INTRODUCTION
English has emerged as the global lingua franca, with non-native speakers now outnumbering native speakers According to Braine (2006), approximately 80% of English speakers worldwide are non-native This shift has led to an increase in countries adopting English as a Second or Foreign language, allowing them to influence its evolution Consequently, English has diversified into various forms, known as Englishes, and non-native speakers are anticipated to shape the future of the language on a global scale.
World Englishes encompasses two key aspects: the varieties of English spoken in different regions globally, such as the Caribbean, East, South, and West Africa, and Asia, as well as the academic study of these diverse Englishes (Bolton & Kachru 2005).
The study of World Englishes has evolved significantly since its foundation by scholars like Kachru, Crystal, Bolton, and Jenkins This field has expanded with contributions from researchers such as Jenkins, Seidlhofer, and Firth, focusing on areas like Phonetics, Phonology, Pragmatics, and Lexicogrammar Additionally, scholars like Jenkins, Matsuda, and Timmis have explored teachers' and learners' attitudes, further enriching the discourse surrounding World Englishes.
Teachers‘ and learners‘ attitude is one of the key factors that contribute to shape the future of English language teaching and learning of a country, as Kachru & Nelson stated:
Understanding sociolinguistic attitudes towards English and its roles in various contexts is crucial, particularly as its usage interacts with local languages This knowledge will enhance our insights into how English functions across different domains.
Policy-makers' attitudes significantly influence the domains and functions of language, and the interplay among these elements plays a crucial role in shaping the future of nativization and acculturation in linguistic mediums.
Therefore, attitudes have attracted attention from a great number of researchers in different countries, such as Chiba, Matsuura, & Yamamoto
Research on attitudes towards World Englishes has been extensively conducted, notably by Kawanami & Kawanami (1995, 2009) and Tokuboto & Shibata (2011) regarding Japanese perspectives, as well as Ahn (2014) focusing on Korean attitudes However, there is a limited body of research exploring the attitudes of Vietnamese teachers and learners towards World Englishes.
In Vietnam, English has emerged as the dominant foreign language, with government initiatives promoting its teaching and learning nationwide As a result, the number of Vietnamese speakers proficient in English has risen significantly However, there is a lack of research on the English language skills of Vietnamese speakers, who fall within the Expanding Circle of Kachru's model, as well as their attitudes towards various Englishes.
This study seeks to address the gap in research regarding attitudes towards World Englishes in Vietnam, drawing on existing theories and international studies It specifically explores the perspectives of Vietnamese university English teachers regarding the incorporation of World Englishes into English language teaching and learning within the country.
This study aims to explore Vietnamese teachers' perceptions of incorporating World Englishes into their curriculum The findings will provide valuable insights into English Language Teaching (ELT) in Vietnam, particularly regarding the teaching and learning of English as an International Language (EIL).
3 least, it would provide empirical evidence to support or decline results of previous researches on attitudes of Vietnamese teachers and students, for example, Ton & Pham (2012), Ngo (2012), Tran & Moor (2015)
This research explores the attitudes of English teachers at leading Vietnamese universities specializing in foreign languages and international studies, as they significantly impact the current state and future trajectory of English Language Teaching (ELT) in Vietnam The study is guided by two key research questions aimed at uncovering these attitudes.
1 What are attitudes of Vietnamese university teachers of English towards the introduction of Outer Circle varieties of English to their students?
2 What are attitudes of Vietnamese university teachers of English towards the introduction of Expanding Circle varieties of English to their students?
The thesis has the following chapters:
Chapter I: INTRODUCTION, presents statement of the problem and rationale for the study, aims, scope, significance, and outline of the study
Chapter II: LITERATURE REVIEW, clarifies theoretical background and related studies relevant for the research
Chapter III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, elicits information related to research questions, research methods, data collection, data procedure, and data analysis
Chapter IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION presents the essential findings of the study, focusing on the results from the survey and interviews This section will analyze and discuss teachers' cognitive and behavioral attitudes, providing a comprehensive understanding of their perspectives and responses.
Chapter V: CONCLUSION, summarizes essential findings, provides some linguistic and pedagogical implications, and gives suggestions for further studies
Besides, there are REFERENCES and APPENDIXES at the end of the research
LITERATURE REVIEW
An Overview of World Englishes
2.1.1 The Concept of World Englishes
World Englishes (WEs), also referred to in the singular by some scholars, encompasses various concepts related to the English language's global variations While different terms like World English(es), Global English(es), and English as an International Language are often used interchangeably, Jenkins (2006) notes that this may lead to some confusion but generally does not cause significant misinterpretations This section aims to succinctly summarize these terms and determine the most suitable one for the objectives of this paper.
