Aim of the study
This study explores the empirical use of lexical chunks among elementary-level Vietnamese students, tracking their spoken usage over five months It examines the relationship between L2 learners' competence in lexical chunks and their language production by analyzing results from two speaking tests, a multiple-choice chunk assessment, and an interview.
Structure of the thesis
Apart from declaration, acknowledgement, abstract, table of content and appendixes, this thesis is structured in three main parts, namely: Introduction, Development, and Conclusion
Part A, INTRODUCTION, presents the rationale, the aims of the study, research questions, structure of the thesis
Part B, DEVELOPMENT, is composed of two chapters:
Chapter 1: Theoretical Background provides an overview of key concepts in speaking and vocabulary acquisition, highlighting the challenges learners face in vocabulary development It explores the importance of lexis and lexical chunks, detailing various types of lexical chunks and their significance in teaching The chapter emphasizes how understanding lexical chunks contributes to language fluency and accuracy, ultimately enhancing creative language production.
Chapter 2: Methodology and Data analysis focuses on the continuing education context, participants, research procedure, data collection and analysis, findings, and discussion
Part C, the Conclusion, encapsulates the main insights from the study and reflects the researcher's thoughts post-research It highlights the evolution of the teacher's understanding of vocabulary instruction and speaking skills, outlines the benefits gained from conducting the action research, and presents a strategy for future cycles.
Literature review
Vocabulary acquistion
Language is traditionally categorized into vocabulary and grammar, with vocabulary seen as a fixed set of words and grammar viewed as a more fundamental and creative generative system Many believe that language teaching should prioritize grammatical competence; however, despite increasing attention to vocabulary in English classes, most teachers still focus primarily on grammar acquisition Linlin Jia (2004) highlights that EFL learners in Vietnam often fall short of expectations in their English skills after years of traditional teaching methods.
Recent research highlights the growing focus on lexis in language teaching, with an emphasis on teaching lexical chunks as a key methodology in vocabulary instruction This innovative approach marks a significant shift in our understanding of language analysis Scholars like Nattinger and DeCarrico emphasize the central role of lexical chunks in language acquisition, viewing them as essential for the creative formation of language rules By processing these chunks as whole units, learners can enhance their accuracy and fluency while significantly speeding up language processing Despite the acknowledged benefits of lexical chunks for English proficiency, particularly among EFL learners, there remains a lack of empirical research exploring the connection between learners' competence in lexical chunks and their overall English proficiency.
Vocabulary acquisition is crucial for mastering a foreign language, as understanding new words is frequently highlighted in both educational materials and classroom settings It plays a vital role in language instruction and is of utmost significance for learners.
Recent studies suggest that vocabulary instruction can be challenging for language learners, as many educators lack confidence in effective teaching strategies and often struggle to establish a clear focus on word learning (Berne & Blachowicz, 2008).
Vocabulary is a crucial component of language acquisition for learners, as emphasized by Cameron (2001) and supported by Harmon, Wood, & Keser (2009) and Linse (2005) The development of vocabulary is essential for overall language growth, a fact that has gained increasing recognition among researchers in recent years Notable studies by Carter and McCarthy (1988), Nation (1990), Arnaud and Bejoint (1992), Huckin, Haynes, and Coady (1995), Coady and Huckin (1997), and Schmitt (1997, 2000) underscore the importance of focusing on vocabulary in language education.
Vocabulary knowledge is often viewed as a critical tool for second language learners because a limited vocabulary in a second language impedes successful communication.Underscoring the importance of vocabulary acquisition, Schmitt
(2000) emphasizes that―lexical knowledge is central to communicative competence and to the acquisition of a second language‖ p 55)
According to Nation (2001), vocabulary knowledge and language use are interdependent; a strong understanding of vocabulary facilitates effective language use, while engaging in language use contributes to the expansion of vocabulary knowledge.
The importance of vocabulary is demonstrated daily in and out the school In classroom,the achieving students possess the most sufficient vocabulary
Research by Laufer and Nation (1999), Maximo (2000), Read (2000), Gu (2003), Marion (2008), and Nation (2011) highlights the critical role of vocabulary acquisition in mastering a second language This skill is vital for effective communication and is fundamental to creating coherent spoken and written texts in English as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL) learning contexts.
Vocabulary is crucial for mastering all language skills, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing (Nation, 2011) Rivers and Nunan (1991) emphasize that a strong vocabulary is fundamental for effective second language communication; without a rich vocabulary, individuals struggle to apply learned structures and functions, hindering their ability to communicate clearly.
Research indicates that vocabulary knowledge is the primary obstacle for second language (L2) readers (Huckin, 1995) To effectively express meanings or concepts, individuals must have a sufficient vocabulary to draw from As Krashen (as cited in Lewis, 1993) notes, "When students travel, they don’t carry grammar books, they carry dictionaries." Many scholars, including Wilkins (1972), emphasize that vocabulary is crucial in foreign language learning, asserting that without vocabulary, effective communication is impossible Richards (1980) and Krashen (1989) further highlight the necessity of a robust vocabulary for language mastery, as L2 learners often report vocabulary deficiency as a significant challenge.
Vocabulary is often recognized as the primary challenge for L2 learners, as noted by Meara (1980) This difficulty may stem from the inherent complexity and openness of vocabulary systems, which can be overwhelming for learners Additionally, unlike syntax and phonology, vocabulary lacks clear rules that learners can follow to effectively acquire and enhance their knowledge.
In other words, it is not clear in L2 vocabulary learning what rules apply or which
Learning vocabulary is crucial in language acquisition, as it is the most substantial and complex aspect of mastering any language, according to Oxford (1990) Despite the challenges posed by the vast number of meanings, vocabulary remains a key component in language assessments (Schmitt, 1999) Many learners perceive second language acquisition primarily as vocabulary learning, dedicating significant time to memorizing word lists and utilizing bilingual dictionaries Consequently, educators and linguists are increasingly acknowledging the significance of vocabulary instruction and are investigating effective strategies for vocabulary learning (VLS), which is the primary focus of current research.
