FONDEMENT THEORIQUE
Cadre théorique
To effectively analyze the act of apologizing, it is essential to revisit fundamental concepts such as speech acts, interpersonal relationships, and politeness in verbal interactions After establishing these definitions, we will delve into the intricacies of the act of apology.
Suivant la conception traditionnelle, le langage sert seulement à décrire le monde réel Selon les linguistes traditionels, les énoncés ont la propriété d’être vrais ou faux
The British philosopher John L Austin (1970) observed that language can also impact reality He identified two types of statements: constative statements, which describe reality, and performative statements, which perform an action.
He made a distinction between speech acts, specifically illocutionary acts—actions performed through speaking, such as promising or ordering, as opposed to physical actions like walking or knitting Illocutionary acts differ from locutionary acts, which involve merely stating something, and perlocutionary acts, which refer to the effects produced by saying something.
According to John R Searle (1972: 52), speaking a language involves performing speech acts Each act possesses a propositional content and a specific illocutionary force, such as making a promise, issuing a reproach, making a request, or expressing a wish.
1.1.2 Classification des actes de langage
Searle a proposé une taxinomie d’actes de langage Les actes illocutoires y sont classés en 5 catégories 1 :
Assertive statements aim to hold the speaker accountable for the truth of the expressed proposition and the existence of a particular state of affairs The words align with reality, and the psychological state reflects the speaker's conviction about the content, regardless of the intensity of that belief For instance, the statement, "I will go to Paris next week," exemplifies this type of assertion.
Directives aim to prompt the listener to take action, ranging from subtle suggestions to strong demands The world must align with words, driven by psychological states of desire and will For instance, a simple invitation like "Come to my place tonight!" illustrates this concept effectively.
- Les promissifs : ó le but est d’engager le locuteur à l’accomplissement d’une action, le monde doit s’ajuster aux mots, et l’état psychologique nécessaire est la sincérité de l’intention Exemple: “Je viendrai.”;
Expressive acts aim to convey psychological states with sincerity, without requiring the alignment of words to the external world In these cases, the content reflects attributes assigned either to the speaker or the listener For instance, a simple phrase like "Forgive me" illustrates this concept effectively.
Declarative statements aim to establish a reality where there is a direct correspondence between words and the world, necessitating a two-way adjustment They lack a generic psychological state due to their institutional nature This category includes all performative utterances, which rely on the existence of specific institutions in the extralinguistic world for successful execution For instance, the statement, "I appoint you president of this association," exemplifies how institutional existence is crucial for the fulfillment of the declaration.
1.1.3 Formulations des actes de langage
Des actes de langages peuvent être réalisés par les formulations directes et indirectes
1 Cité par Tran The Hung 2005 : 30 a Formulations directes
Les actes de langage directs se réalisent en général grâce à des verbes performatifs ou des formes de phrase Par exemple :
“ Je te conseille de ne plus fumer” (1)
Au premier énoncé, l’énonciateur a recours à l’utilisation du verbe performatif
The term "advise" exemplifies a performative verb, as saying "I advise you " simultaneously fulfills the act of advising Performative verbs explicitly indicate the action being performed at the moment of utterance and are only used in the first person and present tense A verb cannot inherently be performative; it can only be so under specific conditions of use To be considered performative, it must be stated in the first person present indicative When the speaker commits to an action, that commitment is made towards a specific recipient, who must be clearly identified in the statement.
In the second statement, the advice is presented as an imperative sentence This structure does not name the completed action but explicitly indicates it For this reason, direct actions are also referred to as explicit actions.
In terms of sentence structures, they can often be polysemous; for example, the phrase "I will come!" can convey either a promise or a threat depending on the context Additionally, indirect formulations play a significant role in communication.
L’acte de langage indirect est un acte illocutoire accompli indirectement par l’accomplissement d’un autre Il existe deux types de formulations indirectes: formulation indirecte conventionnelle et formulation indirecte non conventionnelle
- L’acte de langage indirect conventionnel “fait partie d’un répertoire d’actes de discours socialement reconnus” 2 Par exemple :
Peux-tu ouvrir les fenêtres ?
