Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
―I’m sure that I have seen this word before but…I do not remember its meaning Sorry teacher.‖
To effectively learn vocabulary and retain word meanings, it's essential to employ various techniques Regular practice through reading, writing, and speaking can reinforce memory Additionally, using flashcards, engaging in word games, and incorporating new words into daily conversations can enhance retention Consistent review and contextual usage of vocabulary will further solidify understanding and recall.
Initially, I could easily remember all the words you taught us, but after a few days, recalling their meanings has become challenging, even though they still seem familiar.
“I can’t remember all things about a word, like how to pronounce it, whether it is a verb or a noun, when I can use it…”
“Teacher, how can I remember the words that I have learnt?”
Students often express their frustration with learning new vocabulary, despite understanding its importance This is evident in their confusing expressions while speaking English, their gestures of scratching their heads when encountering unfamiliar words, and their low scores on vocabulary tests Consequently, a pressing question arises for English teachers, including myself: "How can we effectively help students retain vocabulary?"
As a student, I often struggled with remembering vocabulary, easily grasping meanings and pronunciations but quickly forgetting them, which negatively impacted my reading comprehension and class presentations A turning point in my learning occurred when my teacher illustrated the word "embarrassed" by asking us to imagine spilling coffee on an important person's clothes, effectively conveying the emotion associated with the word This simple yet powerful method of association helped me retain the word for life Inspired by this experience, I pursued further studies in vocabulary and vocabulary learning after becoming an English teacher.
Vocabulary plays an important part in language learning as Schmitt (2010) stated,
Mastering a second language requires a strong vocabulary foundation, as emphasized by McCarthy (1990), who noted that without words, effective communication is impossible Learners often struggle with English communication due to a lack of essential vocabulary, which can hinder their reading, listening, speaking, writing, and grammatical skills Thus, vocabulary acquisition is a crucial step in second language learning However, merely learning vocabulary is insufficient; students must also develop effective strategies for remembering and recalling words when needed, which involves deep processing of information.
The study of Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) has garnered significant interest from psychologists, linguists, and language educators over the years Numerous researchers have explored the effectiveness of these strategies in vocabulary acquisition, aiming to establish a comprehensive framework for categorizing VLS Notable contributions to this field include the works of O'Malley and Chamot (1990), Oxford (1990), Stoffer (1995), Gu and Johnson (1996), Schmitt (1997), and Nation (2001).
At the University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, vocabulary learning and teaching are often overlooked, with vocabulary frequently integrated into other communicative skills Consequently, the responsibility for vocabulary acquisition falls primarily on students Additionally, there appears to be a decline in research interest in this area among both university staff and students (Ngo, 2009, p ).
The author highlighted a concerning trend in post-graduate research, noting that research papers on vocabulary in English were notably scarce in the library He presented alarming statistics to illustrate this decline, revealing that the number of graduation papers focused on vocabulary plummeted from 9 in 1998 to just 4 in 1999, and further dwindled to only 1 paper in both 2002 and 2003.
In 2009, he conducted a study titled "Vocabulary Level and Vocabulary Strategies of ULIS First Year Mainstream English Majors," focusing on the vocabulary proficiency of first-year English majors The research aimed to identify the vocabulary levels of these students, the strategies they employed for vocabulary acquisition, and the challenges they faced in utilizing effective vocabulary learning strategies.
This research focused on implementing specific strategies for vocabulary learning and evaluating their effectiveness, rather than attempting to address gaps in previous scholars' vocabulary learning strategy (VLS) systems or assessing students' vocabulary levels and the number of strategies they employ.
In conclusion, based on my personal experiences and observations in the classroom, as well as the significant challenges I faced while studying Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) at my university, I am committed to dedicating my time and efforts to my thesis titled “Improving English Vocabulary Retention by Using Memory Strategies - An Action Research.” This research aims to address the crucial question of how to enhance vocabulary retention among my students effectively.
Aims of the study and research questions
The study focused on identifying vocabulary challenges faced by students and aimed to enhance vocabulary retention through effective memory strategies such as grouping, associating, using imagery, and contextualizing new words Additionally, it sought to assess the students' mastery of these memory techniques and determine which strategy was most frequently utilized Finally, the research gathered students' attitudes towards the overall strategy training and the specific memory techniques, along with their suggestions for improving future teaching and learning programs.
In short, the study was conducted to answer the four following research questions:
1 What are the problems that the students encounter in their independent vocabulary learning?
2 How does learning the 4 sub-memory strategies help to improve students' vocabulary retention?
3 How much do the students obtain the memory strategies learned in their independent learning?
4 What are the students’ attitudes towards teaching and learning the 4 sub- memory strategies and their suggestions for future teaching and learning program?
Significance of the study
While not the first study on learning memory strategies for vocabulary retention, this research offers significant advantages for English learners, particularly those preparing for the TOEIC exam, as well as their educators and researchers interested in this area.
The research aimed to provide students with an innovative approach to vocabulary learning, moving away from the conventional method of memorizing lists of words The study's recommendations are designed to assist students in overcoming vocabulary challenges for the upcoming TOEIC Test while also enhancing their lifelong vocabulary acquisition, as vocabulary learning is an ongoing process that continues beyond the mastery of grammar (Thornbury, 2002, p 160).
TOEIC instructors and English vocabulary teachers can utilize the findings of this study as a valuable resource to enhance their strategies for facilitating students' vocabulary expansion.
This study serves as a valuable resource for researchers interested in vocabulary, providing a comprehensive literature review and a solid reference for future work in the field.
