The scope and subject of the study
This study examines the impact of cognitive strategies on teaching and learning speaking skills at ALIS, specifically focusing on the use of imagery through pictures Conducted in English classes for young learners, the research involves 18 participants enrolled in the "LET'S GO 2" class, highlighting the effectiveness of visual aids in enhancing language acquisition.
Significance of the study
This study, conducted within a small group of LET'GO classes at a language and technology school, aims to enhance English speaking instruction at ALIS The findings are beneficial for both teachers and learners, serving as a valuable resource for English educators seeking to improve their students' speaking skills.
Purposes of the study
This study aims to enhance the speaking skills of young learners at ALIS through the application of cognitive strategies in the teaching process The author intends to facilitate natural development of English speaking abilities using visual aids, such as pictures Additionally, the study seeks to contribute to the overall teaching and learning of English, specifically targeting improvements in speaking proficiency among young learners To fulfill this objective, several key goals have been established for exploration.
(1) To find out the effects of pictures on the students‟ performance in English lessons;
(2) To discover students‟ attitudes towards the use of pictures in the classroom
Research questions
With those objectives, my research questions are:
1 What are the effects of pictures on students‟ achievement?
2 What are the students‟ attitudes towards using pictures in English class?
Methods of the study
The analysis process encompasses data collection and examination, where the gathered data undergoes scrutiny to draw conclusions about the study's subjects Key instruments in this analysis include the pre-test and final speaking test scores.
On the other hand, the students‟ attitude of cognitive strategies reflected through the teacher‟s observing students in the activities, have been subjectively analyzed
This study employs key data collection tools, such as test scores and teacher observations, to enhance the understanding of speaking skills in education The anticipated outcomes aim to provide valuable insights that will improve future teaching and learning practices in speaking.
7 The organizations of the study
The study is structured into three key sections: Introduction, Methodology, and Conclusion The Introduction provides a comprehensive overview, detailing the rationale, aims, significance, research questions, methods, scope, and design of the study.
The following section outlines the development of the thesis through three chapters Chapter 1 offers a comprehensive literature review, covering key aspects of speaking, including its definition and essential communicative components Additionally, it explores the concept of cognition and various cognitive strategies employed in learning the English language.
Chapter 2 outlines the research methodology, highlighting the background information relevant to the study's subject It details the instruments utilized for data collection, the procedures followed during the data gathering process, and the methods employed for data analysis.
Chapter 3 outlines the findings and discussions, detailing the data analysis conducted through pre-test and post-test instruments This section explores various interpretations of the results derived from the analysis.
The last part CONCLUSION is devoted to the overview of the study This chapter also provides the limitations of the study as well as some suggestions for further study
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 Concepts of speaking
Teaching English involves four key skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing However, the approach to teaching speaking differs significantly from that of reading and writing Unlike reading and writing, which are text-based and allow for revision, speaking occurs in real time and requires immediate interaction between the speaker and listener This immediacy means that speakers must convey their messages without the opportunity to edit or correct their words, making the skill of speaking unique in the language learning process.
Speaking skill can be defined as the ability to express and communicate opinions, feelings, and ideas through verbal and non-verbal means, as highlighted in the Oxford Advanced Dictionary This interactive process involves individuals taking turns as speakers and listeners, aiming to achieve effective communication Similarly, Chaney defines speaking as the process of constructing and sharing meaning using various verbal and non-verbal symbols across different contexts.
Bailey (2005) states that “ speaking is a process of interaction where speakers intent to build meaning through producing, receiving, and processing information”
Speaking, as defined by Nunan (1991), is an oral interaction that involves conventional methods of conveying information and expressing thoughts It encompasses the act of delivering speeches and articulating opinions Ladouse (as cited in Nunan, 1991) further describes speaking as the ability to express oneself in various situations, report actions or events with precision, and converse fluently while conveying a sequence of ideas.
Speaking encompasses a variety of forms, including discussion, speech, debate, dialogue, and conversation As such, it serves as a vital tool for effective social communication.