2 Tiré de: http://www.episteme.u-bordeaux.fr/Dico1/actes.html
The question seemingly revolves around the ability of the listener, yet it does not seek a simple Yes or No response Instead, it aims to elicit a reaction from the interlocutor, specifically a request for them to close the door.
Il a été admis que hors de certains contextes particuliers, cette structure interrogative fonctionne conventionnellement comme une requête Autrement dit, la requête s’exprime conventionnellement par le biais d’une question Searle (1982 :
12) appelle “secondaire” l’acte de question et “primaire”, l’acte de requête Sous l’angle d’interprétation, la valeur de question est dite “littérale” et la valeur de requête, “dérivée”
In unconventional indirect formulation, there are no explicit indicators of the actions being taken; instead, the laws of discourse and context dictate the act For instance, the meaning is derived from the surrounding conversation rather than direct statements.
Il fait chaud dans cette chambre
This statement takes the form of an assertion regarding the state of the door In certain circumstances, it can serve the same purpose as a request to open the door, making it "non-conventional." To understand that it is a request rather than a mere assertion, one must rely on the situational context and the principles of discourse, particularly Grice's cooperative principle This principle helps interpret both the primary and derived meanings of the act.
Indirect speech acts generally involve affirming or questioning one of the conditions necessary for the act to succeed Referring to the two examples mentioned earlier, the first example focuses on the recipient's ability to open the door, which is a crucial condition for the act's success In the second example, the statement pertains to the state of affairs at the time of the utterance.
1.2 Relation interpersonnelle dans l’interaction verbale
Selon la définition de W Labov et D Fanshel (cité par Kerbrat-Orecchioni C
Acte d’excuse
Nous commenỗons par les dộfinitions de l’excuse, ensuite nous prộsentons ses fonctions, et finissons par la structure génénale de l’échange réparateur
Selon le site http://www.mediadico.com/dictionnaire/definition/excuse, l’excuse est la raison qu'on allègue pour se disculper, pour disculper un autre, ou bien le prétexte
Selon l'Acadộmie franỗaise (1986) 3 , c’est un nom fộminin dộsignant :
- Raison qu'on allègue pour expliquer ou atténuer une faute ou se dispenser d'une obligation
- Circonstance propre à disculper Ex : Ses obligations professionnelles, familiales, lui sont une excuse Il ne manque pas d'excuses Cette faute est sans excuse
- Justification produite pour expliquer une absence, un retard Lettre, mot d'excuse Ellipt Ce professeur exige une excuse des parents
The term "excuses" is commonly used in the plural form as a polite expression to request someone's understanding For instance, one might say, "I owe you an apology Please accept my excuses." It can also be used in a more informal or elliptical manner, such as simply stating, "My excuses" or "All my excuses." Additionally, it serves as an exclamatory phrase to introduce an objection, as in "A thousand excuses!" In casual contexts, one might say, "Make excuses!"
Le Centre national de Ressources textuelles et lexicales 4 définit l’excuse comme suit :
- Manifestation physique ou verbale visant à abolir la culpabilité résultant d'une faute, d'un manquement vis-à-vis de quelqu'un
- Comportement, affect, geste ou parole interprétable comme un argument montrant que l'auteur d'une action jugée incorrecte n'a pu (ne pourra) agir autrement
3 Tiré de : http://excuse.ptidico.com/definition-de-excuse.htm
4 Tiré de : http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/excuse qu'il l'a fait (ou qu'il le fera) Pardon d'être entré ainsi, madame, mais je vous croyais chez vous
According to pragmatists, an apology serves as a representative act within remedial exchanges, aiming to transform what may be perceived as offensive into something acceptable (Goffman, 1974: 54) Primarily, an apology is a consequential act that presupposes a prior offense; however, it may also imply a simultaneous or future offense Regardless of whether the apology addresses a prior or subsequent offense, its purpose is to restore the ritual balance of interaction This restoration is achieved through the symbolic neutralization of the offending act When someone offends another, they are compelled to compensate for their transgression if they wish to restore the ritual equilibrium In this context, Bergman and Kasper (1993: 82) define an apology as a compensatory action concerning an offense in which the speaker has been causally involved, and which carries a cost to the recipient.