Challenges of vocabulary learning
Effective vocabulary teaching begins with identifying the challenges students face According to Thornbury (2004), several factors contribute to the difficulty of certain words: First, pronunciation plays a crucial role, as words that are hard to pronounce are often harder to learn Second, spelling inconsistencies can lead to errors in both pronunciation and spelling, complicating the learning process English contains notable irregularities, particularly with words that have silent letters, such as "foreign," "listen," and "muscle." Lastly, while longer words are not necessarily more difficult to learn than shorter ones, high-frequency words tend to be shorter, making them easier for students to grasp.
English learners often encounter challenges due to the language's unique grammar rules, particularly when verb forms differ from their first language equivalents For instance, distinguishing whether to use an infinitive (to swim) or an -ing form (swimming) with verbs like enjoy, love, or hope can be difficult Additionally, overlapping meanings of words, such as make and do, can lead to confusion; while you make breakfast, you do the housework The range and connotation of words also play a significant role in learnability; verbs like put are more versatile than synonyms like impose or place Furthermore, certain words carry connotations that may not align with their equivalents in other languages, such as propaganda, which has negative implications in English Lastly, idiomatic expressions, such as "make up your mind," tend to be more challenging for learners than straightforward terms like "decide."
According to Gower, Philips, and Walter (1995), the ease or difficulty of a vocabulary item is influenced by various factors, particularly its similarity to the learner's first language (L1) When vocabulary items share similarities in form and meaning with the first language, they can often be misleading, posing challenges for students rather than providing assistance.
Learning English vocabulary can be challenging for students due to several factors First, familiarity with related English words can aid comprehension; for instance, knowing "friendly" can help deduce the meaning of "unfriendly." Additionally, understanding connotation is crucial, as words like "skinny" and "slim" convey different attitudes despite similar meanings Spelling and pronunciation also pose difficulties, especially for speakers of languages with regular spelling systems, leading to confusion among words like "through," "though," "thought," "tough," and "thorough." Furthermore, multi-word items, such as compound nouns and phrasal verbs, add complexity, as these phrases often don't follow straightforward rules Collocation is another challenge, as certain words pair naturally while others do not, exemplified by "injured" for people versus "damaged" for things Lastly, knowing the appropriate context for vocabulary use is essential, as some expressions are limited to specific situations, like using "pushing" to describe age only for older individuals.
11 important that students know whether the word or phrase has a marked style – informal or formal
To effectively enhance students' reading vocabulary, it is essential to provide more than just dictionary lookup exercises Comprehensive instruction is necessary to help students acquire new vocabulary and develop strategies that deepen their understanding and retention of words over time.
Lexis and lexical chunks
Since the publication of "The Lexical Approach" by Michael Lewis in 1993, there has been an increasing recognition that language learning often transcends traditional grammar-focused methods This shift emphasizes the importance of lexis in language acquisition, suggesting that language schools and courses can benefit from prioritizing vocabulary and practical usage over strict grammatical structures.
Lexis encompasses more than just vocabulary and extensive word lists that necessitate memorization and repetitive practice for students to "acquire" them According to Scrivener (2005, p 228), lexical items include not only individual words but also collocations, such as "shrug your shoulders," and fixed or semi-fixed expressions like "to and fro" and "without a doubt."
‗ready-made‘ chunks, such as idioms which have non-literal meanings e.g he flew off the handle and I’m all ears
The idea of lexical chunking first was introduced by Firth (1952) and later scholars like Halliday (1966) and Sinclair (1991) developed the notion Soon after Lewis
The lexical approach, which gained prominence in the 1990s, significantly advanced vocabulary instruction in language learning, as highlighted by researchers such as Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992) in their work "Lexical Phrases and Language Teaching." Evert (2004) further explores the theoretical foundations of collocational use, noting that traditional structural linguistics, as exemplified by Saussure and Chomsky, largely overlooked the importance of collocations in language acquisition.
In British linguistics, particularly through the work of Firth, Halliday, and Sinclair, there is a strong focus on lexical chunks and the significance of context in understanding language This approach is rooted in Firth's contextual theory of meaning, which emphasizes the importance of social settings over the idealized speaker concept proposed by Chomsky Firth famously stated, "You shall know a word by the company it keeps" (1957), highlighting the need to consider spoken and textual discourse when analyzing language.
Researchers often refer to lexical chunks primarily as collocations Grounded in Lewis's (1993) lexical approach and the Firthian contextual theory of meaning, our paper distinguishes between lexical chunks and collocations, viewing collocations as a subset of lexical chunks We introduce a new classification of lexical chunks into referential and collocational types Referential meaning pertains to expressions whose parts are individually recognizable by learners, such as "get milk from a cow," while collocational meanings may carry emotive or implicit connotations, as seen in idiomatic expressions like "bury the hatchet." This distinction aligns with Grimly and Patrol's (2002) definition of collocation as combinations of lexical items with distinct semantic contributions Consequently, the definitions of collocational and pragmatic meanings lack clarity, indicating that collocational and pragmatic studies do not form a coherent field (Crystal, 1997).
Linguists and researchers define lexical chunks using various terms based on their specific research objectives (Jiang, 2012) Wray (2002) describes lexical chunks as sequences of words or language elements that are prefabricated, either continuous or discontinuous These chunks are stored in memory and retrieved as complete units during language use, bypassing the need for generative analysis by grammatical rules.
Pawley and Syder (1983) define lexical chunks as "sentence stems" that are "institutionalized" or "lexicalized," which are essential for mastering idiomatic language use They describe a lexicalized sentence stem as a fixed unit of clause length or longer, emphasizing that these units differ from traditional idioms as they represent regular form-meaning pairings, numbering in the hundreds of thousands for native speakers Furthermore, they argue that generative grammar is only a partial aspect of language competence; native speakers rely less on creative syntactic rules Consequently, an utterance sounds native-like when it incorporates a lexicalized sentence stem along with permissible expansions or substitutions.
From a psycholinguistic perspective, Newell (1990) posited that chunking is fundamental to human cognition He defined a chunk as a memory unit created by combining existing chunks into larger structures, enabling a hierarchical organization of memory This process of chunking is a pervasive characteristic of human memory and may underpin a universal principle of practice.
The Lexical Approach (henceforth LA) is a method of teaching a foreign language developed by Michael Lewis in the 1990s It is based on the assumption that an
An essential aspect of language acquisition is the capacity to understand and produce lexical chunks as complete units These chunks serve as fundamental data that help learners identify language patterns typically associated with grammar (Lewis, 2002).