Language proficiency is a complex construct that encompasses various abilities and domains Hymes (1971) emphasized that language learners must acquire not only linguistic knowledge but also an understanding of culturally appropriate interactions in different contexts He introduced the theory of communicative competence, which includes the interplay of grammatical, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, and probabilistic components Building on Hymes' theory, Canale and Swain (1980) identified four key components of communicative language: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence.
Grammatical competence encompasses the understanding of language forms and meanings, including essential elements such as syntax, spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, word formation, and sentence structure For English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, mastering these components is crucial for effective communication, as they need to grasp how words are broken down into sounds and how sentence stress impacts meaning.
Linguistic competence is essential for speakers to accurately use and understand English language structures, which enhances their fluency According to Nunan (1999), to effectively communicate in another language, individuals must articulate sounds clearly and possess a sufficient vocabulary along with a strong grasp of syntax Furthermore, Faerch, Hasstrup, and Philipson (1984) emphasized that communicative competence cannot exist without linguistic competence.
Linguistic competence is doubtlessly an integral of communicative competence
Understanding how to use language effectively in specific contexts is essential for achieving communicative goals For instance, the phrase "The door is over there" can serve multiple purposes; it may simply indicate the location of the door or imply a desire for someone to leave, reflecting the nuanced nature of language and its illocutionary forces.
This type of competence involves mastering language use to create cohesive and coherent spoken or written texts across various genres Achieving this unity of thought relies on cohesive devices like pronouns and grammatical connectors, ensuring continuity and clarity throughout the discourse.
Consider the example: “the teacher asking students about the hurricane”
Teacher: what does the hurricane do?
Student A: The hurricane uprooted the trees
Student B: The trees are uprooted
Student C: Hundreds of trees were uprooted by the hurricane
Student D: It uprooted hundreds of trees
LITERATURE REVIEW
Concepts of speaking
Teaching English involves four essential skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing However, the approach to teaching speaking differs significantly from that of reading and writing Unlike the latter skills, which are often text-based and allow for editing, speaking occurs in real-time, requiring immediate interaction between the speaker and listener This immediacy means that speakers must convey their messages without the opportunity for revision, making spontaneous communication a unique aspect of the speaking skill.
Speaking skill is defined as the ability to express and communicate opinions, feelings, and ideas through talking, incorporating both physical and acoustic elements (Oxford Advanced Dictionary, 1995) It is an interactive process where individuals take turns as speakers and listeners, utilizing verbal and non-verbal methods to achieve their communicative objectives Similarly, Chaney describes speaking as the process of constructing and sharing meaning through various verbal and non-verbal symbols across different contexts (Chaney, 1988).
Bailey (2005) states that “ speaking is a process of interaction where speakers intent to build meaning through producing, receiving, and processing information”
According to Nunan (1991), speaking is an oral interaction that involves conventional methods of conveying information and expressing thoughts It encompasses the act of delivering speeches and sharing opinions Similarly, Ladouse (as cited in Nunan, 1991) defines speaking as the ability to articulate oneself in various situations, report actions or events accurately, and engage in fluent conversations to express a sequence of ideas.
Speaking encompasses various forms such as discussions, speeches, debates, dialogues, and conversations, making it a vital tool for effective social communication.
Language proficiency is a complex construct that encompasses various levels of abilities across different domains According to Hymes (1971), language learners must possess not only linguistic knowledge but also an understanding of culturally appropriate interactions in diverse contexts He introduced the theory of communicative competence, which includes the interplay of grammatical, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, and probabilistic language components Building on Hymes' framework, Canale and Swain (1980) identified four key components of communicative language: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence.
Grammatical competence encompasses the understanding of language form and meaning, focusing on syntax and phonetic elements such as spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, word formation, and grammatical and sentence structures For English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, mastering these aspects is essential to effectively convey meaning This requires a solid grasp of how words are segmented into sounds and how sentences are stressed in specific ways.
Linguistic competence is essential for speakers to accurately use and understand the structures of the English language, which significantly enhances their fluency As Nunan (1999) emphasizes, effective communication in another language requires the ability to articulate sounds clearly, possess a sufficient vocabulary, and master syntax Additionally, Faerch, Hasstrup, and Philipson (1984) assert that communicative competence cannot exist without linguistic competence.