Scope of the study
This study involved nine students aged 20 to 22 from various universities in Hanoi, who participated in a TOEIC class At the start of the course, these students had limited knowledge of the TOEIC test, with initial scores ranging between 220 and 395.
According to Oxford's (1990) classification of learning strategies, this thesis introduces four specific memory techniques: grouping, associating, using imagery, and contextualizing new words By implementing these strategies, the teacher-researcher aims to enhance vocabulary learning and provide innovative and effective methods for her students.
This thesis utilizes vocabulary from "600 Essential Words for the TOEIC" by Lougheed (2008), categorizing it into various topics to effectively present to students (refer to Appendix 1).
Methods of the study
The current action research combined both qualitative and quantitative approaches The action actually taken was a vocabulary learning strategy training scheme designed for the duration of nine weeks
Data was gathered using a Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) test, interviews, learners' diaries, tests, and questionnaires to assess vocabulary retention Initially, a VKS test and group interview identified students' vocabulary challenges A series of assessments, including pre-test, post-test 1, and post-test 2, measured vocabulary retention improvements after introducing four sub-memory strategies Weekly diary entries from students highlighted the most effective strategies utilized Lastly, a questionnaire was sent via email to gather students' attitudes towards the teaching and learning of the four sub-memory strategies, along with their suggestions for future programs.
The data gathered was organized according to the four research questions: the VKS test and group interview provided insights for the first question, learners' diaries addressed the second, test scores were utilized for the third, and questionnaire data informed the fourth question.
In the VKS test, students rated their vocabulary knowledge on a scale from 1 to 5, which the teacher then quantified as percentages and displayed in a bar chart During interviews, students articulated their challenges in vocabulary learning in both Vietnamese and English, with the data subsequently translated, generalized, and organized into a table for analysis.
The mean scores of the pre-test and two post-tests were calculated and compared in pairs to assess students' vocabulary retention This approach effectively highlighted the improvements in vocabulary retention over both the short term and long term.
In response to the third question, the teacher collected diary entries from all 144 learners and analyzed the frequency of each strategy used The data was then converted into percentages and represented in a pie chart to visually illustrate the most popular strategies among the learners.
The questionnaire data was analyzed in three distinct parts The first part focused on attitudes towards the strategy training scheme, exploring its importance, effectiveness, and enjoyment through three targeted questions, with results visually represented in pie charts The second part involved calculating mean scores for each strategy to identify the most favored one Lastly, data was compiled and presented in a table format, showcasing percentages to help the researcher draw conclusions and gather suggestions for the course based on student perceptions.
An overview of the rest of the paper
The rest of the paper is categorized into these following parts:
Part B: Development: is divided into three chapters:
• Chapter 1: (Literature review): introduces the theoretical foundations for the whole study
• Chapter 2: (Methodology): elaborates on the participants, the method used, the instruments, the data collecting and the data analysis procedure
• Chapter 3: (Results and discussion): presents and analyses all the correct data to help find out the answers to the three research questions
• Chapter 4: (Recommendations): presents the author‘s suggestions on the learning and teaching vocabulary strategies based on the research findings and the related literature
Part C: Conclusion: summarizes all the major points in the study, reveals the limitations of the study and proposes some suggestions for further research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Language Learning Strategies
―Give a man a fish and he eats for a day Teach him how to fish and he eats for a lifetime”
Education aims to equip individuals for a lifetime, not just to address immediate challenges While providing answers may solve short-term issues, teaching students how to independently tackle problems fosters lifelong learning Consequently, in the realm of language education, the implementation of language learning strategies (LLS) is crucial for empowering learners to manage their own educational journeys.
To grasp the concept of Language Learning Strategies (LLS), it is essential to first define the term "strategy" and clarify its relevance to this study This foundational understanding will help illuminate the significance of LLS in the context of language acquisition.
In military contexts, "strategy" refers to the art of war and the optimal management of forces during planned campaigns This concept has evolved in the educational field into "learning strategies," which encompass the methods learners use to acquire, store, retrieve, and utilize information effectively.
In his 2004 study, Griffiths identified "strategy" and provided a list of alternative terms that are largely synonymous, including "learning behaviours" as noted by Wesche (1977) and Politzer & McGroarty (1985), as well as "tactics" as described by Seliger (1984).
Stern (1992) identifies various "techniques" in language learning, while Rubin (1975) first introduced the term "strategy," which has since become the most widely recognized terminology in this field.
The definition of Language Learning Strategies (LLS) remains a contentious topic, with no universally accepted definition to date Researchers often tailor their definitions to specific teaching contexts, leading to a variety of interpretations Singleton (2008) has compiled and presented several notable definitions of LLS in a comprehensive table.
Table 1: Definitions of Language Learning Strategies (Singleton, 2008, p 51)
Early definitions of Language Learning Strategies (LLS) emphasized outcomes such as linguistic and sociolinguistic competence, as well as the regulation and facilitation of learners' learning In contrast, recent definitions shift the focus towards the processes and characteristics of LLS While some definitions are broad, others are more specific, exemplified by the work of Rubin.
(1987) mentioned about all things learners do to help regulate their studying; whereas, Ellis
(1995) just acknowledged LLS in terms of mental and behavior activity
Language Learning Strategies (LLS) refer to the deliberate actions, behaviors, and techniques that learners employ to enhance their proficiency in a target language (Singleton, 2008, p 52).
