FONDEMENT THEORIQUE
Concepts des actes de langage
Various concepts surrounding the notion of speech acts have emerged throughout the evolution of linguistics In the early 20th century, linguists began to recognize the pragmatic dimension of language, leading to extensive research on speech acts.
1.1 Concept des actes de langage d’Austin et de Searle
An act of language refers to the method employed by a speaker to influence their environment through words This can involve informing, persuading, requesting, convincing, or making promises, among other communicative actions.
The theory of speech acts was developed by John L Austin (1911-1960) in his seminal work "How to Do Things with Words" (1962), which leads to a comprehensive typology of speech acts and significantly transforms the field of pragmatics.
Austin distingue trois catégories d’actes de langage : L’acte locutoire, l’acte illocutoire et l’acte perlocutoire :
- L’acte locutoire : l’acte de dire quelque chose On lui attribue généralement un sens et on la met en relation avec un référent
Dans cet exemple, il y a seulement l’acte de dire
- L’acte illocutoire : l’acte qui est effectué en disant quelque chose
Ex : Je t’ordonne de me dire la vérité !
Dans cet exemple, la personne produit l’acte d’ordonner en disant
The perlocutionary act refers to the effects one aims to achieve through language, such as persuading, deceiving, influencing, convincing, inciting anger, or instilling fear, which vary depending on the communication context While some acts, like persuasion, are often expressed vocally, others may require different methods to be more effective, such as using visual or emotional cues to evoke fear.
The theory of speech acts challenges the descriptive view of language, which posits that its primary function is to describe reality According to Austin, language also serves to act upon reality From this fundamental idea, Austin differentiates between two types of statements: constative and performative.
A constative statement holds a truth value, meaning it is used to describe the world For example, "The moon orbits the Earth" illustrates this concept Such statements can be either true or false, as in the case where a dog may or may not actually be in front of the house.
A performative statement does not aim to describe reality but rather to accomplish an action, such as "I promise to make an effort." This type of statement cannot be classified as true or false; instead, it is deemed successful or unsuccessful In this example, the statement is successful if it is directed at someone and the recipient understands the message, as well as if there is alignment between what is said and what is done, meaning the speaker follows through on their promise and makes genuine efforts.
During his reflection, Austin discovered that there are implicit performative statements in addition to explicit performative statements For instance, the statement "I will make an effort" can be interpreted as a promise, meaning "I promise to make an effort." Additionally, the statement does not merely report a fact but asserts the reality of that fact.
Il est comparable alors à ô J’affirme que la lune tourne autour de la Terre ằ
In these examples, constative statements also perform speech acts, blurring the line between constative and performative utterances In other words, according to Austin, all statements possess an illocutionary force.
Il propose donc une classification des valeurs illocutoires :
- Les ô verdictifs ằ : prononcer un jugement
Ex : condamner, calculer, évaluer, caractériser…
- Les ô exercitifs ằ : formuler une dộcision à l’encontre d’une suite d’actions
Ex : ordonner, commander, conseiller, proclamer…
- Les ô promissifs ằ : obliger les locuteurs à suivre une suite d’actions dộterminộe : promettre, faire le vœu de, garantir…
- Les ô expositifs ằ : Exposer des conceptions, conduire une argumentation, clarifier l’emploi des mots
Ex : affirmer, expliquer, exemplifier, paraphraser…
- Les ô comportatifs ằ : Des rộactions face aux comportements des autres et aux événements qui les concernent
Ex : remercier, féliciter, s’excuser, souhaiter, reprocher…
Building on J.L Austin's theory of speech acts, John R Searle authored an essay titled "Speech Acts," in which he asserts that speaking a language involves performing various speech acts, such as making assertions, giving orders, asking questions, and making promises He emphasizes that these acts are generally made possible by specific rules governing the use of linguistic elements, and they are realized in accordance with these rules In other words, this theory highlights that an individual can communicate with the intention of accomplishing something rather than merely conveying information.
