Raison de choix du sujet
Une recherche n‟est pas quelque chose d‟évident, elle ne peut pas être réussie si elle ne vient pas de l‟intérêt et des motivations personnelles de son auteur
Since the beginning of my postgraduate studies, newspaper headlines have always piqued my curiosity The press wields significant influence over readers' thoughts and perspectives, making it one of the dominant discourses of our time Headlines serve two main purposes: summarizing the article and capturing attention, often acting as an invitation or bait to encourage readership Therefore, this research aims to explore the strategies journalists employ in crafting these captivating hooks.
Il existe maintenant des milliers quotidiens et magazines en France mais un des journaux les plus connus et prestigieux, c‟est toujours ô Le Monde ằ Crộộ en
Since 1944, this newspaper has evolved into a reference publication, distributed across numerous countries, including non-French speaking regions This widespread reach motivates us to analyze the headlines of its articles as a corpus to explore the strategies employed by journalists.
Questions de recherche
La plus grande question qui s‟est posée à nous alors était la suivante :
Comment utilisent les journalistes du Monde les procédés linguistiques dans les titres des articles pour un tel nombre de lecteurs ?
Hypothèses
The linguistic and discursive procedures found in newspaper article titles resemble those in other types of discourse, including aspects like enunciation modalities, statements, and thematization However, to craft engaging titles in "Le Monde," journalists must not rigidly adhere to the theoretical processes outlined Instead, they often blend these techniques with additional strategies that have yet to be explored in existing theory.
Objectifs
- Étudier la théorie de l‟analyse du discours et des théories d‟énonciation
- Savoir comment ces théories sont appliquées dans le discours de la vie quotidienne, dans les titres des articles de journaux en commun et ceux du ô Monde ằ en particulier
- Connaợtre la tendance d‟utilisation des procộdộs linguistiques dans chaque rubrique de quelques journaux franỗais de nos jours.
Méthodologie
To address our research questions, we utilized two corpora based on article titles, assuming that linguistic and discursive tools are reflected within them Initially, we compiled a first corpus consisting of titles deemed interesting across various sections of newspapers and magazines consulted from May to October 2015 This approach provided us with a comprehensive overview of the strategies employed by journalists in crafting titles related to different aspects of life, which will serve as foundational concepts for our theoretical framework.
The second corpus presented in the appendix consists of a collection of 120 article titles from twelve sections of the digital newspaper lemonde.fr To ensure objectivity, the titles were randomly selected based on date, with ten titles chosen from different years for each section.
It is undeniable that the initial corpus does not encompass all strategies; therefore, the main corpus will enable us to verify previous strategies and uncover new ones.
The research employs a descriptive method, which allows the researcher to present and depict a specific situation, providing a precise image of a phenomenon Descriptive research is linked to statistical research hypotheses, focusing on states rather than changes in states (Nguyen Quang Thuan, 2007, p.38) Through the selected titles, we aim to create a combined overview of discourse analysis units and enunciative theories, offering a broader perspective through statistics on the percentage of each unit used in press titles.
Plan du mémoire
Par rapport aux questions posées afin de résoudre la problématique, nous avons divisé notre recherche en trois parties principales
The first chapter will explore the theoretical framework surrounding discourse analysis and enunciative theories identified in the initial corpus approach, focusing on the modalities of enunciation and the utterance Additionally, many titles feature the structure of "subject-predicate" or quotation marks that are not part of the modalities Therefore, we will also address thematizations and modes.
4 de citations dans une sous-partie de même niveau que les deux parties sur les modalités
Before delving into the analysis of the corpus, it is essential to provide a brief overview of the newspaper "Le Monde" in the second chapter This will help contextualize the environment in which the articles and their headlines operate We will clarify our selection process and its outcomes The final subsection will focus solely on analyzing the headlines of the articles in the corpus, utilizing the theories discussed earlier Our aim is to identify additional strategies employed by journalists in the chosen headlines.
Our research focuses on newspaper headlines, which, as concise phrases, adhere to a specific type of discourse This choice is justified by the abundance and variety of headlines in the French press, which captivate our minds, leave a lasting impression, and draw attention.