1.1.2 The importance of Language Learning Strategies
Training students in Language Learning Strategies (LLS) significantly enhances their language acquisition process According to Oxford, LLS serve as essential tools that make learning more efficient, enjoyable, and adaptable to new contexts When learners utilize these strategies, they tend to exhibit increased confidence, motivation, and engagement in their studies Moreover, LLS can effectively address individual learning style weaknesses However, it's important to note that not all learners who adopt these strategies will achieve success in language learning, as emphasized by Oxford in 1990.
―appropriate language learning strategies resulted in improved proficiency and greater self- confidence” (p 1) There have been many researchers studying the differences between
―good learners‖ and ―bad learners‖ in their ways of using strategies Chamot (2004) stated,
Effective learners distinguish themselves from less effective ones through the variety and application of learning strategies suited to specific tasks Those who employ strategic thinking in their approach to language skills are more likely to achieve success This contrast is particularly evident in academic settings, where students who lack appropriate learning strategies or apply them incorrectly often struggle compared to their more strategic peers.
Language learning strategies significantly enhance learners' self-direction, fostering their ability to take responsibility and actively engage in acquiring a new language (Oxford, 1990).
The traditional education system often leads to passive learning, where students wait for instructions on problem-solving (Oxford, 1990) This approach hinders their ability to keep pace with evolving knowledge Learning strategies (LLS) are designed to transform these passive learners into self-directed individuals, fostering greater confidence, proficiency, and engagement in the learning process.
Obviously, LLS have played a very important part in language teaching and learning For more understanding about LLS, the nature and key features will be discussed in the next part
1.1.3 The features of Language Learning Strategies
Understanding the characteristics of Learning Strategies (LLS) enables both teachers and learners to grasp the concepts of LLS more deeply and apply them effectively in their work.
This part briefly concerned about two approaches of Oxford (1990) and Singleton
(2008) when these two researchers presented the main features of LLS in their books
In her book titled Language Learning Strategies – What Every Teacher Should Know (1990), Oxford summarized some key features of LLS as follows:
Table 2: Features of Language Learning Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p 9)
Learning strategies (LLS) significantly enhance learners' ability to acquire knowledge and achieve communicative competence in language learning These strategies facilitate active and effective participation in authentic communication For instance, social strategies foster greater interaction and empathy, which are essential for communicative competence Meanwhile, memory strategies aid in understanding and recalling new information, while compensation strategies help learners bridge knowledge gaps and maintain authentic communication (Oxford, 1990).
According to Singleton (2008), learning strategies (LLS) play a crucial role in fostering learners' self-direction, allowing them to self-regulate their learning and become autonomous and effective beyond the classroom.
Vocabulary and Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Vocabulary plays a crucial role in language acquisition, posing significant challenges for L2 learners To understand its importance, we must first define vocabulary The term originates from the Medieval Latin word "vocābulārium." According to the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, vocabulary encompasses both "all the words that a person knows or uses" and "all the words in a particular language." McCarthy (1990) emphasizes that discussing a language's vocabulary primarily involves its words A word, as defined in the same dictionary, is "a single unit of language which means something and can be spoken or written." Thus, words serve as the fundamental representation of vocabulary in both spoken and written forms.
Vocabulary teaching and learning should not treat words as isolated entities with fixed meanings Instead, vocabulary encompasses various combinations, including collocations (e.g., "make a complaint," "have breakfast"), multi-word units (e.g., "it's amazing how," "well and truly"), polywords (e.g., "at the weekend," "in his opinion"), institutionalized expressions (e.g., "I'll take it," "I got it"), and even sentence frames (e.g., "there is," "there are") (Lewis, 1993, pp 92-94).
―…without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed‖
David Wilkins, a British linguist, highlighted the crucial role of vocabulary in language learning, asserting that a strong vocabulary significantly enhances communication Thornburry (2002) reinforced this idea in his course book "Innovations," advising students that focusing primarily on grammar will not lead to substantial improvement in English He emphasized that while grammar alone limits expression, a rich vocabulary allows for a much broader range of communication.
For many years, vocabulary was overlooked in second language teaching, with a focus primarily on grammatical structures during the Direct Method and Audiolingualism eras However, since the introduction of the Communicative Approach in the 1970s, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of vocabulary in language learning This shift has led to increased research on vocabulary, exploring the connections between learning strategies and language competence, as well as identifying factors that enhance vocabulary acquisition.
1.2.1.3 Vocabulary retention and memory systems’ process of working
Retention, as defined in the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2005), refers to "the ability to remember things" (p 1297) Additionally, Wikipedia describes retention in learning as "the ability to retain facts and figures in memory." While a specific definition for vocabulary retention is not found in existing literature, this study defines it as the storage of vocabulary in memory, making it accessible for use when required.
Learning vocabulary is crucial for language mastery, as it involves not only acquiring but also retaining a significant number of words According to Thornburry (2002), "learning is remembering," highlighting that vocabulary retention differs from grammar, which is rule-based, since vocabulary relies on accumulating individual items The interplay between language exposure and memory is vital; while memory pertains to the storage and retrieval of information, language exposure relates to the initial acquisition of that information These elements are interconnected, as effective learning occurs only when information can be retrieved, and retrieval is contingent upon prior learning.
The relationship between language exposure and memory, along with the mechanisms of information storage, is crucial for understanding why certain information remains in memory while others fade quickly This understanding is essential for both teachers and learners to enhance effective learning and retention of new language concepts.
Memory plays a vital role in all forms of learning, including vocabulary acquisition While we often refer to "memory" in everyday conversation, it primarily pertains to long-term memory However, short-term and working memory are also essential components that need to be engaged before establishing long-term memory.
