essential differences in meaning among lexical markers of causality.
The author proposes a distinction among four complementary approaches to causality: qualitative, functional, analytical, and synthetic Each approach offers a unique perspective on understanding, discovering, and articulating causal relationships The author meticulously outlines the characteristics and specific linguistic markers associated with each approach To clarify these categorizations, we highlight the properties of each approach as needed.
This qualitative approach aligns with the classical understanding of causality It is intuitive and possesses a high explanatory power, emphasizing an active cause that generates a distinct effect Typically, it accounts for causal relationships that are explicitly identified and enables a precise description of the causal mechanism involved.
There are two distinct ways to understand and articulate causal facts One approach highlights the efficient process that leads to an effect, while the other focuses on the existence of a relationship between two situations Based on this essential difference, the author categorizes markers that express the qualitative approach into two main groups: markers of efficient causal action (the action that implements the efficient process) and markers of causal relationship.
Dans l’ensemble des marqueurs du premier groupe, on distingue les verbes relateurs (V1), les constructions faire + Vinf, laisser + Vinf (V2) et les marqueurs exprimant différents effets produits (V3)
Firstly, there are relational verbs (V1), which are termed so because they clearly express a relationship between situations by taking these situations as arguments, thereby distinguishing them Based on specific properties, such as "useful" points in a causal pathway or natural links, these verbs are categorized into subgroups: verbs that express an effect emerging from its cause (V12), verbs that indicate an efficient action leading to a result (V13), and verbs that convey an action that does not produce a result but encourages or prompts a result stated in the sentence (V14).
V11 Causer; provoquer; dộclencher; entraợner; engendrer; susciter; gộnộrer; induire; dộterminer ấtre (entraợnộ, causộ, provoquộ, dộclenchộ, occasionnộ, engendrộ, suscitộ, gộnộrộ, induit, déterminé} par;
V13 Pousser à; forcer à; obliger à; contraindre à; astreindre à; imposer, condamner à; inciter à; inviter à; encourager à…
Tableau 1.8: Marqueurs de l’action causale efficiente (1): verbes relateurs
Among the possible expressions of efficient causality, which is viewed as a process leading to the production of an effect, there are constructions such as "to make + verb in infinitive" and "to let + verb in infinitive." Unlike V1 verbs, these constructions do not solely serve as connectors; the infinitive verb is an integral part of the "effect" situation.
Un grand nombre de verbes du franỗais peuvent en contexte exprimer l’idộe de causalitộ efficiente tout en précisant la nature de l’effet produit
Verbes qui précisent l’effet produit
Maintenir, conserver, préserver, garder, tenir, retenir, soutenir, entretenir, alimenter…
Aider, favoriser, faciliter, appuyer, épauler, soutenir, seconder, encourager, servir…
Gêner, nuire à, freiner, altérer, déranger, entraver, perturber, affecter, obstruer, paralyser, bouleverser, contraindre, troubler, faire obstacle à, fausser, décourager, contrarier, embarrasser, intimider, indisposer, importuner, imcommoder, angoisser,…
Limiter, restreindre, réduire, borner, circonscrire, délimiter, renfermer, …
Arrêter, bloquer, suspendre, interrompre, immobiliser, contenir, supprimer, neutraliser, fermer, stopper, détruire, mettre fin à, …
Empêcher, éviter, contrecarrer, inhiber, prévenir, déjouer, conjurer, enrayer, interdire, annuler, …
Modifier, transformer, changer, métamorphoser, corriger, diversifier, innover, refondre, remanier, rectifier, réviser, renouveler, rénover, révolutionner, dénaturer, déformer, défigurer, remodeler, moduler, réguler,…
To enhance and strengthen your efforts, it is essential to amplify and broaden your approach By deepening and developing your strategies, you can intensify your impact and stimulate growth It's important to elevate and extend your initiatives, while also reinforcing and consolidating your foundation As you aim to improve and fortify your results, consider ways to invigorate and reignite your passion Accelerating progress and deepening engagement can lead to a more profound and lasting effect, ultimately ensuring a successful and robust outcome.