Linguistic competence is doubtlessly an integral of communicative competence
Understanding how to use language effectively within specific contexts is essential for achieving communicative goals For instance, the phrase "The door is over there" can serve multiple purposes; it may simply state the location of the door or imply a desire for someone to leave, demonstrating the complexity of illocutionary forces in communication.
Mastering language use is essential for creating cohesive and coherent spoken or written texts across various genres This unity of thought is achieved through cohesive devices, such as pronouns and grammatical connectors, which ensure continuity and clarity in discourse.
Consider the example: “the teacher asking students about the hurricane”
Teacher: what does the hurricane do?
Student A: The hurricane uprooted the trees
Student B: The trees are uprooted
Student C: Hundreds of trees were uprooted by the hurricane
Student D: It uprooted hundreds of trees
While all responses are grammatically correct, students B and C prioritize new information, contrary to Widdowson's (1978) observation that shared information typically precedes new information in discourse Additionally, student D effectively employs the cohesive device "it" to connect their answer to the question, aligning with the conventional structure of oral discourse This approach results in a coherent and unified spoken text.
Strategic competence involves mastering both verbal and non-verbal communication strategies, relying on a deep understanding of language and practical communication skills The primary objectives of developing this competence are to address and rectify communication breakdowns and to improve overall communication effectiveness Further insights on this topic will be discussed in the model assessment section.
Communicative competence encompasses several key components: (a) a solid understanding of grammar and vocabulary; (b) familiarity with speaking rules, including how to initiate and conclude conversations, appropriate topics for various speech events, and the correct address forms for different individuals and contexts; (c) the ability to respond effectively to various speech acts, such as making requests, offering apologies, expressing gratitude, and extending invitations; and (d) the skill to use language in a socially appropriate manner.
(Richard, Platt & weber (1985, as cited in Nunan, 1999:226)
Young learners
Young learners, typically aged between 6 to 11 years, are distinct from adult learners in their educational needs and characteristics According to Slatternly and Willis (2001), "Young Learners" are specifically defined as those aged 7 to 12 Understanding these unique traits is essential for teachers to enhance their effectiveness in educating young learners.
Young learners exhibit a strong enthusiasm for learning and a natural curiosity about their surroundings, as noted by Harmer (2007) They are imaginative, inquisitive, and eager to engage, thriving on routine and creativity While they may lack self-control, their abundant physical energy necessitates incorporating movement into their learning experiences (Brendon, 2012) According to Scott and Ytreberg (1990), children at this age primarily understand the world through their senses, emphasizing the importance of the physical and tangible in their educational journey.
Young learners thrive by observing their teachers, making it essential for educators to serve as positive role models (Harmer, 2007: 82-83) These children approach learning with enthusiasm, viewing new experiences as exciting adventures According to Harmer, young learners possess unique characteristics that differentiate their learning processes from those of adolescents, adults, and older children Typically, they exhibit limited attention and concentration spans, which influences their educational engagement.
Young learners often become easily bored and sensitive to criticism, necessitating individual attention and support from teachers They thrive on praise, which boosts their motivation and sense of success, leading to creative and independent learning Experts agree that while teaching young learners is rewarding, it also presents challenges Understanding students' thought processes is crucial, as is treating all students equally to maintain a sense of fairness Additionally, teachers should consider their students' current interests to effectively motivate them.
In summary, recognizing the needs and traits of young learners enables teachers to adopt effective teaching strategies and techniques, facilitating successful interactions with students and ultimately leading to improved educational outcomes.
Cognitive perspectives
The cognitive perspective in psychology focuses on understanding mental processes such as memory, perception, thinking, and problem-solving, and their relationship to human behavior For instance, if a college student shows low motivation to achieve good grades, a cognitive explanation could be linked to low self-efficacy This student may believe they lack the ability to succeed academically, leading to minimal effort in their studies.
Cognition encompasses mental activities such as thinking, remembering, learning, and language use Adopting a cognitive approach in learning and teaching emphasizes the comprehension of information and concepts By understanding the relationships between concepts and restructuring information logically, we can enhance our retention and understanding of the material.