Short-term memory is the brain's ability to temporarily store a limited amount of information, typically for a few seconds This type of memory allows individuals to retain a phone number just long enough to dial it or to repeat a word after hearing it from a teacher (Thurnbury, 2002).
Working memory is the cognitive ability to simultaneously remember and process information, essential for tasks like reasoning, learning, and understanding (Thornbury, 2002, p 23) It can hold a limited amount of information, usually around 7 items or fewer, in an active state for a brief duration, typically lasting from 10 to 15 seconds, and occasionally up to a minute (http://www.human-memory.net).
Long-term memory significantly surpasses working memory in its capacity to store information for extended periods However, as Thornbury (2002) points out, learners may remember new vocabulary throughout a lesson but often forget it by the next session This indicates that long-term memory can be more transient than desired, existing along a continuum rather than being a permanent storage solution.
To ensure language learners retain information long-term, it's essential to transition knowledge from being "quickly forgotten" to "never forgotten." This process can be significantly enhanced by employing effective techniques In his book, "How to Teach Vocabulary," Thornbury outlines several principles derived from extensive research, which are crucial for vocabulary retention.
Repetition is a traditional method for memorizing new information, relying on the continuous rehearsal of material in working memory However, mere rote learning offers minimal long-term retention unless the material is organized concurrently.
Retrieval The act of retrieving a word from memory makes it more likely that the learner will be able to recall it later
Spacing out memory work over time is more effective than cramming it into a single session For instance, when introducing new vocabulary to students, it’s beneficial to start with two or three words, review them, and then gradually introduce additional words while revisiting the previously learned ones.
Pacing As having different learning styles, learners should be given opportunities to pace their own rehearsal activities
Use Put words to use is the best way of ensuring they are added to long-term memory
The more decisions the learners make about the word, and the more cognitive demanding these decisions, the better the word is remembered
The judgments that learners make about a word are most effective if they are personalized
Imaging Easily visualized words are more memorable than words that don‘t immediately evoke a picture
Mnemonics These are tricks to help retrieve items or rules that are stored in memory and that are not yet automatically retrievable
Strong motivation encourages learners to dedicate more time to rehearsal and practice, ultimately enhancing their memory retention and overall learning outcomes.
A very high degree of attention (arousal) seems to correlate with improved recall
Memory strategies
Memory strategies, identified as part of Oxford's direct learning strategies in 1990, significantly improve retention by linking new information to familiar words and images These techniques include associating new vocabulary with previously learned concepts, employing imagery, and organizing information into groups.
Thompson (1987) defined memory strategies as the following:
Mnemonics leverage established psychological principles by creating a retrieval plan during the encoding process and employing both visual and verbal mental imagery These techniques enhance learning speed and improve recall by facilitating the integration of new information into existing cognitive frameworks and providing effective retrieval cues (Schmitt, 1997).
Memory strategies are systematic techniques designed to enhance the long-term retention and retrieval of information.
Memory strategies were taken as the answer to the problem of the present thesis for the two following reasons:
Learning vocabulary is a challenging yet essential aspect of achieving fluency in any language, as it involves mastering a vast array of words and meanings According to Lord (cited in Oxford, 1990, p 39), vocabulary is the most substantial and complex element in language acquisition, presenting language learners with thousands of meanings to navigate However, Oxford emphasizes that utilizing memory strategies can significantly aid learners in overcoming these challenges, allowing them to effectively store and retrieve verbal material for communication To enhance retention, it is crucial for learners to transfer information from working memory to long-term memory, making the selection of effective memory strategies a valuable approach in this process.
The memory strategy of structure reviewing is essential for enhancing learning, as it facilitates the transition of information from the "fact level" to the "skill level," ultimately improving retrieval and retention (Oxford, 1990) This approach meets learners' needs by ensuring that once information reaches the skill level, it can be easily accessed even after a period of disuse (Oxford, 1990, p 40) Additionally, Thornburry (2002) highlights the effectiveness of mnemonics, describing them as valuable tools for aiding the retrieval of information that is not yet automatically accessible (p 25).
Secondly, the vocabulary textbook 600 Essential Words for the TOEIC comprises of many word lists which are said to be presented in the TOEIC test These word lists are
―de-contextualized‖ vocabulary items As Oxford and Scarcella (1994, cited in Nemati,
In 2009, it was noted that while de-contextualized learning, such as memorizing word lists, may assist students in preparing for tests, it often leads to quick forgetting of vocabulary Rote repetition is ineffective for long-term retention; therefore, students need to learn how to process words more deeply Memory strategies, which promote deep semantic processing of target words, have proven to be more effective than shallow memorization techniques like oral rote repetition (Oxford, 1990) Thus, incorporating memory strategies in this thesis is a logical approach.
1.3.3 Classification of Oxford’s Memory strategies
Oxford (1990)‘s system of memory strategies consists of ten items as follows:
Grouping Classifying or reclassifying language material into meaningful units, either mentally or in writing, to make the material easier to remember by reducing the number of discrete elements
Relating new language information to concepts already in memory, or relating one piece of information to another, to create associations in memory
Placing new words into a context
Placing a word or phrase in a meaningful sentence, conversation, or story in order to remember it
Using imagery Relating new language information to concepts in memory by means of meaningful visual imagery
Semantic mapping involves organizing words into a visual format, with a central key concept positioned prominently at the center or top Related words and concepts are then connected to this key idea using lines or arrows, creating a clear and structured representation of the relationships between ideas This technique enhances understanding and retention of information by visually illustrating connections.