Diminuer, réduire, freiner, modérer, ralentir, tempérer, atténuer, restreindre, abaisser, concentrer, condenser, amoindrir, raccourcir, rétrécir, abréger, écourter, affaiblir, appauvrir, minorer, …
Normaliser, homogénéiser, relativiser, banaliser, exclure, occulter, contracter, décapiter, casser, creuser, diviser, porter atteinte, menacer, conforter, retarder, détendre, déplacer, réintroduire, liquider, marginaliser, déposséder, rasséréner, calmer, nier, sacrifier, inverser, reconstituer, restaurer, …
Tableau 1.9: Marqueurs de l’action causale efficiente : verbes qui précisent l’effet produit
The second group of causal relationship markers includes verbs and verbal expressions categorized into three sub-groups, focusing on the concepts of "intelligible link" and "useful points in a causal pathway" from a qualitative approach The intelligible link distinguishes between cause/effect and reason/consequence, while the useful points clarify the general idea of origin and the idea of outcome In the tables provided below, A Jackiewicz identifies, under the term "significant relationship," all markers that express the construction of causal relationships, thereby introducing the entity that directly engages with the expressed causal link.
Premièrement, le sous-groupe des marqueurs qui orientent la realtion causale vers la cause et/ ou vers l’effet:
{il y a, il existe} (une, plusieurs…) cause à
Cause de (tenir à, provenir de, consister en…};
{ờtre, constituer, apparaợtre comme, …} {effet, résultat, résultante, produit, fruit} de;
{être, constituer …} réponse à; Être issu de; Être dû à;
{ờtre, constituer, reprộsenter, apparaợtre comme, …}
Cause de; Être cause que;
Imputer à; Être {assigné, attribué, imputé, imputable} à;
{citer, évoquer, …} parmi cause de;
{rechercher, chercher, …} cause de dans;
{désigner, considérer, traiter…} comme cause de; Être {désigné, considéré, traité…} par comme cause de;
{citer, évoquer, …} parmi effet de;
{désigner, considérer, traiter…} comme effet de; Être {désigné, considéré, traité } comme effet de; {établir, poser, postuler,…} {lien, relation, rapport} {de cause à effet, de causalité, causal} entre;
{montrer, prouver, démontrer, découvrir, attester, accréditer, confirmer,…} (existence) {lien, relation, Être responsible de;
Effet de se traduire par;
{il existe, il y a} {lien, relation, rapport} {de cause à effet, de causalité, causal} entre;
{il existe, il y a} chaợne causale entre; … rapport} {de cause à effet, de causalité, causal} entre Relier dans rapport de cause à effet;
Tableau 1.10: Marqueurs de la relation causale (1) : cause, effet et lien causal
Deuxièment, le sous-groupe des marqueurs qui expriment l’idée générale d’origine et d’aboutissement:
Approche qualitative Origine (source, provenance) Aboutissement
Découler de; émaner de; provenir de; venir de, résulter de; procéder de; relever de;
{avoir, trouver, prendre, …} origine dans; tirer origine de;
Devoir origine à; avoir pour origine; Être à l’origine de, être origine de;
Origine de {se trouver, résier, se situer, …} dans;
{avoir, trouver, …} sa source dans;
Source de {se trouver, résier, se situer, …} dans; Être à la source de;
{ờtre, constituer, former, reprộsenter, apparaợtre comme, devenir, …} source de;
{ờtre, constituer, apparaợtre comme, …} aboutissement de; Avoir pour aboutissement;
{présenter, considérer, désigner…} comme origine de; Être {considéré, vu, désigné…} par comme oigine de;
{présenter, considérer, voir…} comme aboutissement de; Être (présenté, considéré, …} par
{présenter, voir, considérer…} comme source de; Être (considéré, vu, désigné…} par comme source de;… comme aboutissement de; …
Tableau 1.11: Marqueurs de la relation causale (2): origine et aboutissement
Et finalement, le sous-groupe des marqueurs qui expriment l’idée de raison et/ou de conséquence
{là, dans, y…} {résider, se situer, …} raison de;
Raison adj expliquer; Être raison qui (déterminer,
{ờtre, constituer, apparaợtre comme, …} conséquence de;
Conséquence adj.; Être {lourd, riche, gros} de conséquence pour;