Bolton (2006, p.241) identifies three key interpretations of World Englishes (WEs), emphasizing the diverse approaches to describing and analyzing English varieties globally In this broad context, WEs encompass various forms of English spoken around the world, highlighting the significance of research focused on these distinct linguistic variations.
The term "World Englishes" (WEs) encompasses various English varieties found in former British colonies, including regions in the Caribbean, West and East Africa, and parts of Asia This definition is commonly referenced in academic research, such as Jenkins (2006), and in teaching methodology publications like Celce-Murcia et al (2014) Scholars, including Crystal (1997, 2003) and Schneider, also refer to these English varieties as "New Englishes."
(2011), as Kachru‘s ―Outer Circle‖, or as English as a Second Language (ESL)
Third, WEs is used to describe the “pluricentric approach” (Jenkins
2006, p 159) of Kachru and the Kachruvian scholars This approach inclusively explores aspects of global Englishes with respect to their diversities
For the purposes of this research, the term "WEs" will be used to denote varieties of English found in former British colonies and in nations where English is spoken as a foreign language, encompassing Kachru’s Outer and Expanding Circle, or ESL and EFL contexts Additionally, the phrase "non-native varieties of English" will be employed concurrently.
2.1.2 Models of World Englishes and Kachru's Circle
English has become a global lingua franca due to rapid globalization and industrialization, facilitating international communication As it spreads, English has also been localized by diverse cultures, resulting in various forms known as "Englishes." While scholars debate the glocalization of English, these distinct varieties continue to thrive, and efforts to categorize them have not diminished.
The prevalent model for categorizing English varieties is the Native-Non-native framework, which classifies English into three categories: English as a Native Language (ENL), English as a Second Language (ESL), and English as a Foreign Language (EFL).
This model, based on the ―long-asserted requirement of exposure in early childhood‖ (Kachru &Nelson, 2011), is a pioneer attempt to differentiate Englishes
ENL, or English as a Native Language, is characterized by its use as the primary language in countries where the majority of the population speaks English for all facets of life, such as in the United Kingdom and the United States.
ESL refers to the different forms of English spoken in countries where it plays a significant role in communication In these nations, English may serve as the official language, such as in Singapore, or function as a key language without official status, as seen in Malaysia.
EFL, or English as a Foreign Language, is characterized by the highest number of speakers and encompasses various forms of English used in countries where it serves as a primary medium for education and international communication In daily life, however, local native languages typically dominate.
The concept of English as a Native Language (ENL) presents challenges, particularly in promoting a sense of superiority over English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (Kirkpatrick, 2007) This hierarchy influences learners' initial exposure to English, their expectations for success, overall achievement levels, and the goals set by both learners and teachers (Strevens, 1992, cited in Kachru & Nelson, 2011, p 26).
Kachru’s Model of World Englishes, or Kachru’s Circle
Based on ―types of spread, the patterns of acquisition and the functional domains in which English is used across cultures and languages
(B Kachru (1985, p.12), he proposed a model of World Englishes in which he divided Englishes into the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle
Fig 1: The Kachru‘s Circle, cited in Graddol (2007, p 100)
Kachru himself, as cited in Kirkpatrick (2007, p.28), explained his Circle as followed First, Inner Circle includes “traditional cultural and linguistic bases of English,” like British English, American English, etc
The Outer Circle represents institutionalized non-native English varieties in regions with a history of colonization, such as South Africa, Malaysia, and India In contrast, the Expanding Circle refers to the use of English in countries where it primarily serves as a foreign language, especially in educational settings and global communication In these contexts, the native language remains essential for daily interactions.
Kachru's Circle is a highly influential model for researchers studying World Englishes, offering a significant advantage over the Native-Non-native distinction by promoting equality among different English varieties (Kachru & Nelson, 2011; Kirkpatrick, 2007).
8 equality, as stated by Schneider (2011, p 32), contributes to the increase of
Self-confidence in localized varieties of English significantly impacts language teaching and applied linguistics By acknowledging and describing English within a pluralistic context, it promotes and enriches the diversity of the language.
This model has limitations due to the evolving nature of English and its rapid expansion Researchers such as Graddol (2007), Jenkins (2008), and Schneider (2011) have noted that the boundaries between different circles of English have become increasingly unclear, failing to consider the rise of bilingualism and other emerging phenomena.
Kachru, therefore, proposed a revised model of Englishes based solely on user‘ proficiency of English
Fig 2: The Kachru‘s Circle revised, cited in Graddol (2007, p 100) However, this revised model has not received plethora of applications in the field; thus not as influential as its old version
Various models of English varieties have been proposed, but the two most influential ones are the Kachru's Circle and another model For the purposes of this study, the researcher will focus on Kachru's Circle, which categorizes English into Inner, Outer, and Expanding circles.