Lewis emphasizes that the lexical approach transcends merely shifting focus from grammar to vocabulary instruction; he argues that language comprises not just traditional grammar and vocabulary, but frequently involves multi-word prefabricated chunks.
Chunks, which include collocations, fixed expressions, and idioms, play a vital role in enhancing language fluency by facilitating easier language production Native speakers tend to store vocabulary not just as isolated words but as part of phrases and larger chunks, allowing for quicker retrieval from memory and minimizing processing challenges In contrast, learners who focus solely on individual words face greater difficulties and require significantly more time and effort to communicate effectively.
The LA to language teaching emphasizes that lexis, or words and word combinations, are the fundamental components of language learning and communication, rather than grammar or other teaching units This shift indicates that the importance of teaching grammatical structures has diminished, as lexis conveys more meaning (Lewis, 2000; 2002) A focus on communication necessitates prioritizing lexis over grammatical structures, as learners often perceive vocabulary errors as the most serious, leading to misunderstandings and communication breakdowns Research shows that lexical errors outnumber grammatical errors by a ratio of 3:1, and native speakers find lexical mistakes more disruptive than grammatical ones (Blass, 1982; Gass and Selinker, 2008).
Lexical chunks play a crucial role in language teaching, as they can significantly affect communication Becker (1975) characterized lexical chunks as multiword phenomena, distinguishing between formulaic fixed and semi-fixed forms Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992) further defined these chunks as varying-length segments of language, each serving a specific discourse function Additionally, the recurrence of these chunks is highlighted by researchers like Biber, Jonsson, Leech, Conrad, and Finegan as an important feature.
Lexical chunks are defined as recurrent expressions that can be recognized regardless of their idiomaticity or structural status According to Wray (2000), these chunks consist of prefabricated sequences of words stored and retrieved as a whole from memory during use In essence, lexical chunks are combinations of words that frequently occur in a language, carrying specific meanings and functions.
Types of lexical chunks
Lexical items are socially recognized independent units, which can be individual words or institutionalized phrases that hold fixed meanings within specific communities Their definition highlights the necessity of consensus among social groups, as what constitutes a lexical item in American English may differ in British English Furthermore, these items can be unique to various social categories, including geographical, professional, or familial groups, with teenagers often using terms that may confuse older generations Native speakers possess not only words and grammar but also a range of multiword expressions that function as independent units, a facet that has often been overlooked.
Richards and Rodgers (2001, p 133) add that many other lexical units also occur in language For example:
• Binomials: clean and tidy, back and froth, prons and cons, up and down
• Trinomials: cool, calm and collected
• Idioms: dead drunk, to run up a bill
• Similes: as old as the hills
These and other types of lexical units are thought to play a central role in learning and in communication
In his paper, Lewis (2002) focused on four fundamental types of lexical item which are:
Type 4: Sentence frames or heads
Analyzing items across different categories can be beneficial, as there may be overlaps that allow for a more nuanced understanding Recognizing an item as belonging to multiple classes can enhance its application in educational settings This approach is particularly relevant in the context of my research.
17 low level English learners, I put the emphasis on the first three types which are polywords, collocations and institutionalized utterances
According to Lewis's research, words are acknowledged as independent units, where the meaning of an utterance can shift with a single word change (e.g., "Could you pass my pen/calculator, please?") Single words can also function independently in speech or writing (e.g., "Stop," "Sure!," "Please") This concept has been a staple in language teaching, with polywords representing a minor extension of this idea While most lexical items consist of multiple words, "polyword" specifically refers to short phrases that exhibit a degree of idiomaticity (such as "by the way" or "on the other hand") and are commonly found in even basic dictionaries.
Certain word pairs or groups frequently co-occur, influenced by the text type, with verb-noun and adjective-noun combinations being the most common (e.g., "to raise capital," "a short-term strategy") This phenomenon extends beyond pairs and includes various grammatical categories While highly frequent verb patterns are often emphasized in language courses, other significant word patterns, known as collocations, have typically been overlooked or considered secondary in importance.
Institutionalized utterances are primarily found in spoken language, conveying pragmatic meanings rather than referential ones These language chunks, often recalled as complete units, form a significant part of everyday conversation They can be full sentences that carry clear pragmatic meanings, such as "I'll get it" or "It's nothing to do with me," or sentence fragments that need additional context to complete their meaning, like "If I were you, I'd wait." This latter example highlights the importance of lexical analysis over traditional grammatical interpretations, as it showcases how meaning can be derived from established phrases in conversation.
Teachers often mistakenly divide utterances solely into clauses, but a more accurate analysis recognizes that phrases like "If I were you" are always followed by "I'd," indicating a lexical boundary after "I'd." This means that the core of the utterance consists of simple base forms such as "Go," "Get one," and "Leave the car at home," preceded by a fixed chunk Contrary to being a complex structure, this analysis reveals its simplicity Traditional grammar has misled educators into thinking that specific analytical methods are universally beneficial, while language can actually be examined through various lenses, including phonemes, syllables, morphemes, or words Misidentifying language chunks has resulted in significant pedagogical challenges, as focusing on individual words or entire sentences can be ineffective Recognizing fully institutionalized utterances allows learners to grasp and use them as complete units, forming the foundation of grammatical competence rather than merely analyzing them.
Lexical chunks are defined and classified in various ways, leading to inconsistencies in the linguistic field There is no universally accepted classification system for these chunks, as different linguists propose their own criteria based on diverse perspectives Notably, the classifications by Nattinger & DeCarrico (1992) and Lewis (1993) are among the most widely recognized Nattinger and DeCarrico's classifications focus primarily on structural criteria, highlighting their significance in the study of lexical chunks.
Table 1 Nattinger and DeCarrico‟s classification of lexical chunks
Type of lexical chunks Examples
Poly words: short, fixed lexical phrases with idioms: kick the bucket
19 novariability, and they are associated with a wide variety of functions topic shifter: by the way summarizer: all in all, above all
Institutional expressions are fixed lexical phrases that serve as a framework for specific social interactions, allowing minimal variation Examples include farewells like "I’m afraid I have to be going now," acceptance of suggestions such as "that is a good idea," greetings like "how do you do" or "long time no see," and invitations phrased as "would you like to ?" These phrases facilitate smooth communication in various social contexts.