S’expliquer par (raison) Explication (adj) de être (que);
Explication de être {recherché, trouvé, …} dans;
Donner l’intelligence; rendre raison de; Rendre intelligible; …
{là, dans, y …} {voir, situer…} raison de;
… Être {vu, considéré, …} par comme conséquence de;
{évoquer, invoquer, …} pour {expliquer, rendre compte de};…
Tableau 1.12: Marqueurs de la relation causale (3): raison, conséquence, explication
Statistical measures can reveal or confirm causal relationships, provided there is consistent correlation regularity Linguistic markers that consider the relationship of such statistics to large-scale facts are part of the functional approach.
Dépendre de; Être (dépendant, sous la dépendance} de; Être fonction de;
{varier, ộvoluer, dộcliner, croợtre, devenir de plus en plus, …} (adv: linéairement, …)
{être, avoir, augmenter, …} d’autant plus que;
{plus, moins, mieux, meilleur, …} {plus, moins, mieux, meilleur,…}; À tout (variation, modification, réduction,
…} de correspondre {variation, modification, …} de;
{être, se trouver, demeurer, …} {en, dans}
{corrélation, dépendance mutuelle, rapport mutuel, interdépendance, relation réciproque, rapport réciproque, lien réciproque, covariance, covariation} (adj.);
{il y a, (il) existe} {corrélation, interdépendance,…} (adj.) entre;
Corrélation {avec, entre} être; Être corrélatif; Être {corrélé, corrélativement lié} à;
{établir, poser, découvrir…} {relation linéaire, {lien, rapport, relation} de
{indiquer, montrer, …} évolution parallèle entre et; …
{établir, observer, …} {corrélation, dépendance mutuelle, rapport mutuel, interdépendance, relation réciproque, rapport réciproque, lien réciproque, covariance, covariation} entre;
{montrer, prouver, démontrer, découvrir, attester, accréditer, confirmer,…} (existence) {corrélation,
Tableau 1.13: Marqueurs de la causalité fonctionnelle
The originality of the analytical approach lies in its partial nature, highlighting specific causal factors that contribute to an effect This approach categorizes markers into two groups: causal contribution and causal influence Markers in the first group focus attention on a key causal factor while acknowledging the potential involvement of other known or unknown factors In contrast, markers in the second group do not clarify the effect of the influence; instead, they introduce the situation being influenced without detailing the outcome of that influence.
Action efficiente Contribuer à; intervenir dans; participer à; prendre part à; jouer rôle dans; concourir à…
Relation posée Avoir contribution {dans, à};
{rôle, influence} de dans être; Être pour quelque chose dans;
{être, se trouver, …} impliqué dans;
La part de dans se situe vers;
Compter pour dans; Être en cause dans;… signée Établir, étudier, modéliser, indiquer …} {contribution, participation, intervention, rôle, influence} de dans; …
Tableau 1.14: Marqueurs exprimant la contribution causale
Action efficiente Influencer; influer sur; agir sur; retenir sur; s’exercer sur; jouer sur; peser sur;
{opérer, exercer, …} {action, influence, effet, pouvoir} sur; Être influencé par;
{provoquer, crộer, produire, entraợner, …} {effets, consộquence} (adj.) sur;
Posée Être {sensible à, soumis à, sous} {action, influence, effet, impact, incidence, emprise, pouvoir} (adj.) de;
Avoir (action, influence, effet, impact, incidence, emprise, pouvoir, poids, retentissement, conséquence} adj – domaine
Signộe {ộtablir, ộtudier, soupỗonner, s’intộresser à, ộvaluer, …} {action, influence, effet, impact, incidence, emprise, pouvoir, poids, conséquence} de sur; …
Tableau 1.15: Marqueurs exprimant l’influence causale
The synthetic approach provides a comprehensive understanding of the complex interdependencies between phenomena The relationships indicated by the relevant markers are non-directional, allowing for a flexible order in the presentation of related situations Typically, the facts being related are substantial and clearly defined Additionally, the connections expressed are often challenging to articulate through conventional causal paraphrasing.