To gain a deeper understanding of this discourse, it is essential to draw upon the most relevant theories, particularly enunciative theories and discourse analysis tools.
Discourse analysis involves delving beneath the smooth surface of language to uncover the intricate layers of meaning embedded in a text As highlighted by Courtine (1989, p.37), this process allows us to explore the complexities of historical and contextual clues that shape communication.
Discourse analysis (DA) is an essential component of social and human sciences that contrasts with content analysis Rather than focusing on what a text conveys, DA emphasizes how it conveys its message This approach examines enunciative markers and the relationships between the sender and receiver, as well as the contractual dynamics that bind them in specific contexts.
Marandin (1979, p.18) : ô ce qui distingue l‟analyse du discours d‟autres pratiques d‟analyse du texte, c‟est l‟utilisation de la linguistique ằ
The term "discourse," central to this discipline, varies in meaning depending on the context and is a complex concept that requires clarification In everyday life, for instance, it can be utilized to
A solemn statement is often delivered during significant events to a large audience While it may be perceived negatively, it is characterized by numerous speeches that lack corresponding actions.
This study focuses on the concept of "discourse" within the field of language sciences, highlighting its complexity and the various linguistic currents that both complement and sometimes contradict each other.
L’Analyse du discours (1991, p.15), Dominique Maingueneau cite au moins sept emplois du terme ô discours ằ depuis la fin des annộes 1960 :
Discours 1 : ộquivalent de la ô parole ằ (l‟usage de la langue par un individu donnộ selon des contextes) de l‟opposition ô langue / parole ằ de Saussure
Discours 2 : tout ộnoncộ supộrieur à la phrase, ộquivalent du ô texte ằ
From the perspective of enunciation theories and pragmatics, discourse emphasizes the dynamic nature of enunciation, highlighting its ability to influence and engage the other in an interactive context.
Discours 4 : ộquivalent de la ô conversation ằ, de l‟interaction orale
Discours 5 : l‟opposition de ô langue / discours ằ comme ô un systốme virtuel de valeurs peu spécifiées, à une diversification superficielle liée à la variộtộ des usages qui sont faits des unitộs linguistiques ằ
In discussions about various types of discourse, such as political, feminist, or administrative discourse, the term refers to a system that provides a unified worldview through a set of statements derived from specific social or ideological positions.
Discours 7 : l‟AD dộfinit son objet en recourant l‟opposition de ô ộnoncộ / discours ằ de L Guespin (1971, p.10 ; citộ in Maingueneau 1991, p.11) :
In discourse analysis, the concept of "ô L’ônoncộ" refers to the sequence of phrases positioned between two semantic blanks, representing pauses in communication Discourse is understood as the statement examined through the lens of the discursive mechanisms that shape it.
The field of discourse analysis (L'AD) and its associated researchers are progressively integrating insights from various disciplines, including enunciative theories, linguistic pragmatics, interaction theories, and argumentation This interdisciplinary approach enriches the study of discourse through the convergence of different currents, notably enunciative, communicational, conversational, and pragmatic approaches For our project, we will focus on one of these extensions, specifically the enunciative approach, to better understand press headlines by intersecting these diverse theoretical frameworks.
1.2 Enonciation/Enoncé ou approche énonciative
Discussing enunciation inevitably brings to mind Emile Benveniste, whose work synthesizes the concepts of enunciation and statement Enunciation is defined as the activation of language through an individual act of usage (Benveniste, 1970, p.12) It highlights the emergence of the subject within the statement, the relationship with the interlocutor, and the speaker's attitude towards their message In summary, enunciation is an act of creating, producing, and utilizing language, while the statement is the result of that act Thus, the two terms contrast like the fabrication of an object and the object itself.
Avant d‟entrer dans les deux premières sous parties, il me semble nộcessaire de mieux comprendre la notion de ô modalitộ ằ
Pour expliquer ce qu‟est la ô modalitộ ằ en sciences du langage, on a coutume de rappeler l‟opposition entre ô modus ằ et ô dictum ằ posộe par C Bally
In 1965, it was proposed that modality, referred to as modus, is defined as the linguistic form of an intellectual judgment, an affective judgment, or a will expressed by a thinking subject regarding a perception or representation in their mind In contrast, the dictum represents the content itself A complete absence of modality corresponds to a judgment of reality, revealing the truth as it exists.