Sentence builders are essential lexical phrases that create a structural framework for complete sentences, incorporating slots for parameters or arguments that express entire ideas They allow for significant variation, as seen in constructions like "not only but also " and comparative forms such as "the er the er." Additionally, they can effectively suggest points with phrases like "my point is that " and introduce topics using markers like "let me start by/with ".
Phrasal constraints encompass short to medium-length phrases that permit variations in lexical and phrasal categories, serving multiple functions For instance, timing can be expressed with phrases like "a…ago," while apologies can be conveyed through "sorry about…" Common parting expressions include "see you then" or "see you later." Additionally, the phrase "as well as" functions as a relator, linking ideas effectively.
Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992:45) highlight that while institutionalized expressions may vary in length, they resemble polywords in being relatively short and simple In contrast, sentence builders and phrasal constraints are more complex, as they include specific slots for additional elements.
This research combines the overlapping and complementary aspects of the lexical chunk classifications proposed by Nattinger & DeCarrico and Michael Lewis The resulting classification criteria can be summarized as a synthesis of their approaches.
● Polywords fixed short phrases with no variability
● Collocations—pairs or groups of words that frequently co-occur in a natural text (verb plus noun, noun plus adjective, verb plus adverb/adjective, adverb plus adjective, etc.)
● Institutionalized expressions—mostly with no variability and stand as separate utterances with pragmatic functions
● Phrasal constrains—short and relatively fixed lexical phrases with slots that permit some variation
● Sentence heads or frames/sentence builders—lexical chunks providing the framework of the sentences and containing slots for parameters or arguments for the expression of entire ideas
There is currently no universally accepted standard for classifying lexical chunks, as researchers develop their own criteria based on specific research objectives It is important to recognize that lexical chunks exist on a spectrum, ranging from completely fixed to highly flexible forms This results in a vague categorization, making it challenging to establish clear distinctions between different types of lexical chunks.
The significance of teaching lexical chunks
Nyyssonen (1999) asserts that communicative competence is a multifaceted ability encompassing grammatical accuracy, intelligibility, contextual appropriateness, and fluency Research indicates that lexical chunks significantly aid second language (L2) learning by enhancing fluency, accuracy, creativity, and cohesion Additionally, the use of lexical chunks can greatly boost learners' motivation Therefore, examining the role of lexical chunks is essential for effective pedagogy, highlighting their importance in both written and spoken language for L2 learners and guiding their application in the L2 teaching process.
Pawley and Syder (1983) define "native-like fluency" as the capacity of native speakers to produce extended speech that surpasses their encoding and decoding abilities, highlighting the importance of linking language units effortlessly Similarly, Lewis (1997) emphasizes that fluency stems from acquiring a substantial collection of fixed and semi-fixed prefabricated items, suggesting that lexical chunks serve as readily accessible frameworks for language production, ultimately enhancing fluency.
Native-like fluency in language arises from the ability of native speakers to produce complex utterances that exceed cognitive limits According to Pawley and Syder (1983), individuals can typically compose only 8-10 words at a time; however, native speakers effortlessly articulate multi-clause sentences such as "It seems that it’s impossible to predict what will happen next" and "It is wise to insure your property against storm damage." This fluency is largely due to the use of fixed or semi-fixed phrases—stored as complete units in memory—which enable seamless communication without hesitation.
Lexical chunks are commonly utilized in language learning, allowing learners to easily recall and use phrases without the complexities of word selection and grammar This approach significantly simplifies the language processing for learners, enhancing their overall communication skills.
According to Lewis (1993), a significant portion of any language is composed of meaningful chunks utilized by native speakers, which contribute to fluency and accuracy To effectively master a language, learners must understand not only individual words but also how to combine them appropriately Pawley and Syder (1983) highlight that even proficient non-native speakers face challenges in selecting the specific utterances commonly used by native speakers They define "native-like selection" as the ability to express oneself using phrases that are both grammatically correct and reflective of native usage Therefore, to achieve native-like selection, language learners need to focus on choosing precise and idiomatic expressions to convey their thoughts effectively.
To achieve language accuracy, it is essential to store a significant number of lexical chunks According to Pawley and Syder, these chunks constitute a large portion of fluent speech in everyday conversation, requiring minimal encoding effort By beginning with these ready-made chunks, learners can enhance their language accuracy, as they form a substantial part of native speakers' communication.
Nattinger and DeCarrico highlight that the interplay between routine and creativity in language has been an overlooked area of study, with researchers only recently beginning to investigate this important topic in depth.
The increasing focus on lexical chunks is evident, highlighting their significance not only in enhancing lexical memorization and language fluency but also in fostering creative language production.
Lexical chunks are not merely fixed expressions; they serve as flexible building blocks for language According to Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992:24), referencing Hakuta (1974), these chunks consist of sentence segments that can accommodate variable components like noun or verb phrases This indicates that lexical chunks are integral to the creative process of language formation, rather than being incidental or isolated elements.
Pawley and Syder (1983) assert that lexical chunks are fundamental to language production, facilitating novelty and creativity Similarly, Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992) emphasize that simple, flexible phrases with significant lexical variation are potent generators of language patterns This simplicity and adaptability in syntactic structures promote consistent growth in creative language use.
According to Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992:60), lexical phrases are essential indicators that guide the flow of discourse in both spoken and written communication This suggests that lexical chunks function as crucial discourse devices, linking meaning and structure within the text.
Lexical chunks serve as essential tools in guiding overall language production, indicating relationships between ideas, such as contrast, addition, or exemplification of prior information.
Logical connectors: as a result (of X); nevertheless; because (of) X; in spite of X
Temporal connectors: the day/week/month/year before/ after _; and then; after X then/ the next is Y
Utilizing lexical chunks can significantly enhance language production for learners For instance, phrases like "as far as I" or "there’s no doubt that" can be employed to create cohesive statements when evaluative discourse is required Moreover, these chunks provide clear direction in language use, improving overall comprehension In summary, the effective use of appropriate lexical chunks not only guides language production but also fosters better understanding among learners.
Motivation plays a crucial role in language learning, significantly impacting success in second language acquisition, as highlighted by Lightbown and Spada (2006:57) in reference to Gardner's research on the relationship between attitude and motivation Furthermore, prior studies indicate that utilizing lexical chunks can effectively alleviate frustration and enhance motivation in the learning process.