Relation posée {il y a, (il) existe}{relation, rapport, lien, correspondance} entre Être {en rapport, en relation} avec; Être lié (par {relation, rapport, lien, correspondance} adj.);
Relation signée Faire rapprochement entre et;
{établir, démontrer, déterminer, mettre en évidence, …} {relation, rapport, lien, correspondance} entre; …
Tableau 1.16: Marqueurs des liens “synthétiques”
From a grammatical perspective, the causal relationship consists of two components: the cause and the effect In causal subordination, the focus is on the dependence of the cause, whereas in consecutive subordination, the emphasis is on the dependence of the effect Distinct systems of connectors clearly differentiate these two meanings of the relationship.
2.2.1 Moyens d’expression de la cause
We categorize the expressions of causality into several grammatical structures: subordinate adverbial clauses, coordinated independent clauses, prepositional infinitive phrases, prepositional noun phrases, and juxtaposed independent clauses This classification enables us to understand the various ways to convey causality through different grammatical constructions.
Le premier tableau présente les conjonctions de subordination qui introduisent les propositions causales à l’indicatif et au subjonctif également
The term "because" introduces a well-known fact that raises an implicit question about its cause The clause that follows provides the answer to this inquiry, linking the cause to the established fact.
Elle apporte une explication qui souvent est la réponse à la question “pourquoi?”
ETUDES SUR LES MOYENS D’EXPRESSION DE LA CAUSALITE
CAUSALITE DANS LE QUOTIDIEN ô LE MONDE ằ
Le choix de notre corpus a été guidé par plusieurs raisons
The corpus should consist of authentic documents that are easily accessible not only for French speakers but also for learners of French abroad Le Monde, a widely read national newspaper in France that is also available internationally, demonstrates the interest of both French citizens and foreigners in its content Additionally, in the digital age where people often find themselves in front of computer screens rather than reading printed newspapers, many articles are sourced from lemonde.fr to meet this accessibility criterion.
Secondly, the research framework requires that the corpus encompasses a wide range of fields As a generalist newspaper, Le Monde aggregates various types of political, economic, and social information.
Thirdly, the corpus should potentially include various means of expressing causality The Ideas section of this major daily newspaper offers in-depth analyses of various socio-economic and political issues in France, effectively meeting this requirement.
The research corpus for this study primarily consists of articles from Le Monde and lemonde.fr This raises the question: how are the data collected and analyzed? The answer will be explored in the following section.
We selected 90 articles, with 30 each from the political, economic, and social domains, resulting in a corpus of 80,362 words across 175 pages The means of expressing causality were identified and categorized manually or using the Find and Replace function in Microsoft Word The data was then analyzed and presented in tables.
Based on the two classifications outlined in the theoretical framework, we guide our data analysis in this direction The grammatical criterion provides a comprehensive overview of all the methods, while the semantic criterion allows us to delve deeper into the nature of the causal relationship.
Grammatically, we identified seven categories of causal expression: conjunctions, adverbs and adverbial phrases, prepositions and prepositional phrases, past participles (including the passive voice), nouns, verbs, and gerunds (along with present participles) These means of expression are organized by category in the following table, which details their frequency across three domains—social, economic, and political—as well as throughout the entire corpus.