Les travaux dans ce domaine permettent de distinguer deux types de modalité :
CADRE THÉORIQUE
Présentation générale de l‟Analyse du discours
ô Faire de l‟analyse du discours, c‟est apprendre à dộlinộariser le texte pour restituer sous la surface lisse des mots la profondeur enchevêtrée des indices d‟un passộ ằ (Courtine, 1989, p.37)
Discourse analysis (DA) is a crucial component of social and human sciences, distinguishing itself from content analysis by focusing not on what a text says, but on how it conveys its message This approach examines enunciative markers, the relationships between the sender and the receiver, and the contractual dynamics that bind them in specific contexts, as noted by J.
Marandin (1979, p.18) : ô ce qui distingue l‟analyse du discours d‟autres pratiques d‟analyse du texte, c‟est l‟utilisation de la linguistique ằ
The term "discourse" is central to this discipline and varies in meaning depending on the context, making it a complex concept that requires clarification In everyday life, for instance, it can be utilized in various ways.
A solemn statement is often delivered during significant events in front of large audiences While it can be perceived negatively, it is characterized by numerous speeches that may lack corresponding actions.
This study focuses on the concept of "discourse" within the field of language sciences, which is a multifaceted notion shaped by various linguistic theories that both complement and sometimes contradict each other.
L’Analyse du discours (1991, p.15), Dominique Maingueneau cite au moins sept emplois du terme ô discours ằ depuis la fin des annộes 1960 :
Discours 1 : ộquivalent de la ô parole ằ (l‟usage de la langue par un individu donnộ selon des contextes) de l‟opposition ô langue / parole ằ de Saussure
Discours 2 : tout ộnoncộ supộrieur à la phrase, ộquivalent du ô texte ằ
From the perspective of enunciation theories and pragmatics, discourse emphasizes the dynamic nature of enunciation, highlighting its ability to influence and engage others in an interactive manner.
Discours 4 : ộquivalent de la ô conversation ằ, de l‟interaction orale
Discours 5 : l‟opposition de ô langue / discours ằ comme ô un systốme virtuel de valeurs peu spécifiées, à une diversification superficielle liée à la variộtộ des usages qui sont faits des unitộs linguistiques ằ
Discourse is frequently referenced in contexts such as political, feminist, or administrative discussions In this sense, the term refers to a system that provides a unified worldview through a collection of statements, shaped by a specific social or ideological position.
Discours 7 : l‟AD dộfinit son objet en recourant l‟opposition de ô ộnoncộ / discours ằ de L Guespin (1971, p.10 ; citộ in Maingueneau 1991, p.11) :
The concept of "ô L’ộnoncộ" refers to the sequence of phrases placed between two semantic pauses, which represent interruptions in communication Discourse, on the other hand, is the statement viewed through the lens of the discursive mechanism that shapes it.
The field of discourse analysis, as presented below, progressively opens up to various disciplines such as enunciative theories, linguistic pragmatics, interaction theories, and argumentation This intersection of different currents enriches the field, with notable approaches including enunciative, communicative, conversational, and pragmatic perspectives For our project, we will focus on one of these extensions, specifically the enunciative approach, to better understand press headlines by integrating these diverse currents.
Enonciation/Enoncé ou approche énonciative
Discussing enunciation inevitably brings to mind Emile Benveniste, whose work synthesizes the concepts of enunciation and utterance Enunciation is defined as the activation of language through an individual act of usage (Benveniste, 1970, p.12) It highlights the emergence of the subject within the utterance, the relationship with the interlocutor, and the speaker's attitude towards their statement In summary, enunciation is an act of creating, producing, and utilizing language, while utterance is the result of that act Thus, the two terms contrast like the creation of an object and the object itself.
Avant d‟entrer dans les deux premières sous parties, il me semble nộcessaire de mieux comprendre la notion de ô modalitộ ằ
Pour expliquer ce qu‟est la ô modalitộ ằ en sciences du langage, on a coutume de rappeler l‟opposition entre ô modus ằ et ô dictum ằ posộe par C Bally
In 1965, it was defined that modality, referred to as modus, represents the linguistic form of an intellectual judgment, an emotional judgment, or a will expressed by a thinking subject regarding a perception or representation in their mind, while the dictum corresponds to the content A complete absence of modality indicates a judgment of reality, revealing the truth as it exists.