In their work on lexical phrases and language teaching, Nattinger and DeCarrico highlight that lexical chunks enable learners to use expressions they may not yet be able to create independently These chunks are stored and retrieved as complete units, which can alleviate frustration and enhance motivation in language acquisition.
Lexical chunks and language fluency
Fluency in writing is a key goal for language learners, enabling them to write freely and cohesively Research has shown that lexical chunks significantly enhance language fluency, as noted by Lewis (1997), who emphasizes that fluency relies on a substantial repertoire of fixed and semi-fixed phrases Similarly, Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992) highlight that the ability to utilize lexical phrases is crucial for fluent speech Lexical chunks are stored and retrieved as complete units, making them easier to memorize and use without the complexities of word selection and grammatical rules (Pawley & Syder, 1983) Consequently, the nature of lexical chunks not only reduces the cognitive load of language processing but also enables learners to produce language that is both patterned and fluent.
Students who effectively master a significant number of lexical chunks can quickly retrieve phrases for speaking, reducing the cognitive load associated with language selection This allows them to focus more on the content of their speech, ultimately enhancing their fluency Conversely, students lacking sufficient lexical chunks must construct phrases and sentences individually based on grammatical rules, which can hinder their speaking fluency.
Selecting appropriate words requires more time, which slows down processing speed and reduces the time available to consider language content These factors ultimately impact both the fluency and quality of speech.
Lexicalchunks and accuracy of language
The explicit purpose of accuracy of language is that ―students can get the language
Research indicates that while many learners can communicate fluently, their expressions often differ from those of native speakers The effective use of lexical chunks is crucial for achieving accuracy and a native-like quality in language, as a significant portion of native speech consists of these meaningful phrases High scorers in speaking tests frequently utilize a variety of lexical chunks, resulting in more idiomatic and precise language, which contributes to their success Conversely, many students struggle to master an adequate number of lexical chunks, leading to grammatically correct but less idiomatic speech.
Lexical chunks and creative language production
Previous research indicates that lexical chunks serve as essential components for creative language production (Pawley & Syder, 1983) According to Hakuta and Wong-Fillmore, the routines and patterns acquired during language learning directly contribute to creative expression (Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992) By understanding basic lexical frames, learners can adapt flexible elements in various contexts Consequently, when learners grasp sufficient semi-fixed lexical chunks, they can generate innovative phrases and sentences.
Students who achieve high scores in their compositions utilize a significantly greater variety of lexical chunks compared to those with lower scores Notably, sentence builders constitute the largest segment of lexical chunks used by high scorers, followed by phrasal constraints in second place Polywords rank third, collocations come in fourth, and institutional expressions occupy the last position in their compositions.
27 last place This means that high scorers use sentence builders and phrasal constraints more frequently than other types of lexical chunks in speaking
According to Nattinger and DeCarrico, sentence builders are flexible lexical phrases that form the framework of sentences, allowing for significant variation in their components Examples of sentence builders include phrases like "As far as I am concerned," "it seems to me that," and "not only but also." Similarly, phrasal constraints are semi-fixed phrases that permit some variation in lexical and phrasal categories However, collocations and institutional expressions offer limited variability, while polywords are completely fixed phrases High scorers in speaking tests tend to use more semi-fixed chunks, such as sentence builders and phrasal constraints, enabling them to create complex and creative expressions This creativity can leave a lasting impression on evaluators, ultimately contributing to better performance in speaking assessments.
Students with low speaking scores often rely on a limited variety of lexical chunks, leading to compositions that may lack engagement While they can articulate their opinions, their speeches tend to be monotonous due to the repetitive use of simple phrases such as "I think," "there is," and "I believe." This overuse of certain lexical chunks diminishes the overall quality and attractiveness of their speaking Therefore, incorporating a broader range of lexical chunks is essential for enhancing the effectiveness of spoken communication.
Methodology and Data analysis
Research questions
The study is conducted to answer to the research question:
1 How does the teaching and learning of lexical chunks change students‘ speaking fluency?
2 What do the students perceive of the benefits of learning lexical chunks to their speaking?
The continuing education context
This study focused on 11th-grade students at a continuing education center in Hanoi, highlighting their limited speaking abilities and tendency to be shy when expressing ideas The research emphasizes that elementary-level students benefit significantly from the use of fixed lexical chunks, which helps them overcome restrictions in their speaking skills.
This study involves 45 non-English major students from a continuing education center, all of whom are native Vietnamese speakers with a similar background in English learning Each participant has studied English for seven years during their elementary and secondary education To ensure the reliability of the experiment, the participants were not informed that they were part of a study.
Official statistics indicate that students in continuing education centers have a relatively low pass rate for the university entrance exam Drawing from both the reported data and my extensive teaching experience in these centers, I have observed significant challenges that contribute to this trend.
29 realise that graduated students tend to work as manual workers in factories or exported to other countries.
The participants
A study conducted with 45 non-English major students at a continuing education center in Hanoi, all of whom had completed secondary high school and possessed elementary English proficiency, involved two pre-tests: a multiple-choice chunk test and a speaking test, prior to a lexical chunk course Ultimately, only 20 out of the 45 students were randomly selected to participate in the post-test at the conclusion of the study.
Research procedure
This action research study follows a four-stage process: diagnosing an issue, proposing solutions, implementing actions, and collecting and analyzing data Teachers implemented intervention strategies to enhance students' awareness of lexical chunks during speaking activities To evaluate the effectiveness of these teaching methods on students' speaking fluency, data was gathered through classroom observations, test scores, and semi-structured interviews.
In my teaching experience, I noticed that many students were hesitant to speak English and engage in speaking activities, which puzzled me After discussing their reluctance, I discovered that their limited vocabulary was a significant barrier Recognizing that expanding their vocabulary was crucial, I realized it would take time to achieve this Drawing from my MA coursework, I learned the importance of teaching lexical chunks rather than isolated words Consequently, I sought additional literature on this approach and decided to implement it in my classroom to enhance my students' speaking abilities.
I administered a self-designed test to assess the students' lexical competence The findings indicated a moderate awareness of lexical chunks among the learners, alongside a significant number of pauses in their speaking samples The students' scores on the multiple-choice chunk test served as their baseline They faced challenges such as a relatively slow speaking speed and frequent hesitations and pauses during their speech.