Ensuite, dans le prolongement d’Austin, Searle distingue cinq catégories générales d’actes illocutoires : les assertifs, les directifs, les promissifs, les expressifs, les déclaratifs
- Les assertifs engagent le locuteur sur la vérité de la proposition exprimée
- Les directifs correspondent à la tentative de la part du locuteur d’obtenir quelque chose de son destinataire
- Les promissifs obligent le locuteur à adopter une certaine conduite future
- Les expressifs expriment l’état psychologique du locuteur
Ex : l’acte de reproche pour exprimer le mécontentement du locuteur face à un acte ou un comportement de l’interlocuteur
- Les déclaratifs accomplissent et garantissent que leur contenus correspondent au monde
According to Searle, there are two fundamental ways to examine the relationship between statements and the world One approach focuses on the illocutionary goal of certain utterances, which is to ensure that the words (specifically their propositional content) align with reality The other approach aims to make the world conform to the words In essence, a statement can either "speak truth" about the world or "render" a state of the world as true In other words, a statement must either correspond to reality, or reality must conform to what is being said.
1.2 Concept des actes de langage de C Kerbrat-Orecchioni
In the Austinian-Searlean perspective, speech acts are examined in an abstract and isolated manner, detached from their contextual realization However, C Kerbrat-Orecchioni situates these acts within the context of verbal interaction sequences, emphasizing the pragmatics involved She argues that speech acts are too complex to be confined to a single theoretical framework.
Since the advancements made by interactionist pragmatics, the concept of speech acts has evolved to become more complex, accurate, and reflective of pragmatic reality In interactions, it is essential to continuously identify, define, and redefine speech acts, as the objects of discourse have expanded beyond merely describing the world.
C.Kerbrat-Orecchioni pose donc l’idée fondamentale de la théorie des actes de langage : ô tous les ộnoncộes possốdent intrinsốquement une valeur d’acte ằ (Kerbrat- Orecchioni 2001 : 21‒22) et elle considère l’acte de langage comme l’unité minimale de la grammaire qui porte une certaine valeur illocutoire (ou force illocutionnaire).
Réalisation des actes de langage
There are various ways to perform a speech act, and a single structure can convey multiple illocutionary values In her work "Speech Acts in Discourse," C Kerbrat-Orecchioni offers two definitions of a speech act: one suggests that "saying is doing several things at once" (Kerbrat-Orecchioni, 2001: 22), indicating that the same utterance can express multiple acts The second definition states that "saying is doing one thing under the guise of another," meaning a speech act can be formulated indirectly, disguised as another act This concept is further developed through the distinction between direct and indirect realizations, which can be identified through various prosodic, lexical, syntactic markers, and specific codes.
L’acte de langage est formulé directement quand le locuteur énonce une phrase en voulant dire exactement et explicitement ce qu’il dit
En général, la réalisation des actes de langage directs est produite grâce à des verbes performatifs ou des formes de phrase
Ex : ô Je te promets de t’offrir un cadeau ằ ô Je te conseille de ne pas fumer ằ
In these examples, the acts of "promise" and "advise" are only fulfilled when the statements are made One cannot simply say "I promise" without actually making a promise The verbs "to promise" and "to advise" are considered performative verbs A verb is not inherently performative; it only becomes so under specific conditions of use.
Additionally, it should be employed in the first person present indicative, making it easy to recognize the pragmatic status of the statement However, this direct form of expression is rarely used, as noted by C Kerbrat-Orecchioni in her book "Speech Acts in Discourse."
Performative formulations are the clearest means for a speaker to specify the pragmatic status of their statement However, these formulations are not available for all speech acts and are relatively rare in usage.
Il existe d’autre manière de réaliser un acte de langage explicitement sans utiliser les verbes performatif Examinons ces exemples : ô Efface le tableau ! ằ (1) ô Veux-tu sortir avec moi ce soir ? ằ (2)
In these sentences, actions are expressed without being explicitly named Statement (1) conveys a command without using the verb "to order," while statement (2) extends an invitation without employing the verb "to invite." In fact, a speech act can be carried out using various formulations.
- L’infinitif prescriptif : ô Eteindre la lumiốre avant de partir ằ
- Les tournures elliptiques : ô Deux demi ! ằ
- Certaines tournures dộclaratives : ô Je voudrais que tu sortes ằ, ô il faut que tu sortes ằ
However, there are instances where a single statement can carry multiple meanings For example, a declarative sentence like "It’s bad weather" can be interpreted as a refusal or a warning In such cases, these actions are conveyed indirectly.
According to C Kerbrat-Orecchioni, speech acts can serve multiple purposes simultaneously, and a single statement can convey various illocutionary values Conversely, one act can be expressed in different ways For instance, the statement "The sky is gray" can imply a refusal ("I don't want to go out"), a warning ("So, bring the umbrella!"), or simply an assertion ("It's going to rain") These meanings can even overlap Statements like "I have things to do," "I'm not available," "The weather is bad today," and "No questions!" can be seen as equivalent in certain contexts In essence, indirect speech acts are expressions that communicate one idea while implying another.