Attitude and the importance of studies on attitude
2.2.1 Concept, components, and measurement of attitude
Attitude is defined as a tendency to respond positively or negatively to a class of objects, as noted by Sarnoff and cited in Garrett (2007) This means individuals can have varying attitudes towards different objects or behaviors, influencing their responses Furthermore, attitudes are shaped by social interactions, highlighting the importance of context in attitude formation.
1982) and it is not likely for attitude to be modified in later years (Sears
Attitude is generally considered to consist of three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioural Cognitive component of attitude refers
The three components of attitudes include cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects The cognitive component encompasses an individual's opinions and beliefs, while the affective component reflects their feelings and evaluations of an entity The behavioral component indicates the likely actions a person will take However, the relationships among these components are considered moderate, prompting researchers to measure each one or clearly specify their focus (Breckler, 1984).
Krosnick et al (2005) emphasize that measuring attitudes aims to uncover the consistent underlying constructs that shape responses Researchers must understand the various factors that influence these responses to accurately identify the stable attitudes that drive them.
Garrett (2007) identifies three essential methods for measuring attitudes: the societal treatment approach, the direct approach, and the indirect approach The societal treatment approach relies on observing and analyzing social sources to gauge attitudes, while the direct approach involves participants self-reporting their attitudes through surveys, which is particularly effective in assessing language attitudes However, this method can be influenced by biases such as acquiescence bias, where respondents align their answers with perceived researcher expectations, and socially desirable responses, where individuals answer in a way they believe is acceptable rather than truthful An example of the indirect approach is the matched-guise technique (MGT), where listeners hear the same speaker using different accents, leading them to perceive distinct individuals, thereby isolating accent as the variable while controlling for other speech features.
24 difference in evaluation must be caused by listeners‘ judgment on accents MGT has produced surprising findings in research on language attitude
This study utilized a direct approach, employing a survey with Likert-type items and interviews for data collection This method was chosen for its convenience and efficiency in assessing the attitudes of a large population Despite its limitations, it has been extensively used in numerous studies on language attitudes globally and in Vietnam, including research by Timmis (2002), Jenkins (2008), Young & Walsh (2010), Ton & Pham (2010), Groom (2012), and Ahn (2014).
2.2.2 The importance of studies on attitude
The study of attitudes is crucial in social sciences, particularly in linguistics and sociolinguistics, as it significantly impacts English Language Teaching (ELT) Understanding the attitudes of both learners and teachers can enhance student motivation and tailor ELT approaches to local contexts Positive language attitudes can lead to stereotypes about speakers and influence learners' motivation When learners hold a favorable view of a language, they are more likely to develop a positive self-image as speakers, which in turn strengthens their motivation to learn.
Second, by taking into account attitudes of teachers and students, the researchers could avoid “a patronizing approach” in the implications of
EIL/EFL in English Language Teaching (ELT) emphasizes the significance of understanding attitudes, which can offer valuable insights for researchers This understanding enables the localization of innovative ELT methodologies tailored to specific teaching contexts.
Therefore, more empirical studies need to be done in order to provide detailed descriptions of teachers‘ and students‘ attitude towards WEs in different contexts, including Vietnam.
Overview of previous researches on attitude toward WEs
2.3.1 Studies on attitude toward WEs
Research has consistently revealed global attitudes towards various English dialects, highlighting a prevalent bias against non-native varieties and a general reluctance to embrace English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education Despite this, young English learners in Asia are increasingly developing their identities as English speakers while still valuing their native language identities.
A study by Timmis (2002), based on 180 teacher surveys from 45 countries and 400 student surveys from 14 countries, reveals that many students still aspire to achieve native-like English proficiency, regardless of their intended audience In contrast, teachers appear to be shifting away from native-speaker norms more rapidly than their students Timmis suggests that this desire for native-like English among learners may stem from idealization rather than practical objectives.
A recent online survey conducted across various European countries, involving 127 participants, reveals a strong preference for native English models Many respondents expressed a desire to speak like native speakers, while others aimed to use English that mirrors native grammar and vocabulary, ensuring comprehension by both native and non-native speakers Although it remains unclear whether the participants are English learners, the survey indicates their active use of the language.
26 some extent at home, at work/school/university, and in communication socially
In a study by Young & Walsh (2010) involving 26 English teachers pursuing advanced degrees in the UK, five key findings emerged Firstly, the teachers were largely unaware of the diverse forms of English they encountered in their home countries Secondly, most identified the English they taught as British, American, Standard, or Formal English Thirdly, there was a unanimous desire among the teachers to focus on teaching Standard English Additionally, while the teachers expressed interest in the theories of English as an International Language (EIL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL), they lacked comprehensive knowledge of EIL/EFL content, lexis, and pronunciation for effective classroom implementation Lastly, there was a collective expectation among the teachers to teach American English in the future.