Les travaux dans ce domaine permettent de distinguer deux types de modalité :
The modalities of enunciation highlight the relationships between exchange participants and illustrate their relational characteristics These modalities can take various forms, including interrogative, declarative, and assertive, each playing a crucial role in communication dynamics.
Statements are categorized into two types: logical modalities, which reflect the speaker's stance on truth, falsehood, and likelihood; and evaluative modalities, which express the speaker's subjective judgments regarding emotions such as beauty, sadness, and joy.
In linguistics, the distinction between meaning and sense is closely related to the concepts of enunciation and signification Both enunciation and signification are determined by context, forming what Oswald Ducrot (1984) refers to as the "said." In contrast, enunciation and sense focus solely on the semantic aspects tied to the linguistic components of a statement, representing the "saying." For example, the statement "It's hot here!" conveys meaning in language, illustrating this distinction effectively.
The temperature in our surroundings can convey various meanings depending on the context For instance, saying "It's cold outside" indicates the weather, while "Open the window!" suggests a need for fresh air, and "I don't want to stay here anymore" expresses discomfort with the current environment.
To distinguish between the modalities of enunciation and those of the statement, it is essential to understand that enunciation modalities focus on the act of speaking, while statement modalities pertain to the content being communicated (Nülke, 1993, p.143) In any communication, enunciation modalities influence the participants, whereas statement modalities affect the information conveyed Both types of modalities coexist in discourse, akin to the front and back of a piece of paper; however, a single enunciation modality may be presented in a sentence alongside multiple statement modalities (Meunier).
We will first focus on the modalities of enunciation and provide an overview of the verbal and nominal types and forms of sentences that will be utilized for analyzing our corpus This section will outline the various types of sentences essential for our study.
Dans la suite des travaux de A.-M Diller (1980), Kerbrat-Orecchioni
In 1991, sentences are categorized into three main groups based on their pragmatic functions in discourse: those that describe the world, those that inquire about it, and those that aim to change it These correspond to the three fundamental types of sentences: declarative (assertive), interrogative, and imperative (injunctive) Additionally, a fourth type is often included to express the speaker's strong emotions: the exclamatory type, which encompasses a wide variety of structures.
The declarative or assertive sentence, typically ending with a period, is the most common yet least emotionally charged type of sentence It is primarily used to state facts or provide information, often structured in a canonical form of noun phrase followed by a verb phrase Assertions present a state of affairs as either true or false From a syntactic perspective, these statements include an expressed subject and a verb that carries markers of person and tense.
In French, sentences can be affirmative, such as "He is happy," or negative, which deny something using a negative marker composed of two adverbs, typically "ne pas" or their variants, as in "He is not happy."
Among the four types of sentences, the declarative sentence is regarded as the fundamental sentence model (canonical sentence), while the other forms are considered transformed sentences This is why these three forms can either maintain their structure and forms or be altered by changing the positions of word groups and adding words that indicate their sentence type.
Interrogative sentences are typically categorized into two types: total interrogation (or closed questions), which elicit a response of either "yes" or "no," and partial interrogation (or open questions), which are accompanied by an interrogative word such as Who? What? Which? When? Where? Why? How? How many?
For the speaker, an interrogative sentence serves as a tool for asking questions or making requests, and this initiatory act of language is expected to lead to a response or action Essentially, the speaker seeks information or something specific and anticipates an answer or reaction This act often comes with certain constraints.
According to Maingueneau (ibid., p.48), questioning someone presents them with the choice to respond or not, while also establishing the context in which their reply should be framed.
PRÉSENTATION DU CORPUS
To effectively utilize the analytical tools of discourse analysis (AD) discussed in the theoretical section, we created a table divided into several columns, each representing a specific element We included the corresponding title numbers from the press for easier reference and marked with a cross where each title contains the relevant linguistic tool.
The table provides an overview of the strategies journalists use to craft article headlines; however, it does not definitively indicate which specific techniques are employed Additionally, the corpus is neither exhaustive nor fully representative of all newspapers, though it offers a somewhat better representation of titles within the fashion and gastronomy sectors due to our focused selection in these areas.