There are two types of indirect formulations: conventional and non-conventional indirect formulations Conventional indirect speech acts are socially recognized discourse acts, while non-conventional indirect speech acts rely on context for interpretation For example, the statement "Can you close the door?" is typically understood as a request, often reinforced by a marker like "please" to emphasize its requestive nature, making it a conventional act Conversely, non-conventional indirect speech acts lack clear indicators; for instance, the statement "It's cold" is an assertion that may imply a request under certain circumstances, depending on the situational context.
Indirect speech acts generally involve asserting or questioning the conditions for the success of the act in question For example, the statement "Can you close the door?" focuses on the recipient's ability to fulfill the request, while "It's cold" pertains to the state of affairs at the time of utterance In addition to the various ways of realization, speech acts are influenced by several factors, which we will explore in the following section.
Facteurs d’influence des actes de langage
Austin and Searle's research focuses on speech acts in isolation from context, yet these acts are inherently tied to specific communication situations The context influences the speaker's choice of discussion topics, forms of address, and language level Additionally, it aids the listener in interpreting, particularly when it comes to implicit speech acts.
Le contexte comprend trois éléments : le cadre spatio-temporel, le but et les participants
- Le cadre spatial englobe tous les caractéristiques du lieu ó a lieu l’interaction, les situations sociales et institutionnelles
- Le cadre temporel est le moment de l’interaction et joue un rôle décisif dans la réussite d’un acte de langage
In certain cases, the context of a conversation is closely tied to its spatial and temporal framework, with the choice of location and timing reflecting the speakers' objectives However, there are instances where the purpose of the conversation and the spatial-temporal context operate independently of each other.
When initiating a conversation, the speaker typically has an overarching goal in mind To achieve this goal, they must articulate a series of speech acts that align with more specific objectives.
Les participants jouent le rôle décisif dans la réussite des actes de langage On peut les classifier selon les critères suivants :
- Leurs caractéristiques individuelles : âge, sexe, appartenance ethnique…
- Leurs caractéristiques sociales : statut social, profession,…
- Leurs caractéristiques psychologiques : caractère, état d’âme
- Leurs relations mutuelles, y compris le degré de connaissance, type de lien (amical, familial ou professionnel) et l’affectif (sympathie ou antipathie, amitié, amour )
- Leurs nombres : 2 personnes (dialogue), 3 personnes (trilogue), plus de 3 personnes (polylogue)…
According to W Labov and D Fanshel (Kerbrat-Orecchioni, 1996: 41), interaction is an action that influences the relationships between oneself and others in face-to-face communication This implies that there is always a certain type of relationship among interactants that determines how interlocutors communicate In her research, Kerbrat-Orecchioni (1992) categorizes interpersonal relationships into two main axes: the horizontal axis and the vertical axis.
The horizontal axis represents the close/intimate or distant relationship expressed by speakers during an interaction The state of this horizontal relationship is influenced by both external and internal characteristics of the interaction External factors refer to contextual data at the onset of the interaction, such as the degree of familiarity between participants, the nature of their socio-affective bond, and the formality of the communication situation Internal factors encompass verbal, paraverbal, or non-verbal cues produced throughout the interaction.
Interactions are generally influenced by external factors, but horizontal relationships can also be negotiable, often explicitly or implicitly, to foster gradual closeness through internal markers known as relational markers These markers vary widely and can be categorized into different types: verbal (such as terms of address, topics of conversation, and language levels), paraverbal (including articulation intensity, voice tone, and speech overlaps), and non-verbal (encompassing spatial distance, gestures, and the positioning of the interactants).
Horizontal relationships are generally symmetrical, but asymmetry occurs when the parties involved have differing intentions regarding the development of their relationship This imbalance is often influenced by the existing hierarchy between the participants.
The vertical relationship, also known as the hierarchical relationship, illustrates the inequality between participants In this dynamic, one individual holds a superior or dominant position, while the other occupies an inferior or subordinate role Unlike horizontal relationships, vertical relationships are primarily asymmetrical, as the subordinate consistently seeks to resist and restore equality.