A study by Jenkins (2008) involving young learners across Asia revealed that while most students prefer native English accents over non-native ones, they hold conflicting feelings about their own accents On one hand, they take pride in their unique accents as a reflection of their identity; on the other hand, they aspire to attain a native-like accent.
A qualitative study involving 12 young learners in Japan revealed that the dominant model of English Language Teaching (ELT) in the country remains the prestigious native-like standards (S Kawanami & K Kawanami, 2009) However, there is potential for future generations of Japanese learners to recognize themselves as legitimate English speakers and embrace their unique varieties of the language This shift may be facilitated by fostering awareness and respect for the diverse varieties of English.
Tokumoto & Shibata (2011) surveyed 128 English-major university students from three Asian countries including Korea, Japan, and Malaysia, on the self-
A study reveals that both Korean and Japanese learners view native English as their ideal pronunciation model However, Korean learners exhibit negative perceptions of their own accent, whereas Japanese learners perceive their pronunciation as somewhat intelligible.
Malaysian learners, on the other hand, express confidence in their own variety of English
In a 2014 study involving 204 participants and 25 interviews with English teachers in Korea, findings revealed that most participants held a positive attitude towards Korean English (Ahn, 2014).
The debate surrounding World Englishes continues, as many students and teachers recognize various English varieties but still predominantly favor native models, particularly British and American English Nonetheless, a growing number of young learners wish to maintain their L1 accent in English, viewing it as an integral aspect of their identity in today's globalized world.
2.3.2 Studies on attitude toward WEs in Vietnam
Research on World Englishes (WEs) in East Asia is well-documented; however, studies focusing on Vietnam remain limited This article presents the initial exploration of attitudes held by teachers and students towards WEs in Vietnam, filling a notable gap in the existing literature.
A study involving 150 English major students and 80 university teachers in Central Vietnam reveals a significant awareness among both groups that English will often be used with non-native speakers (NNS) rather than native speakers (NS) Despite this understanding, most students express a desire to achieve native-like pronunciation and grammar, while teachers predominantly focus on teaching native varieties of English (Ton & Pham 2010).
A study conducted at Hue University in Vietnam by Ngo (2012) involving 106 students and 25 teachers revealed a preference for Standard English among both groups While teachers show acceptance of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), they tend to reject English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) in English Language Teaching (ELT) This rejection is attributed to factors such as insufficient materials, institutional goals, and the prevalence of native-based testing.
A study by Tran & Moore (2015) involving 76 teachers from 26 Vietnamese universities revealed that educators view the integration of World Englishes (WEs) in English Language Teaching (ELT) as both "important and necessary" (p.113) However, several challenges hinder this implementation, including insufficient teaching materials, the need for additional time and effort, a lack of awareness among teachers regarding WEs, and students' preference for native English varieties.
In conclusion, Vietnamese teachers and learners hold varied opinions on World Englishes and the teaching of English as an International Language (EIL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Given the limited research on this topic within Vietnam, further studies are essential to gain a deeper understanding of attitudes towards World Englishes in the country.
Concluding remarks
In today's modern world, English has emerged as the global language, a trend that shows no signs of slowing down Various methods have been suggested to classify different varieties of English, with Kachru's Circle model being favored for this research due to its distinct advantages.
Researchers have suggested EIL/EFL as a new approach for ELT which respects different varieties of English and emphasizes intercultural
29 communication competence Even though there have been disagreements in terms of EFL/EIL principles, most scholars agree that English varieties should be introduced to students
In Vietnam, the education system emphasizes native English, primarily British and American, while placing limited focus on language skills Recently, the government has made significant investments in English teaching, aiming for Vietnamese youth to communicate confidently in international settings Consequently, it is essential for learners to understand various English varieties to enhance their studies and develop intercultural competence.
The examination of attitude is a significant focus in English Language Teaching (ELT) due to its substantial impact on the teaching and learning experience Attitude is typically understood to consist of three key components: Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral This study utilized indirect methods, including surveys and interviews, to assess the Cognitive and Affective dimensions of attitude.
The concept of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and English as an International Language (EIL) remains relatively new for Vietnamese English teachers, highlighting the need to investigate their attitudes towards this approach Despite a limited number of studies on the perceptions of Vietnamese university teachers and students, further research is essential to understand their views on English varieties and the introduction of these varieties This study aims to examine the attitudes of state university teachers, particularly those instructing students majoring in English and TESOL, to address the existing gap in language attitude research within the Vietnamese context.
Research Methodology
Research questions
The study investigates the attitudes of Vietnamese university English teachers regarding the incorporation of World Englishes into their curriculum It focuses on two specific research questions to explore this topic in depth.