Figure 1 : Distribution of the multiple-choice chunk test score
Table 2.1 : Number of pauses in a speaking pre-test
Number of pauses in each sample
After figuring out the subject‘s bottlenecks in speaking fluency, I came up with an appoach, by which I used lexical chunks to support the students doing speaking tasks
The speaking process is divided into three key stages: pre-speaking, while-speaking, and post-speaking Initially, I classified and identified lexical chunks, demonstrating their usage During the speaking phase, students were encouraged to recognize and memorize these chunks through repetition In the post-speaking stage, I highlighted the lexical chunks in transcripts and prompted students to translate them into Vietnamese, aiming to enhance their awareness and understanding of these essential language components.
Students enhanced their understanding of lexical chunks through comprehensive output activities, such as writing summaries after speaking and creating outlines before speaking This transition from speaking to writing provided them with deeper insights into the application of lexical chunks in both forms of communication.
At the conclusion of the study, I randomly selected 20 out of 45 students to assess their speaking fluency To enhance their vocabulary, I focused on the most commonly used lexical chunks, as the vocabulary in the multiple-choice chunk test and pre-test differed from that in the post-test This quantitative speaking practice allowed students to apply their knowledge of lexical chunks, facilitating the transfer of declarative knowledge to procedural knowledge (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990) By memorizing these chunks, students developed a speaking habit that improved their speaking speed and reduced the frequency of pauses.
Data collection and Analysis
Data were collected from two main sources: periodical progress tests and students‘ reflections
Each test consists of 20 items aimed at assessing students' retention and changes in their speaking fluency, particularly focusing on the frequency and duration of pauses and hesitations during English speaking lessons Scoring is based on a point system where each correct answer earns one point, with a total possible score of 30 The scores are categorized into five ranks: A (30-27), B (26-24), C (23-21), D (20-18), and F (17-0).
The multiple-choice chunk test must be completed in 20 minutes in the classroom, where students need to select the single best answer to complete each sentence.
1 I am not _ at Math a good b gooder c well d weller
In both pre- and post-tests, students must deliver a 1 to 2-minute speech (approximately 100-200 words) in the classroom without the aid of reference materials, including dictionaries The scoring for the speaking test focuses on the frequency of pauses, and a comprehensive analysis of the test results includes an examination of the lexical chunks used in the students' compositions.
The speaking pre-test focuses on students describing their favorite subject, a topic closely tied to their personal experiences and interests This relevance encourages students to share meaningful insights and information.
The speaking post-test requires students to select their favorite subject and articulate the reasons behind their preference This topic mirrors the pre-test, allowing students to recall previous ideas while also providing an opportunity to utilize learned lexical chunks, ultimately enhancing their speaking skills.
After the tests, the results of the three tests will be analysed, and the relationship between L2 learners‘ using level of lexical chunks and their language production will be investigated
Students‘ reflection Interview (See Appendix D)
At the conclusion of the treatment focused on using lexical chunks to enhance students' fluency, learners were encouraged to write a reflection in Vietnamese about the benefits they perceived from this approach to their English speaking skills The reflections were guided by specific questions aimed at eliciting their thoughts and experiences.
1 How does the learning of lexical chunks influence your learning to speak English?
2 How does your speaking fluency change after the learning of lexical chunks in the speaking lessons?
Findings
2.6.1 How does the teaching and learning of lexical chunks change the students’ speaking fluency?
The teaching and learning of lexical chunks did change your students‘ speaking fluency at varying degrees (see Table 2.2 below)
Table 2.2: Number of pauses in a speaking post-test among the tested 20 students
Number of pauses in each sample
A comparison of the speaking pre- and post-test results revealed a significant reduction in the number of pauses among students Initially, 84.3% of students had fewer than 30 and 20 pauses in the pre-test, totaling 38 individuals In contrast, only 35% of 20 randomly tested students had similar results in the post-test, with just 7 students Furthermore, the number of students with fewer than 10 and 5 pauses increased from 15.5% (7 students) in the pre-test to approximately 75% (15 students) in the post-test Overall, the findings indicate a marked improvement in speaking speed and fluency throughout the experiment.
2.6.2 How do the students perceive of the benefits of the learning of lexical chunks to their speaking ability?
The students‘ reflection of 45 students were analyzed by themes quantitatively Below are the results:
Students‘ perceived benefits No of mentions
1 I find it easier to use English in my speaking
2 I feel more confident in speaking
3 I am not afraid of errors while speaking any more
4 I can use English to communicate in a simple way
5 It changes very little my ability to speak
6 I do not see any change in my ability to speak English
2.7 Discussion of the relationship between L2 learners‟ use of lexical chunks and language production
Research shows a strong correlation between language production and the use of lexical chunks, indicating that learners who excel in one area tend to perform well in the other Specifically, those with advanced language production skills are more adept at employing lexical chunks, while effective use of these chunks enhances overall language production This highlights the positive relationship between lexical chunk usage and language proficiency.
Fluency, accuracy, creativity, and cohesion are essential elements of language production Research indicates that the use of lexical chunks can significantly improve fluency, enhance accuracy, foster creative expression, and provide guidance in language generation.
This study investigates the connection between L2 learners' use of lexical chunks and their language production The findings, derived from a multiple-choice chunk test, speaking assessments, and interviews, reveal that students who utilize a greater number of lexical chunks tend to achieve higher scores across all evaluations Consequently, the research indicates that the effective use of lexical chunks positively influences L2 learners' language production.
Lexical chunks are commonly used fixed or semi-fixed phrases that hold functional meanings and are processed as whole units during language acquisition They serve as readily accessible frameworks for language production, reducing the pressure on second language (L2) learners to decode individual words Research indicates that lexical chunks can enhance fluency and accuracy in language use, facilitate creative expression, and guide overall language production Additionally, these chunks can boost L2 learners' motivation by enabling them to produce expressions beyond their current linguistic capabilities.
The findings from the three tests indicate that low-level English learners struggle significantly with lexical chunks and language production In the multiple-choice chunk and speaking pre-test, students often selected grammatically correct but non-idiomatic lexical chunks Additionally, analysis of interview responses reveals that Vietnamese English teachers tend to emphasize grammatical rules and individual words, neglecting the instruction of lexical chunks However, the speaking post-test results show that students improved their speaking production after engaging with lessons focused on lexical chunks, suggesting that addressing this gap could enhance their overall language proficiency.