The hierarchical relationship is influenced by both external and internal characteristics External factors include contextual data such as age, gender, social status, and physical strength Internal factors manifest as vertical relational structures, distinguishing between high and low positional taxonomies These markers can be verbal, including terms of address, speech acts, turn-taking organization, topics discussed, vocabulary used, and the interpretation of interactions They can also be para-verbal, such as the tone and vocal intensity of participants, as well as non-verbal cues like clothing, physical appearance, posture, eye contact, and gestures.
Politeness can be examined from two perspectives: commonly, it is seen as a set of rules governing social behavior, akin to decorum In contrast, pragmatics, which typically focuses on linguistic aspects, views politeness as a collection of conversational strategies In our research on speech acts, we specifically focus on linguistic politeness.
La politesse linguistique est un domaine de recherche relativement récent Les linguistes commencent à étudier la politesse dans la conversation dans les années 70
H P Grice est considéré comme le pionnier dans la recherche sur les conversations linguistique avec son ô principe de coopộration ằ dans lequel il a mis l’accent sur la relation très stricte entre la contribution des interactants et la quantité, la qualité des informations, la pertinence du discours ainsi que la manière dont on transmettre nos messages Il affirme que ô nos ộchanges de paroles sont le rộsultat, jusqu’à un certain point au moins, d’efforts de coopộration ằ et nous pourrons alors ô formuler en première approximation un principe général qu’on s’attendra à voir respecté par tous les participants : que votre contribution conversationnelle corresponde à ce qui est exigé de vous, au stade atteint par celle-ci, par le but ou la direction acceptés de l’ộchange parlộ dans lequel vous ờtes engagộ ằ (H P GRICE, 1979 : 60-61) En suivant ce principe de Grice, R Lakoff a introduit la notion de ô politesse ằ Pour elle, la communication humaine a deux fonctions majeures : transmettre les informations et établir, maintenir la relation interpersonnelle La deuxième fonction dépend fortement de la politesse: “Politeness is a system of interpersonal relations designed to facilitate interaction by minimizing the potential for conflict and confrontation inherent in all human interchange” (R Lakoff, 1990 : 34) Ainsi, la politesse a pour fonction de minimiser le risque de conflit et de confrontation inhérente à tous les échanges humains pour faciliter l’interaction Après Lakoff, plusieurs linguistes ont cherché à cultiver sur ce nouveau champ Parmi eux, les réalisations les plus remarquables sont venues d’E Goffman, P Brown et Levinson et C Kerbrat-Orecchioni qui, au fil du temps, ont créé de nouvelles notions afin de clarifier le concept de politesse linguistique
3.3.1 E Goffman, la face, le territoire du moi et les figurations
According to Goffman, social interaction resembles a theatrical performance where participants act to maintain and enhance the façade of their character The concept of "face" represents the positive social value an individual claims during interactions, shaped by the actions others believe they have taken in a specific context Goffman emphasizes that a person's social face is often their most valuable asset and a source of comfort.
13) Chaque individu a donc toujours besoin de valoriser ses points forts, cacher ses points faibles et construire une image de lui-même telle que les autres attendent de lui
Opposing the concept of "face," Goffman introduced the idea of "territory of the self," which encompasses an individual's personal attributes and their physical, material, spatial, and emotional extensions In his work "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Volume II: Relations in Public" (1973), the sociolinguist identified eight categories of "territory."
L’espace personnel dộsigne l’espace autour d’un individu, son propre rộgion ô ú toute pộnộtration est ressentie comme un empiốtement ằ
La place est l’espace dộlimitộ auquel on peut avoir droit et qui ô fixe et articule les revendications spatiales ằ
L’espace utile ou l’espace relatif aux besoins matériels évidents
Le tour signifie l’ordre dans lequel une personne a droit à un bien
L’enveloppe indique la peau ou les vêtements qui recouvrent notre corps
Le territoire de la possession représente l’ensemble d’objet identifiables à nous et disposés autour de notre corps
Les réserves d’information englobent les faits qui nous concernent et que nous voulons garder le contrôle
Les domaines réservés de la conversation montre le droit de l’individu de contrôler sur qui peut lui adresser la parole et quand
Each individual possesses their own "face" and territory that they seek to preserve in conversations To facilitate interaction while minimizing risks to their own face and that of their interlocutor, participants must master specific rituals As Goffman noted, the combined effect of self-esteem and consideration rules leads individuals to behave in ways that protect both their own face and that of others Therefore, it is essential to employ various strategies, referred to by Goffman as "face work," which adhere to two sets of face management principles: self-esteem rules that encourage self-love and rules that promote consideration for the interlocutor These strategies help prevent face-threatening situations, avoid risks through tactful actions, or repair inevitable incidents.