1 What are attitudes of Vietnamese teachers of English in universities towards the introduction of Outer Circle varieties of English to their students?
2 What are attitudes of Vietnamese teachers of English in universities towards the introduction of Expanding Circle varieties of English to their students?
Participants
The study involved 111 Vietnamese English teachers from seven state universities, all responsible for instructing students majoring in English Language or English Language Education Participants were selected through convenience sampling followed by a selective sampling process due to several constraints: limited time and resources, significant distances between the universities and the researcher's location, challenges in contacting teachers and accessing their profiles, and potential unavailability of teachers for questionnaires or interviews.
In the initial phase, teachers received questionnaires that included a concise overview of Kachru's Circle Participants were then required to respond to three knowledge-check questions to confirm their understanding of the concepts of World Englishes and Kachru's Circles, ensuring they could identify the appropriate circle.
31 an English variety belongs to In the second stage, responses from participants who did not answer all three questions correctly were removed from the data
In the end, a total of 98 valid responses were considered valid and were used for analysis
1 University of Languages and International Studies
4 School of Foreign Languages – Thai Nguyen
5 University of Foreign Language Studies – Da Nang
6 University of Foreign Languages – Hue University 12
7 University of Pedagogy – Ho Chi Minh city 8
The study revealed that a significant majority of participants, 82.7%, were female, while male participants constituted 17.3% In terms of professional experience, 21.4% had less than five years, 44.9% had between five to ten years, and 33.7% boasted over ten years of experience Regarding educational qualifications, 16.3% held a Bachelor's degree, 75.5% possessed a Master's degree, and 8.2% had earned a Ph.D degree.
Table 2: Demographic information of participants
Data collection procedure
Data were collected in sequential procedure through a survey and semi- structured interviews
Over a three-month period, data collection involved sending a survey to participants to gather quantitative insights Following this, a subset of respondents was interviewed to delve deeper into the findings and understand the underlying reasons and beliefs behind the attitudes measured in the survey The survey was conducted in English, while the interviews were conducted in both Vietnamese and English.
The questionnaire was delivered to participants through online methods and hard copies 111 responses were collected from seven universities 98 of them were valid
The survey utilized a combination of Likert-type, close-ended, and open-ended questions, drawing on items from previous research on teachers' and students' attitudes toward different varieties of English, including studies by Groom (2012), Rousseau (2012), and Tran & Moore.
(2015) Items which were not useful for answering research questions were removed All questions were written in English and designed in multiple- choice format to increase the questionnaires‘ consistency
The questionnaires were divided into three main parts The first part included six questions to ensure of teachers‘ understanding of World Englishes to increase reliability of respondents‘ answer
Kachru's Circle illustrates the different varieties of English and their global distribution The first question aimed to assess participants' familiarity with these Circles and the various forms of English they represent, setting the stage for the subsequent inquiry.
The study aimed to assess participants' understanding of different English varieties by asking them to identify the correct Circle (Inner, Outer, Expanding) for British, Singaporean, and Vietnamese English Responses from participants who incorrectly answered Questions 2, 3, and 4 were deemed invalid.
The second section aimed to gather insights into teachers' attitudes regarding the implementation of WEs (World Englishes) in their classrooms It included 10 questions, with eight formatted as Likert-type inquiries to assess attitudes, emphasizing cognitive and behavioral dimensions Specifically, questions 7 to 10 focused on the cognitive aspect of attitudes, exploring participants' perceptions of different varieties of English, particularly concerning non-native speakers.
The article discusses 34 varieties of English and emphasizes the importance of introducing these varieties to students It highlights that Questions 11 and 12 were designed to assess participants' behavioral attitudes towards the likelihood of incorporating non-native English varieties in their teaching Additionally, Questions 13 and 14 utilized multiple-choice formats to determine the methods teachers believe they would employ to introduce World Englishes (WEs) in the classroom.
The third part was to collect participants‘ biographic information including gender, teaching experience, institutions, and academic degree Data from the questionnaires then were presented in tables and chart to answer the research questions A chi-squared test was run to test if there was statistically significant difference between attitudes towards Outer and Expanding Circle An online calculator provided by Preacher (2001) on the website http://www.quantpsy.org/chisq/chisq.htm was used for the test with data of Outer circle as Observed, and data of Expanding Circle as Expected
In addition to the questionnaires, data were collected through semi- structured interviews
A convenience sampling method was employed to select one male and ten female interviewees from survey participants who volunteered for interviews, as well as from the researcher’s professional network Notably, at least one interviewee was chosen from each of the seven universities involved in the study.