The percentages in the last row of the table (Annex 3) reveal current trends in title formation: thematization and nominalization are preferred by 45% of the studied titles, while declarative sentences are used in 73.3% of cases A quick glance at articles from other generalist newspapers shows that these tools are also commonly employed However, among the less frequently used techniques, no titles were found utilizing indirect speech or free indirect speech The reasons for this can be inferred from the theories associated with these forms.
- Le discours indirect donne l‟impression que le titre et son article, prenant plutôt le point de vue du journaliste, ne sont pas neutres Comme nous avons
Choosing an appropriate introductory verb can be challenging due to the context and the speaker's intent In terms of aesthetics, indirect reported speech tends to be longer and stylistically heavier, making it less effective in capturing attention In contrast, the use of direct speech with quotation marks and colons offers a more varied typography, which can engage readers more effectively.
Free indirect discourse is frequently utilized in literature and occasionally appears in newspaper articles, though it is rarely seen in headlines This form of reported speech is considered the most challenging to master One of the titles in our corpus initially seemed to belong to free indirect discourse.
An Argentine in Athens: Here, the crisis is always someone else's fault (No 38) lacks quotation marks around the speech However, as we know, the language of the press is now more liberated and less dependent on traditional grammar rules This is evident in title No 38, where the typography of direct speech quotation marks is not adhered to The omission of these marks may also suggest that the newspaper is adopting the Argentine's statements as its own.
In our analysis of a list of one hundred twenty titles, we uncovered additional linguistic strategies that had not been considered in our theoretical framework This examination of the corpus revealed several new concepts used in the creation of newspaper titles We will present both how the existing tools function and introduce the new insights we have gained.
11 Il en va même en littérature, nombre de romans n‟utilisent plus les guillemets lors des dialogues.
ANALYSE DU CORPUS
The distinction between types of sentences is typically indicated by punctuation marks: a period for declarative sentences, a question mark for inquiries, and an exclamation point for imperative and exclamatory sentences However, these rules are somewhat altered in newspaper article titles.
All titles in the form of declarative sentences, whether canonical, nominal, or direct speech propositions, should never end with a period This rule is part of typographic conventions for titles, as emphasized by J Andrộ: "one does not place a period at the end of a title."
Claude Bartlone avance ses pions sur l’échiquier du Grand Paris (N° 19) Dans les pays riches, des dizaines de millions d’enfants pauvres (N° 68)
La plupart des phrases interrogatives suivent toutes les règles nécessaires de ponctuation et d‟inversion sujet-verbe :
Faudra-t-il nourrir les ours polaires pour sauver l’espèce ? (N° 69)
Pourtant il existe des titres qui ne veulent pas les rétablir, comme l‟exemple de manque de point d‟interrogation :
Comment la forờt mộditerranộenne renaợt de ses cendres (N° 1)
Il y a de même les cas ó les questions finissent par les points de suspension :
L'accord donné par l'Europe à la nomination de l'ancien secrétaire adjoint à la défense américain, Paul Wolfowitz, à la tête de la Banque mondiale constitue-t-il à vos yeux…(N° 5)
To reformulate a question directed at readers, journalists refrain from using an interrogative structure (such as "is it that") and do not alter the order of the subject and verb The outcome is a question that closely resembles the form typically used in spoken language.
Il faut réduire les inégalités ? (N° 48)
One way to pose questions in French is reflected in the titles, where interrogative sentences include one or more infinitive verbs as the sole verbs.
Sauver ou brûler les festivals d’été ?, par Bernard Faivre d’Acier (N° 42)
Elliptical constructions can be understood as instances where a modal auxiliary is absent, with the context providing nuances of obligation or possibility This context also sheds light on the subject's nature—whether it pertains to the speaker, the subject being discussed, or people in general—and situates the action in time, indicating whether it occurs in the past, present, or future.