38 attributed to the lack of adequate input of lexical chunks Therefore, in order to improve learners‘ English proficiency, adopting the effective lexical chunks instruction is quite necessary
This study highlights the significance of lexical chunks in language production and offers pedagogical recommendations for English instruction By transforming Vietnamese learners' perceptions of language acquisition and implementing appropriate teaching methods and engaging activities, educators can significantly enhance students' understanding and use of lexical chunks.
In conclusion, lexical chunks are crucial for second language (L2) learners' language acquisition, significantly enhancing fluency, idiomaticity, creativity, and overall language production Therefore, it is essential to prioritize the teaching of lexical chunks in English instruction for L2 learners.
2.1 Changes in the teacher‟s awareness of teaching vocabulary and speaking:
From the perspective of educators, action research allows for an objective evaluation of their teaching methods while investigating topics relevant to their daily practices I believe that action research enhances teaching effectiveness by integrating learning theories into practical application Throughout this process, the emphasis transitions from teacher-led instruction to fostering student development and engagement.
―atomicity of using lexical chunks in speaking process, with an emphasis on learners‘ major role in learning to speaking more fluently‖(He,2011)
This case study explores the impact of lexical chunk theory on teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) speaking skills The findings indicate that heightened awareness of lexical chunks can enhance speaking fluency However, since this study is based on a single student, further empirical research is needed to confirm these results.
Increased awareness of lexical chunks significantly enhances reading fluency in EFL learners, with explicit instruction playing a crucial role in this acquisition (Ellis, 1997) This aligns with Walzoyk's (1999) findings, which emphasize the strong connection between speaking fluency and language competence When students can recognize and utilize lexical chunks automatically during speaking, their fluency is likely to improve Therefore, explicit teaching methods that focus on raising students' awareness and application of lexical chunks are beneficial for enhancing their speaking performance Additionally, action research provides EFL teachers with valuable opportunities to explore and refine their teaching practices (Cheng, 2010; Gao, 2003; Ren, 2006; Liu, 2009).
2.2 Advantages from the process of conducting the action research:
2.2.1 Form of teacher professional development:
Research and reflection empower teachers to enhance their skills and build confidence in their roles Engaging in action research projects fosters critical thinking, boosts self-efficacy, encourages collaboration, and positively influences attitudes towards change Through this process, educators gain valuable insights about themselves, their students, and their peers, enabling them to identify ongoing improvement strategies.
2.2.2 Potential to impact school change:
Engaging in action research enables teachers to focus on school and district-wide issues rather than solely on personal concerns This collaborative process fosters improved communication and sharing among colleagues, contributing to the collective knowledge of teaching and learning Additionally, it helps establish priorities for school-wide planning and assessment, driving motivation for meaningful change and improvement.
Teachers often have limited opportunities for formal self-evaluation in schools, typically relying on informal assessments Action research provides a structured approach for educators to reflect on their teaching practices While the primary focus is usually on student outcomes, teachers can also explore the impact of their methods on students, enhance collaboration with colleagues, and identify strategies for overall school improvement This shift in focus from merely "fixing" issues to fostering understanding can lead to more meaningful conversations among educators.
2.2.4 Focus on school issue, problem, or area of collective interest:
Research conducted with familiar students enhances the relevance and validity of disciplined studies Academic research often appears disconnected from educators' daily experiences; however, teachers can effectively integrate insights from academic circles into their classrooms This approach reassures parents and education administrators that teachers are thoughtfully applying research findings, rather than merely following trends, thereby creating meaningful learning experiences.
2.3 Possible limitations in the action research:
Reflection
2.1 Changes in the teacher‟s awareness of teaching vocabulary and speaking:
From the perspective of educators, action research allows for an objective evaluation of their teaching methods and facilitates research on topics closely tied to their everyday classroom experiences I believe that action research enhances teaching effectiveness by integrating learning theories into practical application Throughout this process, the emphasis transitions from teacher-led instruction to fostering student development and engagement.
―atomicity of using lexical chunks in speaking process, with an emphasis on learners‘ major role in learning to speaking more fluently‖(He,2011)
This case study explores the impact of lexical chunk theory on teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) speaking skills The findings indicate that heightened awareness of lexical chunks can enhance speaking fluency However, since this research is based on a single student, additional empirical studies are needed to confirm these results.
Increased awareness of lexical chunks in EFL speaking positively influences reading fluency, as explicit instruction aids in their acquisition (Ellis, 1997) This aligns with Walzoyk's (1999) findings, which highlight the strong connection between speaking fluency and language competence When students can automatically recognize and use a variety of lexical chunks during speaking, their fluency is likely to improve Therefore, explicit teaching methods focused on enhancing students' awareness and application of lexical chunks are beneficial for their speaking performance Additionally, action research provides EFL teachers with a valuable opportunity to explore their teaching practices and engage in meaningful research (Cheng, 2010; Gao, 2003; Ren, 2006; Liu, 2009).
2.2 Advantages from the process of conducting the action research:
2.2.1 Form of teacher professional development:
Research and reflection empower teachers to enhance their skills and build confidence in their roles Engaging in action research projects cultivates critical thinking, boosts self-efficacy, and fosters a collaborative spirit among educators, positively shaping their attitudes toward change Through this process, teachers gain valuable insights into their own practices, understand their students better, and identify effective strategies for ongoing improvement.
2.2.2 Potential to impact school change:
Engaging in action research empowers teachers to focus on school and district-wide issues rather than solely individual concerns This collaborative process fosters enhanced communication and collegiality among educators, leading to valuable contributions to the understanding of teaching and learning Furthermore, it helps establish priorities for school-wide planning and assessment, driving meaningful change aimed at improvement.
Teachers often have limited opportunities for self-evaluation, typically occurring in informal settings Action research provides a structured approach for educators to critically assess their teaching practices While primarily centered on student outcomes, this method also allows teachers to explore the impact of their instruction on students, enhance collaboration with colleagues, and implement positive changes within the school environment Shifting conversations from a problem-solving mindset to one of understanding fosters deeper insights into teaching effectiveness.
2.2.4 Focus on school issue, problem, or area of collective interest:
Research conducted with familiar students enhances the relevance and validity of disciplined studies for teachers Academic research is often perceived as detached from educators' daily experiences; however, it can significantly benefit teachers when they integrate insights from academic circles into their classrooms This approach not only enriches the learning environment but also reassures parents and education administrators that teachers are thoughtfully applying research findings rather than merely adhering to trends.