When we are aware of these mental actions, monitor them and control our learning processes it is called metacognition
Various psychological approaches emphasize distinct aspects of human activity Behaviorists concentrate on objectively observable and measurable behaviors, while proponents of the humanistic approach prioritize the individual's relationship with their environment Key elements of the humanistic theory include human welfare, values, and dignity.
The exploration of thought processes has captivated philosophers for centuries, while the psychological examination of cognition emerged as a distinct field in the 1950s Even more recent is the study of metacognition, which began to gain traction in the 1970s, highlighting the evolving understanding of how we think about our own thinking.
Rejecting the pure stimulus-response approach of the behaviorists, cognitive psychology draws much from the Gestaltists who focus upon insight and define it as
"the sudden perception of relationships among elements of a problem situation."(LeFrancois, 1972) Cognitive theories view learning as a process of recognition The learner perceives new relationships among the parts of a problem
Key contributors to cognitive psychology include Jerome Bruner, known for his theory of learning through categorization, and David Ausubel, who focused on meaningful verbal learning as a conscious experience rather than a behavioral one.
Cognitive theory posits that an individual's thoughts significantly influence their emotions and behaviors, encompassing various aspects of knowledge such as memory, psycholinguistics, thinking, comprehension, motivation, and perception.
Memory plays a crucial role in learning, particularly in educational settings where rote memorization of factual knowledge is often emphasized Recent approaches to teaching focus on meaningful integration of material and mastery of procedural knowledge, shifting away from mere memorization The effectiveness of information retention and processing largely depends on how the learner engages with the content.
Kate McGilly (1996) highlights that students often rely on rote memorization, hindering their full potential in learning As competition in the workforce intensifies and job demands increase, it's crucial for students to acquire skills rooted in cognitive theory to prepare for higher education and the job market Essential skills such as study techniques, social interaction, problem-solving, and organizational abilities should be integrated and taught throughout the curriculum.
The cognitive theory of learning posits that second language acquisition is a conscious and reasoned process that employs deliberate learning strategies to enhance comprehension and retention Unlike the behaviorist perspective, which views language learning as an automatic and unconscious process, the cognitive approach emphasizes the role of the learner as an 'information-processor' with limited capacity for retaining new information Consequently, effective classroom activities include review and revision, vocabulary bags, scaffolding techniques for young learners, as well as analysis and discussion of language topics, inductive approaches, and learner training to facilitate successful language acquisition.
Children develop receptive language skills, allowing them to understand language, before they acquire expressive language skills, which enable them to communicate For instance, a fifteen-month-old child may comprehend a mother's instruction to put a toy back in the toy chest, even if he is unable to verbally repeat the request This illustrates that understanding language typically progresses more rapidly than the ability to express it.
The environment plays a crucial role in children's language acquisition, as emphasized by behaviorist B F Skinner, who argued that language is learned through conditioning principles like association, imitation, and reinforcement Children acquire words by linking sounds to objects, actions, and events, while also imitating others Adults facilitate this learning process by reinforcing correct speech, helping children develop both vocabulary and syntax.
Critics of this idea argue that a behaviorist explanation is inadequate They maintain several arguments:
Learning cannot account for the rapid rate at which children acquire language.
There can be an infinite number of sentences in a language All these sentences cannot be learned by imitation.
Children often make grammatical errors, such as over-regularizing verbs; for instance, a child might say "Billy hitted me" by incorrectly applying the -ed suffix to the verb "hit." These mistakes cannot simply be attributed to imitation, as adults typically use the correct verb forms.
Children acquire language skills even though adults do not consistently correct their syntax.
Young children cannot articulate ideas that are completely unfamiliar to them; they first explore their environment and then associate language with their experiences For instance, when a child encounters a house cat, they recognize its meowing, fur, purring, and eating habits, which helps them form the concept of a cat before learning to use the word "kitty" to describe it.
Memory, along with the concepts of time and space, plays a crucial role in language acquisition (Piaget, 1926; Sinclair-deZwart, 1973) Consequently, children typically utter their first words and take their first steps around their first birthday Cognitive theorists highlight the connection between language development and mobility, suggesting that increased movement enables infants to explore their surroundings, thereby facilitating the mapping of verbal concepts onto their experiences.