Ces notions du sociolinguiste américain ont donné l’inspiration à Brown et Levinson qui, dans les années qui suivent, a continué à développer la théorie de politesse
3.3.2 Modèle de politesse de Brown et Levinson
Building on Goffman's concept of face, Brown and Levinson (1987: 65-67) expanded the theory of politeness by introducing new ideas such as positive and negative faces, as well as face-threatening acts (FTAs) and the desire for face.
L’acte de reproche
The term "reproach" originates from the transitive verb "to reproach," which, according to http://www.lerobert.com/, means to hold someone accountable for a condemnable or unfortunate action Reproach is defined as a blame directed at an individual, reflecting a negative judgment on a specific matter, intended to evoke feelings of shame or regret, and aimed at encouraging correction or improvement.
A reproach is a statement made to someone to express dissatisfaction or disapproval regarding their behavior or to critique something.
The term "reproach" is a masculine noun that signifies a severe blame or an admonition directed at someone, intended to instill shame and encourage self-correction.
Reproach typically involves a negative judgment directed at the interlocutor, which can pertain to a person, an object, or a specific issue for which they are responsible The primary aim of reproach is to evoke feelings of shame and regret, encouraging the interlocutor to amend their behavior Additionally, reproach serves as a means for the speaker to articulate their dissatisfaction.
4.2.1 Le reproche dans les classifications des chercheurs
According to Austin, a reproach is an illocutionary act that holds a behavioral value, expressing reactions to the actions of others Thus, a reproach serves as a reactive act from the speaker, responding to specific actions or behaviors exhibited by the interlocutor.
According to Searle's classification of the five categories of illocutionary acts, a reproach falls under the category of "expressives," which are used to convey the speaker's psychological state, specifically in this case, the speaker's dissatisfaction or displeasure.
In his book "Speech Acts," Vanderveken develops illocutionary trees to categorize and differentiate illocutionary verbs Each branch of the tree features verbs arranged sequentially, where one verb's illocutionary force can be derived from another by adding new components or increasing its intensity Notably, the verb "to reproach" is absent from his classifications, while its synonym "to blame" is included in the illocutionary tree of assertive-type verbs.
In the tree of assertive verbs, terms such as "criticize," "blame," "accuse," "denounce," and "rebuke" share a common branch, indicating their closely related meanings "Blame" is defined as the act of criticizing someone by asserting their responsibility or guilt for something (Daniel Vanderveken, Speech Acts, p 173) The key distinction between criticizing and blaming is that criticism can target an object, while blame is directed at a person Additionally, the difference between blaming and accusing lies in the context; an accusation is made publicly, whereas blame can be expressed privately.
A Doctor of Philosophy from the Catholic University of Louvain, who co-founded the logic of silent acts with John Searle, highlights the distinction between reprimanding and blaming, emphasizing that reprimanding involves invoking a position of authority.
The focus of criticism often revolves around the interests of the participants involved In some instances, one person may criticize another to serve their own interests, essentially to enhance their own image Alternatively, the intent behind the criticism may be to benefit the recipient of the criticism There are also situations where criticism is expressed for the collective interest of all parties involved in the interaction.
When the speaker negatively evaluates the words, actions, or attitudes of the listener, they elevate themselves above the listener If the listener acknowledges their mistake and offers an apology, it reinforces the speaker's position This enhances the speaker's positive face Furthermore, if the listener's initiative threatens the speaker's personal space, the reproach can serve to protect the speaker's negative face by halting the perceived intrusion.
For the listener, acknowledging a valid criticism allows them to recognize their mistake and make necessary corrections, helping to prevent similar errors in the future In other words, this acknowledgment can shield them from future reproaches Although the speaker's criticism may seem threatening to the listener's self-image in the present, it ultimately serves to protect their reputation in the long run.
Le reproche n’est pas un acte initiatif mais un acte réactif à un certain acte de l’allocutaire Ce dernier peut être une action, une attitude ou une parole défavorable
In general, one person blames another for failing to perform an action or for performing it poorly This blame can stem from two main types of unfulfilled actions: explicit conventions that have been violated, such as a promised action that was not completed or a breached contract, and implicit conventions that have not been respected, like social norms that have been ignored Additionally, poorly executed actions can also be categorized into two subtypes: those that are either poorly aligned or not aligned with the conventions between the interacting parties, and those that do not conform to social norms.