2.3 Possible limitations in the action research:
Improving learners' use of lexical chunks in speaking can ease the demands on working memory, allowing for greater focus on cognitive and metacognitive processes, which ultimately enhances speaking fluency However, simply increasing awareness of lexical chunks may not yield significant improvements in higher-level speaking skills Therefore, a new action research project will be conducted to explore strategies for developing advanced speaking abilities.
Plan for the next cycle 41 REFERENCES VII APPENDIX
From the result of the study, we can see the importance of the lexical chunks approach in the better performance of the experimental class Lexical chunks
The 41 approach proves beneficial for students and teachers in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) speaking learning and teaching The findings of this study offer valuable insights for both parties However, due to time constraints and a limited sample size, certain limitations are present, prompting suggestions for future research based on these shortcomings.
The experimental research conducted at a continuing education center in Hanoi involved a small sample size of only 45 participants, all from non-English majors at a single school, which may limit the reliability of the findings Consequently, the results cannot be generalized across different contexts Future studies should aim to include a larger and more diverse group of participants from various grades, majors, and schools with differing levels of English proficiency to enhance the validity of the research.
The experiment was conducted over the course of nearly one school year, which limited its duration and impact A longer study, spanning four to five terms, would yield more persuasive and convincing results Future research should focus on planning extended experiments to enhance the validity of the findings.
The research emphasizes the importance of English speaking skills while suggesting that future studies should also explore reading, listening, and vocabulary skills for a more comprehensive understanding It encourages teachers and researchers to dedicate more efforts towards identifying effective teaching methods for lexical chunks to enhance students' foreign language acquisition The author advocates for increased research on lexical chunks in English learning and teaching, believing that such studies will significantly impact foreign language acquisition in the future.
By the end of the lesson, students will be able to:
- Know more about some kinds of hobbies
- Apply lexical chunks to talk about their hobbies
C Teaching Aids: Textbook, computer, speaker, handouts
- What do people usually collect? seashells
*Lead-in: UNIT 13: HOBBIES – SPEAKING
Writes on their note book
Say which of the following you like/ not like doing and why
- chatting with a friend on the phone
? Which activity would you like to do and why?
? I would like to fish because it is interesting
- …because it is relaxing/ funny/ useful/ boring/ tiring/ dangerous
- …because it makes me relaxed / stronger / happy / bored / tired
- Write down on their notebooks
TASK 2 (Pair work): Practise reading the dialogue
Huong: What is your hobby, Lan ? Lan: Well, I like collecting books
Huong: Could you tell me how you collect your books?
Lan: Well, this must be done regularly Whenever I find a good book which is interesting I buy it immediately
Huong: Where do you buy your books?
Lan: I buy from the bookshop near my house and some others from second-hand book stalls Sometimes my friends,
28mins my mum and dad give me some
Huong: How do you organize your collection?
Lan: I classify them into categories and put each category in one corner of my bookshelf with a name tag on it Huong: What do you plan to do next, Lan?
Lan: I think I‘ll continue to make my collection richer and richer
Now practise talking to us about your hobby
New words 1.regularly / „regjulәli / (adv)
Eg – I classify my books into different categories
Eg – a second-hand book stall
Hand out: Fill in the dialogue with a partner
Huong: Could you tell me ……… ?
Lan: Well, this must be done regularly Whenever I find a good book ………I buy it immediately
Huong: ……… do you buy your books?
Lan: I buy from the bookshop near my house and some others from ….……… Sometimes my friends, my mum and dad give me some
- Go to the answer about collecting stamps
- Choose the hobbies to talk
Lan: I classify them into categories and put each category in one corner of my bookshelf with………
Huong: ………to do next,Lan?
Lan: I think I‘ll continue to………
Where to keep in album buy, exchange, ask sb to give, make pen friends broaden knowledge, know more about …
B:I/ buy from post office, ask / members of my family, friends, postmen make pen friends with people overseas / exchange stamps with others
B:I/classify stamps into categories: animals, plants, birds,landscape about
- Work in groups and give feedback for each other
B: I/ broaden my knowledge: know more about landscape, people, animals
A: What / plan for the future?
- Bettina Dorfmann has the largest Barbie doll collection
- He‟s very famous for his collection of stamps with the map of Vietnam His name is …………
- Read and give the answer quickly
- Go around ask their friends
- Present their results to the whole class
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Multiple-choice chunk test (20 minutes)
Direction: There are 20 incomplete sentences in this part For each sentence there are four choices marked A, B, C and D Choose the ONE answer that best completes the sentence
1 We should use cloth bags of plastic bags
2 Students should be eager in social activities
A participate B to participate C to participating D participated
3 It‘s dangerous in this river
A swim B to swim C swimming D swam
4 We are looking forward you in June
A to seeing B see C saw D be seen
5 Try to the amount of fat in your diet
6 This table is made wood
7 The champagne is made grapes
8 The government ought to do something to prevent people _ throwing trash into the river
9 Solar energy can be changed electricity
10.The amount of solar energy that reaches the earth depends the atmosphere
11 The natural environment consists all natural resources
12 Do you need any help? - _
A Sure B Certainly C No problem D No Thank you
13 She came up Jim‘s car
14 Dave has a good of humor
15 What‘s wrong the engine? It‘s making an awful noise
16 I am afraid that I can‘t agree _you
17.Your friendship should be based on trust
18 The director was critical the way we were doing the work
19 Tony is very disappointed _ the results of the exam
20 (What/ Do/ Would/ Will) you like to come? – I‘d love to
Keys to the multiple-choice chunk test:
Directions: For this part, you are required to speak in 1 to 2 minutes (about 100 –
200 words) to the whole class You are not permitted to bring any reference books, including dictionaries The topic is to describe their friends
Directions: : For this part, you are required to speak in 1 to 2 minutes (about 100 –
200 words) to the whole class You are not permitted to bring any reference books, including dictionaries The topic is to describe their hobbies which they share with their friends
1) What problems do you usually meet in your English speaking?
2) Do you deliberately memorize lexical phrases like proverbs, sentences patterns and so on in the English learning process?
3) Do you think it is necessary to teach knowledge of lexical chunks in class?
Students‘ scores of the multiple-choice chunk test
Number of pauses in the pre-speaking test:
Student No Number of pauses