Using keywords Remembering a new word by using auditory and visual links
Remembering new language information according to its sound
Structured reviewing Reviewing in carefully spaced intervals, at first close together and then more widely spaced apart
Using physical response or sensation
Physically acting out a new expression (e.g., going to the door), or meaningfully relating a new expression to a physically feeling or sensation (e.g., warmth)
Using creative but tangible techniques, especially involving moving or changing something which is concrete, in order to remember new target language information
Table 6: Oxford’s Memory strategies (Adapted from Oxford, 1990, pp 40- 43)
This study focuses on four specific memory strategies identified by Oxford (1990): grouping, associating, using imagery, and placing new words into context These strategies were chosen because they effectively help learners store and retrieve information for communication, aligning with the study's objectives Additionally, these four strategies are prominently recommended in the book's introduction, highlighting their significance in enhancing memory retention.
The book "600 Essential Words for TOEIC" serves as the primary resource for this study, reflecting insights gained from the teacher-researcher's prior pilot teaching experience at the university The subsequent sections aim to provide readers with a deeper understanding of the selected memory strategies utilized in the course.
Grouping or thematic grouping is one of basic strategies in vocabulary learning
Thematic vocabulary grouping is a strategy that organizes words into relevant topics or themes, facilitating easier memorization by reducing the number of discrete elements (Oxford, 1990) These themes can encompass various contexts such as situations, places, emotions, and professions The primary goal of this approach is to enhance students' contextual understanding and retention of language This technique is commonly found in course materials, dictionaries (both monolingual and bilingual), and visual dictionaries, and can be implemented through methods like theme-based syllabuses and vocabulary lists.
Grouping is a valuable technique for organizing items with shared attributes into meaningful categories, which can help students clarify their thoughts during writing or speaking tasks For instance, a student struggling to recall the names of furniture in English may categorize them based on their locations within a house Similarly, a business major might enhance their vocabulary retention by dividing terms into specific sub-groups, such as marketing, accounting, and human resources vocabulary.
The associating strategy involves connecting new language information to existing concepts in memory, creating meaningful associations that enhance learning (Oxford, 1990) These connections can range from simple pairings, like "bread" and "butter," to more complex or unusual associations, all tailored to the learner's understanding.
―development‖ such as ―school- book- paper- tree- country- earth‖ They can be also a part of a network, such as a semantic map (Oxford, 1990, p 41)
There are some kinds of associations such as associating words by their structure
The term "habitué" refers to someone who is accustomed to a particular place or activity, while "habitual" denotes a consistent pattern of behavior In fashion, an "aglet" is the small tip of a shoelace, contrasting with an "anklet," which is an ornament worn around the ankle In terms of meaning, "agrarian" pertains to agriculture, sharing a similar definition with "agro." Additionally, the pronunciation of "agro" relates to agricultural contexts, while "aggro" is associated with aggression.
This following example is one way to deal with associations that an English teacher can use in his/her class:
Word Associations: Things you can search for:
Word Associations: Places where you see warnings:
Electric wires Subways Cigarette packages
Imagery is defined as the process of linking new language information to existing concepts in memory through meaningful visual representations, whether in the mind or through actual drawings (Oxford, 1990) According to Schmitt and McCarthy (1997), learning new vocabulary can be enhanced by associating words with images rather than relying solely on definitions This technique allows learners to remember abstract terms by linking them to visual symbols or concrete objects, enabling the creation of personalized mental images of a word's meaning Research indicates that imagery is more effective than simple repetition for understanding reading passages, which suggests its potential for vocabulary acquisition as well Additionally, associating new words with vivid personal experiences, such as connecting the word "snow" to childhood memories of playing in it, can further enhance retention and understanding.
Students can enhance their memory and comprehension by using or creating images, ranging from simple pencil drawings to intricate "mental movies." These visuals aid in recalling vocabulary without the need for translation from their native language Complex images serve as tools for students to assess their understanding; any inconsistencies may indicate a need for further review Imagery is particularly effective for tasks that require vivid representations or the translation of abstract concepts into tangible forms For example, to remember idiomatic expressions, students often create humorous illustrations that depict their meanings.
1.3.3.4 Placing new words into a context
Placing a new word into a context can be interpreted as ―placing a word or phrase in a meaningful sentence, conversation, or story in order to remember it‖ (Oxford, 1990, p
METHODOLOGY
The background of the study
A study was conducted at an English center in Hanoi, Vietnam, which focuses on teaching beginners preparing for the TOEIC test The center offers three primary courses, including a Foundation course designed to build essential language skills for learners.
The article outlines a structured English language program designed to enhance students' proficiency across four key skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing It includes a foundational course aimed at building basic vocabulary and grammar for elementary and pre-intermediate levels The TOEIC A course introduces students to the TOEIC test format through reading and listening comprehension exercises, while also expanding their vocabulary and grammar knowledge The TOEIC B course focuses on equipping students with essential test-taking strategies The study involved a TOEIC A level class, where students, who had successfully completed the Foundation one course, attended lessons twice a week on Tuesday and Friday evenings from 6 p.m to 8 p.m.
In terms of the course schedule, it took learners 22 sessions (11 weeks) to finish the course Each session was about two hours
The TOEIC A course is designed to familiarize students with the TOEIC Test format, focusing on Listening and Reading sections It offers a structured approach to learning 12 key grammar points and essential vocabulary needed for the exam, utilizing the Starter TOEIC textbook Each session is organized to cover one grammar topic, one reading or listening exercise, and one vocabulary segment, as outlined in the course schedule (see Appendix 1).