- Attitude : Habituellement, les attitudes appartiennent à ceux qui enfreignent la morale ou les normes sociales
- Parole : le contenu de la parole d’une personne peut menacer les faces de son allocutaire Les paroles reprochées peuvent être produites consciemment ou inconsciemment
Nous distinguons trois types de reproche : reproche explicite, reproche implicite et reproche mixte :
- Reproche explicite : le locuteur exprime son mécontentement, désigne la faute de son allocutaire, lui reproche explicitement L’allocutaire peut reconnaợtre le reproche facilement
Implicit reproach refers to the idea of criticism that is concealed within other forms of language, such as questions, commands, exclamations, or calls In some instances, this reproach becomes more subtle and challenging to identify.
The mixed reproach occurs in dialogues involving three or more participants, where the criticism can be explicit for one interlocutor while remaining implicit for another.
4.2.2.4 Reproche et les relations interpersonnelles
Préliminaire
1.1 Choix de la méthode de collecte des données
For our research, we opted to utilize a pre-existing corpus derived from the works of well-known authors in French literature Acknowledging the significance of authentic verbal interactions in the study of speech acts, we deliberated extensively before selecting this literary corpus.
Initially, we considered recording interactions to ensure their authenticity However, covert recording is impractical, as we cannot predict when participants will express grievances, and it is impossible to capture entire conversations Additionally, informing participants about the recording would compromise authenticity, particularly in conflict situations where grievances typically arise Participants might avoid sharing complaints or refuse to allow their conversations to be recorded Moreover, this recording method would require extensive transcription work, making our efforts inefficient and unproductive.
Research on television broadcasts raises concerns about the effectiveness and authenticity of data Typically, when in front of an audience, individuals strive to avoid exhibiting threatening behaviors towards others Furthermore, the authenticity of conversations is not guaranteed, as the content of these shows is heavily controlled, preventing guests from expressing their true thoughts.
Compiling dialogues from television films initially appears to be an achievable task, as numerous French films are readily available online However, the transcription of these dialogues can prove to be quite challenging.
Nous avons choisi enfin le corpus littéraire pour les raisons suivantes :
According to C Kerbrat-Orecchioni, a literary corpus is immediately accessible and virtually inexhaustible (C Kerbrat-Orecchioni 1990:72-73) We can borrow French works from university libraries, which enhances our research capabilities Additionally, utilizing a literary corpus saves time, as it eliminates the need to transcribe dialogues.
- Quand nous avons collecté des nouvelles, la recherche des actes de reproche est tout à fait faisable
C Kerbrat-Orecchioni argued that the use of literary corpus is legitimate because literature serves as a magnifying mirror of ordinary conversation, condensing relevant facts with increased simplicity and clarity This allows conversational analysis to benefit from these very characteristics, providing ample material for reflection In other words, literature is a reproduction, imitation, or simulation of authentic dialogue, as noted by V Traverso Therefore, the authenticity of literary dialogues is assured, and numerous accepted studies are conducted using literary corpus.
Pourtant, le corpus littéraire possède aussi des points limites :
We may not always identify units of critique at the level of sequence; instead, they can sometimes be found at the levels of interaction or exchange This variation depends on the author's literary intent and style.
Examples found are not always typical; a statement can serve as both a reproach and an order or request simultaneously Moreover, the notion of reproach is not always clear-cut.
Our research focuses on a corpus of 140 instances of reproaches identified within the dialogues of contemporary French short stories, spanning a time frame from 1910 to 2012.
- 6 nouvelles dans le recueil Les rustiques – Nouvelles villageoises (1921) de Louis Pergaud : o La chute o Joséphine est enceinte o L’évation de Kinkin o Le retour o Un sauvetage o Un renseilgnement précis
Didier Daeninckx's 1994 collection "Main courante et Autres lieux" features six compelling short stories: "Le jeu-mystère," "Le reflet," "Confidences," "La carte imaginaire," "Le partage des tâches," and "Ce sont nos ennemis qui marchent à notre tête." Each narrative explores profound themes, showcasing Daeninckx's unique storytelling style and his ability to engage readers with thought-provoking content.