Participants who expressed interest in the interview provided their email addresses in the questionnaire, eliminating the need for a separate consent form For other interviewees, consent was documented during the interviews The interviews were conducted via Facebook call, Skype, or phone call following the completion of the questionnaires.
The interviews were mostly in Vietnamese with academic terms being in English The interviewees were asked to translate their answers into
English when the researcher was not clear about the opinion they were trying to express
The interview consisted of two main sections: the first focused on teachers sharing their background and teaching experience, while the second involved participants responding to pre-prepared questions from the interviewer Additionally, the interviewer adapted the discussion by asking follow-up questions based on the participants' responses.
All interviews were recorded, transcribed, grouped and translated into English by the researcher Data then analyzed to answer the research questions
Findings and Discussion
Attitudes towards Outer Circle varieties
This section is to describe teachers‘ attitudes towards the introduction of Outer Circle varieties to student
Question 5 aims at identifying the varieties of English that participants are teaching
Chart 1: Varieties of English teachers are teaching
*Teachers may teach more than one variety
In Vietnamese universities, the predominant focus is on teaching Inner Circle varieties of English, particularly British and American English While a few educators claim to teach Vietnamese English, the legitimacy of this variety remains debated Additionally, some teachers do not adhere to any specific English variety, opting instead to teach the English presented in their textbooks, which typically feature British and American English.
Question 6 in the questionnaires attempts to identify whether Vietnamese students will use English to communicate more often with NS or NNS of English
Table 3: Vietnamese students will use English to communicate more often with
Chart 2: Vietnamese students will use English to communicate more often with The majority of teachers believe that Vietnamese students use English to communicate more often with NNS of English Some of them believe that students use English to communicate more often with NS, or equally often with both A very small amount of them responds that students use English to communicate with their peers in the classroom (i.e Vietnamese speakers of English)
The interview results align with questionnaire data, revealing that most teachers believe their students communicate in English more frequently with non-native speakers (NNS) than with native speakers (NS) Some teachers report that students engage with NNS as often as with NS This trend is attributed to the students' living and working environment in Vietnam, where interactions with NNS are more common during their college experience.
39 will communicate with Vietnamese teachers and students in English After students graduate, however, it depends on regions and jobs
Teachers in Vietnam highlight the importance of communication with both native speakers (NS) and non-native speakers (NNS) in their students' professional lives P.P., a teacher from Hanoi, notes that many of her students work for foreign companies, particularly Korean and Japanese firms, leading to frequent interactions with NNS Similarly, N.T., another Hanoi teacher, explains that students working as interpreters will engage more with NS, while those teaching English will communicate predominantly with NNS, including students and educators from countries like the Philippines and Russia P.T., a teacher from Da Nang, adds that her students interact equally with NS and NNS due to the high volume of international tourists in the city.
The study reveals that teachers recognize native English as the primary variety taught in the state universities examined This finding aligns with previous research by Young & Walsh (2010) on English teachers in the UK and Ton & Pham (2010) on English teachers in Central Vietnam.
Many teachers report that their students frequently use English to communicate with non-native speakers (NNS) rather than native speakers (NS) This observation aligns with previous studies by Kirkpatrick (2002) and Tran and Moore (2015) However, the choice of communication may vary based on the students' occupations and work environments.
Question 7, 9 and 11 are to measure teacher‘s cognitive attitude towards the introduction of Outer varieties to their students Questions 7 focuses on what teachers think about the accuracy of these varieties
Table 4: Outer Circle varieties are wrong English
Chart 3: Outer Circle varieties are wrong English The vast majority of teachers (87.76%) believe that Outer Circle varieties of English are not wrong English Approximately 12% shows a neutral attitude on Outer circle varieties, and none of them believe that these varieties are wrong English
Data from the interview indicates that all teachers perceive Outer Circle varieties as acceptable forms of English, as long as they remain intelligible.
N.K – a male teacher from Ho Chi Minh city explains:
―I think they are not wrong English, because now people talk about multi-lingualism In general, languages have many varieties, even within a
Language encompasses various dialects, such as British English, Singlish, Indian English, and Vietlish, as long as they are understandable According to P.T, a teacher from Da Nang, the primary goal of communication is intelligibility; there are no strict right or wrong forms as long as the message is clear In academic writing, however, precision is essential.
Question 8 attempts to identify if they think these varieties should be introduced to students
Table 5: Outer Circle varieties of English should be introduced to students
Chart 4: Outer Circle varieties of English should be introduced to students
The data reveals that a significant majority of teachers, specifically 83.67%, support the introduction of Outer Circle varieties of English to students In contrast, a small percentage of teachers, 9%, maintain a neutral stance, while only 7.7% oppose the inclusion of these varieties in the curriculum.