The study room, measuring approximately 15 square meters, accommodates 12 to 15 students and is equipped with modern amenities including tables, desks, a whiteboard, an air conditioner, and a projector Students are organized in two rows of desks facing the teacher, with a small aisle for the instructor to easily navigate while delivering lectures and engaging in group activities.
This study involved nine participants aged 20 to 22, comprising three boys and six girls, all from various universities in Hanoi They shared a common objective of preparing for the TOEIC test to obtain the necessary certification for their future careers With limited prior knowledge of the TOEIC format, their initial entrance test scores ranged from 220 to 395 A table detailing the coded names (X1 to X9) and their respective TOEIC input marks is provided for reference.
The researcher, who has been a lecturer at the University of Languages and International Studies, Hanoi National University, Vietnam for three years, conducted this study while teaching a class where she also worked part-time In this action research, she assumed dual roles as both the practitioner and the researcher, overseeing the design and implementation of a vocabulary-learning strategy training program while also collecting and analyzing the data.
All the vocabulary being taught in this course was taken from the book entitled 600
The third edition of "Essential Words for the TOEIC" by Dr Lougheed (2008) emphasizes the importance of vocabulary in TOEIC preparation, treating it as a distinct component of the course Vocabulary instruction is provided as supplementary material to equip learners with essential TOEIC terms The course covers four major topics: General Business, Personnel, Purchasing, and Financing & Budgeting, each further divided into three or four subtopics for targeted learning.
Personnel: Job advertising and Recruiting
W 6 11 Personnel: Promotions, Pensions and Awards
22 Revision and Tests Table 8: Schedule of Vocabulary Teaching for TOEIC A class
The course schedule required the teacher to create both in-class and at-home handouts for vocabulary study In-class activities utilized four memory strategies to help students engage with new vocabulary At-home handouts were provided after each lesson for vocabulary revision and self-practice with vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) This entire process was documented in learners' diaries, with a sample of the handouts available in Appendix 7.
The TOEIC test, or Test of English for International Communication, is administered by ETS (Educational Testing Service) and evaluates English proficiency in real-world work scenarios It includes questions related to various international contexts, such as meetings, travel, and telephone conversations.
The TOEIC test serves multiple purposes for organizations and individuals alike For organizations, it effectively assesses employees' English proficiency for recruitment, promotion, and deployment, as well as for selecting candidates for English technical training or international assignments Additionally, TOEIC scores help evaluate the effectiveness of English training programs For individuals, TOEIC scores are a valuable tool to showcase English language skills, apply for new job opportunities, set English learning goals, and track progress in language acquisition.
The TOEIC tests consist of three types: the TOEIC Listening and Reading test, the TOEIC Bridge test, and the TOEIC Speaking and Writing test Currently, the TOEIC Listening and Reading test is the most commonly used in Vietnam When combined with the TOEIC Speaking and Writing test, these assessments offer a comprehensive evaluation of proficiency across all four English language skills.
The TOEIC Listening and Reading test is a comprehensive two-hour multiple-choice assessment comprising 200 questions, with 100 focused on listening comprehension and 100 on reading comprehension Candidates receive individual scores for both written and oral comprehension, ranging from 5 to 495 points The total score is calculated on a scale from 10 to 990 points, and the TOEIC certificate is categorized into five colors based on performance: orange (10-215), brown (220-465), green (470-725), blue (730-855), and gold (860-990).
To succeed in the TOEIC test, test-takers must develop a robust English vocabulary, as every question assesses their understanding of vocabulary words Enhancing vocabulary can significantly boost exam scores, highlighting the importance of a strong vocabulary foundation for the TOEIC Many candidates often question what TOEIC vocabulary entails, whether it differs from general vocabulary, and if it consists solely of specialized terms.
TOEIC words, Dr Lin Lougheed (2008) explained in his introduction of the book 600 Essential Words for the TOEIC:
―The exam does not specifically test specialized vocabulary…the contexts are specialized, but the words are not The words are general vocabulary
They can be used in many contexts and when you learn TOEIC words; it means that you learn words in contexts that are used on the TOEIC‖ (p v)
Vocabulary taken for the study was therefore both general vocabulary and business terms
In short, vocabulary in the training scheme was general or specific is not a matter, but the ways to retain them are of great importance.
Implementation of the Action Research
Teachers have a responsibility to address problems that arise in their classrooms, and action research is a prevalent method they employ to find effective solutions This practice is especially common among English teachers, as highlighted by Mills (2003).
Action research involves systematic inquiries by teacher researchers aimed at understanding school operations, teaching methods, and student learning outcomes This process seeks to gather information to gain insights, enhance reflective practices, implement positive changes within the school environment, and ultimately improve educational practices and student performance.
A typical action research needs to go from one step to another As suggested by Eileen Ferrance (2000), one action research cycle will be as follows:
Action research involves five essential steps: first, identifying the problem; second, collecting data through interviews, questionnaires, and other methods; third, analyzing the collected data to uncover the issues; fourth, designing a plan of action to implement changes and study their effects; and finally, evaluating the intervention's effectiveness to determine if it achieved the desired results If the action proves ineffective, alternative methods should be considered to enhance the situation.
When dealing with the question that what kind of method would be the appropriate one for this study, after numerous considerations, action research was chosen for some reasons:
Action research is characterized by its situational nature, allowing for tailored solutions to specific problems within unique contexts This type of research is conducted in the teacher's own environment, focusing on her students and workplace Consequently, it enables the teacher to leverage time effectively, observe students' natural performances, and enhance her teaching methods.