Understanding the relationship between language development and other developmental aspects is complex, as causation-correlation errors may occur Concepts can be understood long before they are verbally expressed, indicating that some cognitive skills may develop independently of linguistic abilities Despite these potential disassociations, they do not impede typical language development.
1.3.3 Kinds of cognitive strategies in language teaching
Cognitive strategies are one type of learning strategy that learners use to learn more successfully They are the useful tools to support students with learning problems
Pictures
Wright (1990) states that “picture is not just an aspect of method but through its representation of place, object, and people, it is essential part of the overall experiences”
Gerngross and Puchta (1992, p 4) divides pictures as:
1 - Photographs from magazines or newspapers, which include portraits, action photographs, landscapes, objects, animals, etc.
2 - Personal photographs taken by the teacher or students
3 - Drawings including visual material like artwork, stickers, maps, etc.
5 - Classroom visual aids, which are all kinds of visual stimuli, created for use in the classroom only.
6 - Commercial artwork, i.e advertisements, book covers, etc.
According to Harmer (2007: 178), pictures “can be in form of flashcard, large wall pictures, cue cards, photographs or illustration, and projected slide, images from an overhead, or projected computer images.”
It is a small card that teacher hold on for their students to see
Large wall pictures are effective teaching tools that allow teachers to engage students by pointing out specific details For instance, when a teacher highlights elements in a picture, it can prompt responses like "there's some milk in the fridge" or "he's just been swimming" (Harmer, 2007:178).
Cue cards are essential tools for facilitating pair or group work in the classroom Teachers assign students to work in pairs or small groups and provide them with cue cards When a student selects the top cue card from a stack, they are prompted to construct and articulate a sentence based on the card's suggestion, fostering engagement and enhancing language skills.
A photo or image depicts a situation or people in action Teachers use it to make the situation or the action clear
In the multimedia class, the teachers also apply it to teach Sometimes, the teachers use it to show the images in the big form
1.4.2 Why use picture in speaking class?
The adage, “I hear I forget, I see I will remember,” highlights the importance of visual learning, suggesting that what we see tends to stick in our memory This underscores the value of incorporating images into English language instruction According to Sadiman (1990: 29-30), pictures serve as a universal form of verbal communication that is easily accessible and effectively conveys the essence of specific objects He also outlines several compelling reasons for utilizing pictures in the teaching and learning process.
1) They serve concrete clues of a thing,
2) The y can surpass the limitation of space and time,
3) They can surpass sight limitation,
4) They can clarify a problem, prevent and correct misconception,
5) They are inexpensive, easy to get and to be used
According to Wright (1989), pictures play a vital role in engaging students, enhancing clarity in the subjects they study, and illustrating cultural-specific ideas and actions Additionally, Kemp and Snellie (1989, as cited in Burden 1994, p 138) outline the primary objectives of utilizing images in educational settings.
1) to motivate an interest or a degree of action;
Pictures are readily accessible from various sources such as magazines, newspapers, and books They are also simple to handle, allowing educators to effectively illustrate concepts; for instance, a teacher can use an image of a house to explain its layout without needing to present an actual house.
81) lists some of advantages of pictures They are:
- Concrete, through pictures students can see real things clearly The problems can be seen more easily through pictures than through lectures.
- Room and time, in term of room, pictures representation of real thing which are sometimes of impossible to see for some reasons.
- Lack of human sense, small thing which can‟t be seen with eyes, can be represented by means of pictures.
- Explanation, pictures can be used to explain problems in the environment It will be clear and efficient.
- Economy, pictures can be cut-out of old or unused materials such as old newspaper, magazines, posters, etc or the teacher and the students can draw pictures by themselves
A single image can be effectively displayed for all students in a classroom or within the school community, making it a practical resource Additionally, most images are simple to store and maintain after use, ensuring their longevity and accessibility.
In summary, teachers frequently utilize pictures due to the numerous benefits they offer in enhancing the teaching and learning process These advantages significantly aid students in achieving a better understanding of the material.