In the interview, teachers generally agree that it is important when being asked about the importance of the introduction of Outer varieties to students
Question 11 explores further teachers opinion on how important it is for students to be aware of Outer circle varieties of English
Table 6: Importance of being aware of Outer circle varieties of English
Chart 5: Importance of being aware of Outer circle varieties of English The vast majority of teachers (77 out of 98) believe that it is important and very important for students to be aware of Outer circle varieties of English Others believe that it is moderately important (15) or slightly important (6) None of the teachers think that it is not important for students to be aware of these varieties
The interview results align with the questionnaires in conclusion but differ in quantity, revealing mixed opinions among teachers regarding the importance of introducing Outer varieties of English Approximately half of the teachers consider this introduction to be "important" (K.Q., C.T., N.T., P.P.), "very important" (H.H.), or "necessary" (N.K.), emphasizing its significance for students who will engage with English speakers from diverse countries K.Q highlights the necessity of this introduction for effective communication.
In an increasingly globalized world, students must engage with English speakers from diverse backgrounds, encompassing various English varieties such as Expanding, Inner, and Outer Circle Englishes Recognizing these differences is crucial; failure to do so can result in miscommunication and hinder effective understanding.
Some educators express that while introducing non-native English varieties could be beneficial for students, it is not essential They view this exposure as a valuable addition rather than a requirement For instance, L.T suggests that students will eventually acclimate to different accents over time, implying that the introduction of Outer Circle Englishes is more of a supplementary advantage than a critical component of their learning experience.
The discrepancy in teachers' responses may stem from their biases and differing perceptions of what is deemed "important." For instance, L.T initially acknowledges the significance of introducing Englishes but later suggests that it is acceptable to either introduce them or not Similarly, T.T expresses in the questionnaire that introducing Englishes is very important, yet during the interview, he refrains from prioritizing this introduction, viewing it instead as an aspect of authentic materials that he will teach when encountered in the classroom.
The data in the questionnaire and interview indicate that teachers seem to support ESL and the introduction of ESL in the classroom
Question 13 aims at measuring teachers‘ behavioral attitude on the introduction of ESL varieties of English to students
Table 7: Likeliness of introducing Outer Circle varieties of English to students
Chart 6: Likeliness of introducing Outer Circle varieties of English to students
Attitudes towards Expanding Circle varieties
This section is to report results of interviews with teachers on their attitude towards the introduction of Expanding Circle varieties to students
No significant differences can be found in teachers‘ cognitive attitude towards Outer Circle and Expanding Circle varieties of English
Question 8, 10 and 12 are to measure teacher‘s cognitive attitude towards the introduction of Expanding varieties to their students Questions 8 reflects what teachers think about these varieties‘ quality of being right
Table 9: Expanding Circle varieties are wrong English
Chart 7: Expanding Circle varieties are wrong English Similar to Outer Circle, the vast majority of teachers (81.63%) believe that Expanding Circle varieties of English are not wrong English This number is slightly lower than that of Outer Circle varieties Approximately 16% shows a neutral attitude on Outer circle varieties and two per cent of them believe that these varieties are wrong English These figures, on the other hand, are slightly higher than those of the Outer Circle (12.24% and 0% respectively)
In an interview, a teacher expressed skepticism about the validity of Expanding Circle varieties, suggesting that they may be "possibly wrong." L.T., a teacher from Thai Nguyen, illustrated this point by using the term "style" as a specific example.
The Vietnamization of English, pronounced as "xi-tin" (see-teen) in Vietnamese media, raises concerns about intelligibility among speakers in English-speaking countries Critics argue that when speakers use this localized pronunciation, it can lead to misunderstandings, suggesting that such variations are problematic However, there is a notable resistance to the idea that Outer Circle varieties of English should be considered unintelligible, which may reflect a bias favoring Expanding Circle varieties This highlights the complex dynamics of language evolution and acceptance in global communication.
Question 9 aims at finding out whether teachers think that these varieties should be introduced to students
Table 10: Expanding Circle varieties of English should be introduced to students
Chart 8: Expanding Circle varieties of English should be introduced to students
A significant majority of teachers, 76.53%, support the introduction of Expanding Circle varieties of English to students, although this is slightly lower than the 83.67% who favor Outer Circle varieties Meanwhile, approximately 12% of teachers remain neutral on the issue, while around 11% oppose the inclusion of Expanding varieties in the curriculum.