Many students in former TOEIC classes face significant learning challenges, prompting teachers to seek effective solutions to enhance classroom dynamics Action research, with its problem-focused approach, is an excellent strategy for addressing these issues, as noted by Wallace (2001).
Action research is distinct in that it typically originates from specific problems or issues encountered in professional practice This approach is highly problem-focused and aims for practical outcomes.
Furthermore, action research also gave the researcher a good chance to evaluate the intervention and find out the rising problems so that timely decision for changing could be given
While action research offers distinct advantages, it also has limitations when compared to experimental research The situational nature of action research, while beneficial, restricts its broader applicability.
The research program may work well in one class but in different contexts, it might make no sense Thus, there is no generalization in an action research.
Data collection instruments
To validate the research, five data collection instruments were utilized: a Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS), interviews, learners' diaries, pre-test and post-test assessments, and a questionnaire.
What is Vocabulary Knowledge Scale test?
The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS), created by Wesche and Paribakht in 1996, is a 5-point self-report tool that enables students to assess their understanding of vocabulary items This scale allows learners to self-evaluate their familiarity with a word by selecting from various levels of knowledge.
1 I don’t remember having seen this word before
2 I have seen this word before but I don’t know what it means
3 I have seen this word before and I think it means…………
4 I know this word; it means …
5 I can use this word in a sentence, e.g………
What was the purpose of VKS test in the study?
This thesis presents the first Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) designed to assess students' retention of vocabulary learned in the Foundation course, which is mandatory for those preparing for TOEIC A & B exams The primary objective is to evaluate whether students can recall essential words introduced during their studies.
To address the research question regarding the challenges students face in independent vocabulary learning, it is essential to recognize that relying solely on interviews may not provide a complete picture due to inherent subjectivity As Wallace (1998, p 127) noted, the truth of a respondent's answer cannot always be verified Therefore, incorporating the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) test enhances the reliability of the findings The results from both the VKS test and subsequent interviews reveal the difficulties students encounter in vocabulary acquisition, allowing the researcher to evaluate the consistency between students' interview responses and their performance on the test.
The study included two additional VKS tests: a pre-test and two post-tests, designed to evaluate the effectiveness of four sub-memory strategies in vocabulary learning These tests adhered to the VKS format but featured varied content Further details regarding these assessments will be provided in the subsequent section.
How was the first VKS test designed in the study?
The test paper began with the student's name, followed by the test title and comprehensive instructions for proper completion To enhance motivation among respondents, the source of the test was acknowledged immediately after these requirements (Wesche & Paribakht, 1996).
The main section of the test featured a three-column table, with the first column showcasing a list of fifty words sourced from the book "New Vocabulary in Use" by Stuart.
The book by Redman & Ellen Shaw (1999) served as a supplementary vocabulary resource for the Foundation course, ensuring students encountered a diverse range of vocabulary The vocabulary was sourced from ten distinct topics, including weather, appearance, emotions, illnesses, homes, character traits, cooking, family, sales, and environmental issues Students were given twenty-five minutes to complete the test, with marking procedures detailed in the data analysis section (refer to Appendix 4 for the first VKS test).
Why was a semi-structured interview?
The first VKS was complemented by a semi-structured interview, deemed an effective method for uncovering the challenges students face in vocabulary acquisition This approach offers greater flexibility to the interviewer compared to structured interviews and questionnaires As Dowsett (1986) notes, semi-structured interviews yield rich interactions and provide extraordinary insights into life that are often unattainable through traditional methodologies While not the only qualitative research method that reveals deep social relationships, it uniquely grants access to these dynamics in a profound manner (p.53, cited in Nunan, 1992, p 149).
How was this semi-structured interview conducted?
The semi- structured interview was carried out within the group, the group interview
As Michael J Wallace stated in his book Action Research for Language Teacher (1998),
Most interviews are typically conducted on a one-to-one basis; however, group interviews can also serve as a structured discussion format While group interviews may lead to participants agreeing with each other rather than sharing individual opinions, they are often preferred for their time efficiency Additionally, when conducted in a relaxed, conversational style, these interviews can create a comfortable atmosphere for participants, encouraging them to share genuine insights This approach ultimately helped the researcher uncover the real issues faced by her students.
The interview comprised two types of questions: completely open-ended and semi-structured The open-ended question, "How do you often learn vocabulary at home?" aimed to initiate discussion and gather insights about the respondents' learning methods To keep the conversation focused, the semi-structured question, "What difficulties do you often encounter when learning vocabulary?" included follow-up prompts to address specific vocabulary challenges The contributions from participants were highly valued, and the teacher's note-taking played a crucial role in the subsequent data analysis process.
2.3.3 Pre-test and post-tests
Why were pre-test and two post tests?
According to Mertens (2005), test-retest is a reliable method for assessing consistency in results This study utilized one pre-test and two post-tests to evaluate vocabulary retention before and after the treatment The analysis and comparison of these test results aimed to measure students' improvement in vocabulary learning through memory strategies, specifically addressing the research question: "How do the four sub-memory strategies enhance students' vocabulary retention?"
How were the tests operated?
The three tests were designed as VKS tests, focusing on assessing students' vocabulary acquisition throughout the course, rather than identifying vocabulary learning issues like the initial VKS Consequently, the content of these tests differs significantly (refer to Appendix 5).
At the start of the third session, a pre-test was conducted with a group of students to assess their knowledge before treatment began This test included fifty randomly selected words from four major topics, which will later be taught using memory strategies throughout the course.