D’abord, c'est la fréquence de chaque catégorie des moyens grammaticaux dans le corpus
Moyens Verbes Conjonctions Adverbes Prépositions Participes passés
Tableau 2.1 : Fréquence des moyens grammaticaux dans le corpus
The table indicates a significant frequency disparity among the various means used in the corpus Verbs and conjunctions dominate, accounting for 63% of the total Adverbs, prepositions, and past participles have a nearly equivalent frequency, each around 10%, while nouns and gerunds represent a very small portion Each category will be analyzed in more detail in the following section.
The analysis reveals that conjunctions are regularly used across three domains, with "Donc" being the most frequent, appearing 102 times out of a total of 275 conjunctions, accounting for 36.8% Following closely is "Car," with a frequency of 72 occurrences (25%) "En effet" ranks third, with a frequency half that of "Car." Notably, the usage of these top three conjunctions remains consistent across all domains, indicating that "Donc," "Car," and "En effet" are the most prevalent regardless of the context Other conjunctions with significant frequencies include "parce que," "puisque," and "d’autant plus/moins." However, frequency variations exist between domains; in the economic field, "parce que" and "d’autant plus/moins que" are more common than "puisque." Conversely, none of the 30 political articles feature "parce que," while "puisque" is the sole conjunction used in the 30 social articles, with no occurrences of "d’autant moins/plus que."
Moyens Social Economique Politique Total
Ce n'est pas parce que 0 0 2 2
The proposed oil embargo by European nations poses a significant threat to Tehran, as hydrocarbons account for 60% of Iran's budget revenues, which also support housing and education In response, the Islamic Republic has issued threats to block the Strait of Hormuz, setting the stage for potential conflict.
Các biện pháp cấm vận dầu mỏ mà các nước thành viên Liên minh châu Âu đang thảo luận sẽ kích thích xung đột với Iran, nơi mà dầu mỏ đóng góp 60% ngân sách quốc gia, đảm bảo tài chính cho các lĩnh vực như nhà ở và giáo dục Để đáp lại, Iran đã đưa ra những đe dọa phong tỏa eo biển Hormuz, tạo ra bối cảnh căng thẳng cho một cuộc xung đột tiềm tàng.
Où mène la logique guerrière avec l'Iran ? Lemonde.fr 16.01.12
- Le choix stratégique de l'indépendance énergétique demeure essentiel, car l'augmentation de la demande des pays émergents va dépasser notre propre demande et nos arguments de négociation seront limités
Độc lập năng lượng vẫn là một lựa chọn chiến lược quan trọng, vì nhu cầu năng lượng của các quốc gia mới nổi đang tăng nhanh và sẽ vượt qua nhu cầu của chúng ta, điều này sẽ hạn chế khả năng đàm phán của chúng ta.
Pourquoi la France fait le choix stratégique de l'indépendance énergétique, Point de vue | | 04.01.12
The ongoing economic struggles in the United States, characterized by persistent unemployment and increasing poverty, can be attributed to over a decade of excessive spending that exceeds earnings Additionally, the hyper-profits of multinational corporations and global elites have also shifted abroad, exacerbating these issues.
Nếu nền kinh tế không phục hồi và tình trạng thất nghiệp kéo dài, điều này có thể do Mỹ đã chi tiêu vượt quá khả năng sản xuất trong hơn một thập kỷ qua, cùng với việc các công ty đa quốc gia Mỹ chuyển siêu lợi nhuận ra nước ngoài.
"Pas de sortie de crise sans résorption des déséquilibres des balances des paiements",
Point de vue | Le Monde | 09.11.11
Algerian authorities are increasingly concerned about the situation in Libya, as both countries share several similarities These include reliance on oil revenue, which is thought to shield them from uprisings, the release of defeated Islamist factions, a frustrated population, and challenging living conditions.