- 2 nouvelles dans le recueil Je voudrais que quelqu’un m’attendre quelque part
- 2 nouvelles dans le recueil Des petites vies (2012) de Mathilde Levallois-Perret o Comme dans la vraie vie o En-vie
- 6 nouvelles collectées dans 2 recueils La chambre éclairée et Gigi de Sidonie- Gabrielle Colette o En baie de somme o Fantômes o Bel-Gazou et le cinéma o Le ô maợtre ằ o Plomberie et gaz o Gigi
- 1 nouvelle de Maurice Leblanc o Le cabauchon d’émeraude (1930)
- 2 nouvelles dans le recueil L’enfant prodigue d’André Gide o La réprimande du père o La rộprimande du frốre aợnộ
- 6 nouvelles dans le recueil Les portes de l’enfer (1910) de Maurice Level o Soleil o Le coq chanta o Un piquet ? o Le coupable o Confrontation
The collection "Histoires d’enfance," created by the association Sol En Si (Solidarité Enfant Sida) in 1994, features four short stories by various French authors These include "La boîte à bisous" by Pascal Bruckner, "La nuit où Zoé retint son souffle" by Yann Queffélec, "La déesse dans l’arbre" by Christian Jacq, and "Armel et Styx" by Michel des Castillo.
- 2 nouvelles du recueil Petit éloge des faits divers (2008) de Didier Deaninckx : o Douche France… o Profession de foi
- 3 nouvelles du recueil Passer l’hiver (2004) d’Olivier Adam o De retour o En douce o Pialat est mort
- 1 nouvelle du recueil Les linottes (1912) o Les linottes I
We select works from well-known authors of contemporary French literature, including Didier Daeninckx (winner of the Prix Goncourt for short stories in 2012), Anna Gavalda (recipient of the Grand Prix RTL-Lire in 2000), Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette (the second woman elected to the Académie Goncourt in 1945), André Gide (Nobel Prize in Literature in 1947), and Louis Émile Vincent Pergaud (Prix Goncourt winner in 1910) Additionally, to ensure a representative dataset, we also examine short stories from various other French authors.
The selected works are contemporary and explore various aspects of human life We focus on short stories rich in verbal interactions Additionally, to streamline our data collection on the act of reproach, we prioritize stories featuring multiple conflicts between characters, as these scenarios often highlight instances of blame.
The characters in the selected short stories represent a diverse range of ages and social classes Their relationships vary widely, including friendships, romantic connections, colleague interactions, buyer-seller dynamics, and parent-child roles This variety allows us to observe numerous ways of expressing reproach, utilizing different politeness strategies.
In this study, we will describe and analyze the manifestation of politeness strategies in statements of reproach Based on our analyses, we will synthesize the findings and ultimately compare the results with the proposed hypothesis.
Nous suivrons donc la démarche : catégorisation, statistique, description, analyse et synthèse
Dans notre recherche, nous analyserons les facteurs Pouvoir (P), Distance (D) et Légitimité (L) en relation avec la présence ou l’absence des Procédés de politesse (PP)
Manifestation de la politesse verbale dans la formulation du reproche,
3 Cette partie de la recherche est consacrée à l’analyse les procédés utilisés pour exprimer la politesse dans les reproches et les réactions des interlocuteurs face aux reproches avec et sans procédé de politesse
The concept of reproach serves to express the speaker's dissatisfaction and instill feelings of shame or regret in the listener, prompting them to amend their behavior As a face-threatening act (FTA), reproach can jeopardize the social standing of both parties involved Therefore, it is essential to employ negative politeness strategies to mitigate and soften these FTAs This article will explore various "softeners," including substitutive and accompanying strategies, to effectively convey reproach while maintaining politeness.
3.1 Procédés substitutifs a Le ô vous ằ de politesse :
The use of the polite "you" is one of the most common techniques employed in expressions of reproach An example of this can be found in Pascal Bruckner's short story "The Kiss Box."
Contexte : L’homme (L2), (encore une fois) grimpe sur un arbre dans un parc Un agent de police (L1) l’aperỗoit
E1 L1 Encore vous ! [ ] Hier vous jouiez à l’exhibitionniste, aujourd’hui vous faites le singe dans les parcs Vous allez me payer ỗa !
In this story, the police officer and the man are strangers The officer adheres to the fundamental norms of French society by using formal language when addressing the man, even while reprimanding him The use of the pronoun "on" highlights the social dynamics at play.