Post-test 1, or the immediate post-test, was conducted to assess the short-term improvement of students right after the teaching phase To maintain consistency with the pre-test, the same format and content were used, but the researcher reordered the fifty vocabulary items to avoid practice effects, as highlighted by Mertens (2005) Additionally, to enhance the test's validity, a new column was introduced for students to indicate the memory strategies they employed to learn the vocabulary, acknowledging that they may use various techniques beyond the provided strategies.
Post-test 2 was the same as post test 1 and had another name as the "delayed" test
It was delivered two weeks after the course The teacher had to arrange the time and place with students to meet each other and complete the test
Data collection procedure
The data collection procedure followed the steps of one circle in an action research and could be illustrated into this following chart:
Phase 1: The very first task in this phase was to investigate the problems that students often encounter when they deal with vocabulary To fulfill this task, both a VKS test and a semi- structured group interview were carried out
The VKS was delivered in the first session of week 1 to check out students‘ ability to retain given words in the previous course
At the start of the second session, a group interview was conducted to foster a comfortable and friendly environment, encouraging students to freely discuss and share their ideas To keep the discussion focused, two main questions were posed, supplemented by follow-up questions and prompts to guide the interviewees and minimize irrelevant responses Students were given the opportunity to voice their concerns, while the teacher actively engaged by asking detailed questions and taking notes The entire group interview lasted approximately 20 minutes.
The pre-test was administered immediately following the interview, with its results serving as a benchmark against the immediate post-test and delayed post-test This comparison aims to assess the students' vocabulary retention and evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention.
From weeks 2 to 11, the researcher implemented a treatment that provided students with comprehensive instruction on four memory strategies, accompanied by in-class handouts containing activities designed to enhance understanding and application of these strategies Each lesson concluded with home-handouts featuring exercises like multiple-choice, gap-filling, and word formation to help students review vocabulary learned in class Additionally, a self-learning component required students to document their use of the memory strategies in a notebook, which was submitted at the course's end Weekly diary discussions allowed students to share their learning experiences, facilitating peer learning and enabling the teacher to assess the effectiveness of her instruction This approach ensured the validity and reliability of the research findings.
The study utilized two post-tests, the immediate post-test (post test 1) and the delayed post-test (post test 2), to evaluate students' vocabulary retention improvements through four sub-memory strategies The immediate post-test was administered directly after the treatment in week 11, while the delayed post-test took place two weeks later, in week 13.
In week 14, three weeks following the treatment, a questionnaire was distributed to gather students' attitudes and suggestions for future learning and teaching Students were requested to submit their responses within three days.
2.5 Data analysis methods and procedures
The collected data were organized according to four research questions: semi-interviews and VKS tests provided insights for the first question, test scores addressed the second, learners' diaries informed the third, and questionnaire data tackled the final question.
In the VKS test, students rated a given word on a scale from 1 to 5, which the teacher then quantified as a percentage and represented in a bar chart Data collected from interviews were translated and categorized into various difficulty groups, allowing the teacher to compile and present the findings in a table This approach enabled both the researcher and readers to clearly identify the key vocabulary challenges faced by students.
To assess student vocabulary retention, all test scores were recorded and mean scores for each test were calculated By comparing the mean scores of the total group and individual students across the pre-test and two post-tests, the analysis revealed improvements in vocabulary retention over both the short term and long term.
In response to the third research question, the diaries of all learners were collected, resulting in a total of 144 entries from 9 students, with each student contributing 16 entries The teacher reviewed these entries and quantified the usage of various strategies, converting the data into percentages and representing it in a pie chart Additionally, data from an extra column in post-test 1 was analyzed to address the second question, focusing on counting the four sub-memory strategies utilized in the test and comparing these results with the diary entries.
The questionnaire data was independently analyzed in three distinct sections The first section comprised three questions focused on attitudes towards the strategy training scheme, specifically examining its importance, effectiveness, and enjoyment The results were represented using percentage calculations and illustrated in three pie charts In the second section, the total scores for each strategy were calculated to determine the mean score (M), identifying the most favored strategy Finally, the third section presented the data in percentage form, organized in a table, allowing the researcher to draw conclusions based on student feedback and suggestions for the course.
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the research methodology, integrating both qualitative and quantitative methods It begins with a clear description of the research context, participants, and materials, followed by an explanation of the rationale for selecting action research The chapter then details the data collection instruments used and outlines the procedures for data collection Finally, it concludes with a thorough account of the methods and procedures employed for data analysis.
Methods and data analysis procedures
This chapter analyzes data gathered from interviews, VKS tests, learner diaries, and questionnaires to address the four research questions The findings will be discussed in detail, highlighting issues, performance outcomes, and any improvements observed post-treatment, while integrating relevant literature for a comprehensive understanding.
3.1 Research question 1 (Identifying the problems): What are the problems that the students encounter in their independent vocabulary learning?
The VKS test, outlined in Appendix 4, served as the initial tool to address the first research question by assessing students' ability to recall previously learned vocabulary and identifying the challenges they faced in their independent vocabulary learning.
Student vocabulary knowledge was assessed on a five-level scale, from mark 1 to mark 5 The teacher recorded the frequency of each mark for every student, and the results were presented as percentages in the accompanying chart.
Figure 5: Results from VKS test
The chart illustrates that marks 2 and 3 have the highest rankings, while mark 5 remains at the lowest level.
2 was about 44%, which meant 44% of the students confirmed to have experienced the