Question 11 explores how important it is for students to be aware of
Table 11: Importance of being aware of Expanding circle varieties of English
Chart 9: Importance of being aware of Expanding circle varieties of English Similar to teachers‘ responses about Outer Circle, the majority of teachers (72 out of 98 compared with 77 out of 98) consider it important and very important for students to be aware of Expanding varieties Nine of them think that it is slightly important and thirteen think that it is moderately important While no teachers think it is not important to introduce ESL, four of them believe that it is not important to introduce EFL
In interviews, teachers largely express that their views are applicable to both Outer and Expanding varieties of English, emphasizing their significance as important and necessary While some educators view these varieties as beneficial but not essential, the support for EFL (English as a Foreign Language) is notably lower than for ESL (English as a Second Language) This discrepancy may reflect underlying bias against EFL, as highlighted by a teacher from Thai Nguyen who stated, "Outer Circle is closer to native."
The Chi-squared test results presented in Table 12 reveal a p-value greater than 0.05, suggesting no statistically significant difference in cognitive attitudes between Outer and Expanding Englishes This indicates that teachers tend to hold similar views regarding both ESL and EFL varieties, which is a positive finding Any observed differences in cognitive attitudes may be attributed to chance and are likely to pertain to individual cases rather than a broader trend.
Teachers recognize the advantages of integrating English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) into their curriculum In an interview, all participating teachers highlighted various benefits of incorporating non-native English varieties Specifically, eight out of eleven educators noted that this approach could assist students in adapting to these varieties and the corresponding cultures, ultimately enhancing communication As one teacher from Hanoi emphasized, it can help students avoid misunderstandings and improve intelligibility in their interactions.
Different varieties of English can more accurately reflect the culture of their speakers, especially when discussing cultural aspects such as festivals or personalities In cases where English lacks specific terminology, speakers often resort to code-switching to create words that precisely convey their intended meaning.
Important Very important How important
One significant benefit of promoting English as a language for international communication is that it empowers users from diverse backgrounds, rather than being solely associated with native speakers This perspective helps raise students' awareness of the variety within the English language and can also reduce prejudice against non-native speakers.
Other benefits include encouraging students‘ to learn/use the language, help students find resources for their self-study, and help them learn about linguistic features of English varieties
Recent findings support Tran and Moore (2015) and Ngo (2012), revealing that most teachers possess a positive cognitive attitude towards both the Outer and Expanding Circles of English, with no significant differences between the two In contrast to Ngo's (2012) results, teachers show some support for English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) principles, particularly regarding the inclusion of non-native varieties in the classroom However, opinions vary on the importance of this inclusion, despite an understanding of its potential benefits Additionally, while the differences in questionnaire data between Outer and Expanding varieties are minimal, they may suggest a bias against English as a Foreign Language (EFL) compared to English as a Second Language (ESL).
Question 15 aims at measuring teachers‘ behavioral attitude on the introduction of EFL varieties of English to students
Table 13: Likeliness of introducing Expanding and Outer Circle varieties of
Chart 10: Likeliness of introducing Expanding Circle varieties of English to students About 45% of the teachers (44 out of 98) states that they are very likely to introduce Expanding circle varieties of English Twenty nine out of ninety eight teachers (approximately 30%) say that it is moderately likely and fifteen says that it is slightly likely for them to do so Eight teachers reply that they would not introduce Expanding varieties for students, and two says that they are not sure This number is confirmed in Question 15 and 16
It can be seen from the chart and the table that teachers are likely to introduce EFL varieties to their students However, there is a difference in
A survey of 98 teachers reveals a strong inclination to introduce English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in their curricula Specifically, 44 teachers expressed a high likelihood of incorporating Expanding varieties, while 58 indicated they would likely introduce Outer varieties Notably, only eight teachers are opposed to introducing Expanding varieties, compared to just one teacher who would not introduce Outer varieties.
A Chi-squared test on these items gives the p-value of 0.015 (< 0.05) It suggests that the difference in teachers‘ likeliness to introduce Outer and Expanding varieties is statistically significant
Teachers exhibit similar behavioral attitudes towards both ESL and EFL, with most expressing intentions to introduce EFL varieties in the future However, the questionnaire results are deemed more reliable due to a larger participant pool While teachers share a consistent cognitive attitude, their behavioral differences suggest a preference for certain varieties over others The data indicates a tendency among teachers to favor introducing Outer Circle varieties over Expanding Circle varieties.
Question 16 inquires teachers on how they would introduce Expanding Englishes
Table 14: How teachers would introduce Expanding Circle varieties to students
In a study similar to Outer Circle findings, 46 out of 98 teachers indicated they would incorporate non-native English varieties through both in-class materials and extracurricular activities, while 42 opted for either teaching materials or extracurricular options Only two teachers chose alternative methods, and eight expressed they would not introduce these varieties The p-value of 0.117 suggests that the differences between Outer and Expanding Circle teachers are not statistically significant, indicating a tendency among educators to employ similar strategies for introducing both ESL and EFL These approaches align with recommendations from Tran and Moore (2015) for integrating non-native Englishes into teaching.