Nous trouvons un exemple dans la nouvelle Un piquet de Maurice Level dans lequel on utilise le pronom ô on ằ comme procộdộ de politesse :
Contexte : Ranaille est condamné à mort (L1) Dans la prison, il joue aux cartes avec son gardien (L2) Un jour, il perd
E1 L1 On ne doit pas compter comme ỗa ! Ce n’est pas loyal !
In this story, Ranaille is a death row inmate grappling with immense stress due to his sentence He struggles to accept his defeat in a game and indirectly blames his guard for cheating, utilizing a personal pronoun to express his frustration Instead of directly accusing him, he opts for a more polite approach, possibly out of respect for his guard's authority or an understanding that the guard is not at fault This indirect expression of reproach serves as a means for Ranaille to alleviate his own stress.
Indirect formulation, such as the use of polite expressions, is commonly found in statements of reproach where the speaker aims to convey politeness This is exemplified in Yann Queffélec's story "La nuit," where the character Zoé holds her breath, highlighting the nuanced communication style.
Contexte : Le mari (L1) utilise le langage vulgaire pour parler aux enfants La femme (L2) n’est pas contente
Despite my recent work being rejected by our American partners, it's not a loss of skill that troubles me but rather a loss of faith in humanity I see a world where people exploit, automate, alienate, and poison one another—taking advantage of the vulnerable and leading us only towards war, hospitals, banks, and waste.
E3 L1 Pardon les enfants, je voulais dire : aux toilettes…
In this scene, the parents are in front of their children, and the father has just used vulgar language while speaking to them The mother aims to address this issue without directly confronting her husband, as she wants to maintain his positive image Instead of making a serious accusation, she simply calls out his name to subtly indicate that he has made a mistake, opting for a gentle reminder rather than a harsh reprimand.
Alors, comme procédés substitutifs, nous apercevons 3 procédés :
- Le pronom ô on ằ : 2 fois/70 ộnoncộs de reproche
- Le ô vous ằ de politesse : 31 fois/ 70 ộnoncộs de reproche
The indirect formulation of reproach is the most commonly used method, accounting for 50 out of 70 statements of reproach Following this, polite expressions are also prevalent, while the use of the pronoun "we" is significantly less frequent.
3.2 Procédés accompagnateurs : a La formule ô s’il te/vous plaợt ằ :
The phrase "ô s’il te/vous plaît" serves as a polite expression in the context of making a reproach, allowing the speaker to issue a request or command gently This is exemplified in Yann Queffélec's novel "La nuit," where the character Zoé holds her breath, highlighting the tension between politeness and criticism in communication.
Contexte : Le fils (Ll) demande à la mère (L2) quand elle est en train de parler à son mari
E2 L2 Zoé ! Ton père me parle…
E4 L2 Ne discute pas s’il te plaợt
In statement E2, the mother seeks to soften her son's perceived threat by using indirect language instead of directly saying, "You are bothering me!" Subsequently, the son attempts to persuade his mother and continues the conversation, which prompts another complaint from her To mitigate the reproach affecting her son's positive face, she employs the phrase "please." Furthermore, by asking him to stop discussing, she indirectly criticizes his disobedience, presenting it as a request rather than a direct reproach Additionally, the expression "I ask you" serves to further soften her message.
The phrase "I beg you" serves as a gentle reproach, softening the impact of a threat on the listener's face, akin to a subtle request for acknowledgment and correction of a mistake This usage is exemplified in the exchange from Yann Queffélec's story "The Night Zoé Held Her Breath."
Contexte : Le mari (L2) n’aime pas ses enfants et les considère comme des fardeaux
La femme (L1), n’est pas d’accord avec lui
E1 L1 : Je t’en prie, Rob, tu es odieux
E2 L2 : Pourtant le docteur a bien dit…
The woman seeks to maintain her partner's respect by using the phrase "oh, I beg you" alongside her criticism This approach serves to soften her reproach, gently urging her husband to correct his behavior by refraining from speaking negatively about their children.
In a statement, the disarmer is often positioned before the reproach to prepare the listener for the unpleasant content that follows This approach helps the listener brace themselves emotionally to avoid shock, while the speaker can slightly mitigate the threat posed by the criticism An example of this can be found in Louis Pergaud's short story "The Escape of Kinkin."
Kinkin, engaged in illegal activities such as smuggling and poaching, traveled to the small Swiss village of Les Brenets to acquire a load of tobacco During his journey, he was apprehended by two customs officers While being transported to the cantonal headquarters, Kinkin attempted to escape.