Dans le cas des titres de journaux, les questions fermées jouent le rôle de non seulement aborder et interroger mais d‟abord d‟affirmer un fait dans l‟article :
Les dinosaures ộtaient-ils ô des amants autant que des guerriers ằ ? (N°
Titles often fulfill their role of brevity by incorporating essential elements without presenting the complete subject-verb-complement structure While the function of each element may not be immediately clear, this does not hinder our understanding; instead, it enhances clarity and directness in communication.
Le travail à perpétuité ? Créativité, flexibilité, mobilité … (N° 31)
Madame Lagarde au FMI : une fausse bonne idée ? (N° 36)
The imperative and exclamatory sentences account for only 11.7% of the total 120 titles in the corpus, with imperatives making up 7.5% and exclamatory sentences 4.2% Similar to interrogative sentences, both of these types are identified by their distinct punctuation.
La thalassothérapie, c’est seulement au bord de la mer ! (N° 40) Fumeurs, allez en Corse ! (N° 55)
Pourtant quelques titres nous font hésiter de leur identification en type de phrase :
Regardons la réalité en face (N° 56)
From a grammatical perspective, there are no exclamation points or verbs conjugated in the imperative mood However, from a discourse analysis standpoint, the absence of a subject in the verb when in the imperative mode must be considered, as noted by Riegel et al (2009, p 665) in the theoretical section.
Among assertive and exclamatory sentences, nominal sentences hold a unique place These verb-less statements are a popular choice for crafting titles for books, meetings, recipes, and even newspaper articles.
Elles sont souvent accompagnées de la thématisation, cela forme un stéréotype de titre de structure : o ô A, A’ ằ ou ô A : A’ ằ comme
Autriche: l’Europe contre Jửrg Haider (N° 22)
Le numérique, une nouvelle chance pour les littéraires (N° 102)
Elle peut avoir plusieurs dộrivations, par exemple celle de ô A, A’, A’’ằ ou ô A : A’: A’’ ằ dans le titre n° 34 :
Claire, 24 ans, neuf stages d’affilée, et rien au bout (N° 101) Alcatel : 1994-2004 : un groupe totalement transformé (N° 34)
In certain instances, the elements A and A' in a structure may appear graphically separated, yet they remain semantically connected The components that lie between A and A' provide additional information about A, and in most cases, they share the same lexical nature.
Tom Waits, la passion animale du blues (N° 41)
Pourtant, il y a aussi des cas ó ils n‟en sont pas
Terence Stamps, fascinant malgré lui (N° 49)
Ou on peut aussi mélanger tous les deux cas
On a trouvé … Patrice Martin, le Petit Prince qui glissait sur l’eau (N° 79)
Une question se pose quand nous trouvons les titres dans lesquels il existe le verbe qui garde la forme infinitive
Courir la nuit, dans la forêt, avec des zombies (N° 97) ô Perdre son temps sur Internet ằ, nouveau cours d’une fac amộricaine (N° 106)
Initially, we believed that they were noun phrases; however, upon reexamining their definition, we found that a noun phrase is constructed without a verb and centers around a noun, leading us to dismiss this hypothesis.
The concept of a "bare sentence" refers to a sentence that lacks a conjugated verb or contains a conjugated verb only in the subject or complement clauses (A Goosse, 1997, p.626) This type of sentence is termed "avverbale." However, sentences with an infinitive as the predicate, such as "Why not go there?" cannot be classified as averbale (ibid, p.626).
In her 2007 article "Les marqueurs de prédication dans la phrase averbale en français," Florence Lefeuvre provides a detailed definition of averbale sentences She describes them as syntactic structures that include a modality—such as assertion, exclamation, interrogation, or injunction—and an averbale predicate, which can be adjectival, substantival, pronominal, adverbial, or prepositional Lefeuvre outlines three possible organizational types: the predicate may be connected to an explicit or implicit subject through modality, or it may simply be established by the modality itself.
We find it acceptable to refer to them as "infinitive phrases." For instance, examples 97 and 106 focus on the verb in the infinitive form, highlighting the actions of "running (at night)" and "donating (time online)."
The classification of modal markers into three types—verbal, adjectival, and adverbial—facilitates their identification in newspaper article titles As shown in Appendix 3, the use of modal modalities in headlines is relatively infrequent, with only twenty-four instances across all three forms.
- Parmi les cent vingt titres d‟article de journaux, nous ne trouvons que six