Dans ce sens, nous esquissons la définition suivante :
An apology can be defined as an expressive act that transforms an offensive situation into one that is forgivable It is realized when the offender acknowledges the intention behind their communication.
Apologizing is a symbolic act of self-mortification, where one acknowledges guilt and willingly submits to punishment This behavior positions the apologizer in a subordinate role compared to the other person However, it also provides an opportunity for the recipient to demonstrate their generosity and forgiveness.
Additionally, the ritual serves to affirm a specific social order By embedding the act of repair within an exchange, it symbolically emphasizes that agreement and connection take precedence over life's uncertainties The ritual of apologies, requiring the cooperation of both the offender and the offended, presents an additional opportunity for reconciliation.
5 Cité par Bellaachhab et Rawashdeh
(http://gramm-fle.ulb.ac.be/fichiers/colloques/Nantes2007/BELLACHHABRAWASHDEH.pdf) célébrer la convivialité en confirmant à chacun sa place et le respect qu’on lui doit
Et dans les situations ó le risque d’éclat, de rupture ou de rejet est particulièrement important, il est indispensable que chacun marque sa volonté de revenir à l’équilibre normal
2.3 Structuration générale de l’échange réparateur
Tout échange réparateur comporte en principe 3 composantes :
Offenses can occur during interactions and can take many forms, including deliberate or accidental actions such as gaffes and social blunders These offenses may be verbal, involving intentional or unintentional violations of conversational norms like interruptions, overlaps, prolonged silences, intrusive questions, or personal insults They can also be non-verbal, such as pushing someone, making them wait, or encroaching upon their personal space, whether intentionally or not.
- la réparation (l’excuse), produite par l’offenseur ;
- la réaction à la réparation, émanant de l’offensé
Due to time and resource constraints in this research, we are unable to address all three components of reparative exchange Therefore, we focused solely on the aspect of repair, specifically the act of making an apology.
CONSTITUTION ET DESCRIPTION DU CORPUS
Constitution du corpus
In this section, we will first explain the chosen data collection method, followed by a presentation of the two corpora: one in French and the other in Vietnamese Finally, we will discuss the data analysis methods employed.
1.1 Choix de la méthode de collecte des données
Various data collection methods are employed in the study of verbal interactions, particularly in the context of apologies These methods include recording authentic verbal interactions, analyzing dialogues from television shows, conducting surveys, and examining literary texts Each approach has its own set of advantages and disadvantages.
The authenticity of verbal interactions is crucial for understanding speech acts, prompting us to consider recording these interactions for our research However, this method presents significant challenges Firstly, to maintain the authenticity of conversations, secret recordings are necessary, which raises ethical concerns for researchers Additionally, setting up hidden microphones can be complicated, as it is difficult to predict when participants will exchange apologies Complete recordings of conversations are impractical, and using visible microphones can compromise the authenticity of interactions Typically, apologies arise during conflicts, and if participants are aware they are being recorded, they tend to avoid impoliteness, using softeners and avoiding threatening language Therefore, despite its potential benefits, we must rule out this method for data collection in our research.
We considered using a corpus of dialogues from television films to gather not only verbal data but also the paraverbal and non-verbal aspects of communication, which significantly impact the interpretation of reproaches and apologies However, we realized that this approach is not suitable for our research The primary challenge is the broadcast schedule of films, as we are not always available to record them Additionally, similar to recording authentic dialogues, this method requires extensive transcription time, and transcribing dialogues from French films poses difficulties for us as non-native speakers of the language.
The investigation does not align with our research framework due to several key issues Firstly, it presents challenges related to time and financial resources Secondly, the collected data tends to be more written than spoken, which raises concerns about its authenticity Lastly, the nature of the language used in the study may lack naturalness, further compromising the reliability of the data.
While the previously mentioned methods may not be well-suited to our research conditions, utilizing a literary corpus offers significant advantages Firstly, it is readily available and virtually inexhaustible (C Kerbrat-Orrecchioni 1990:72-73) In Vietnam, accessing Vietnamese literary texts is straightforward in libraries and bookstores, and gathering French literary works is also manageable Moreover, using a corpus of literary texts eliminates the need for transcription, allowing us to save considerable time and focus on analyzing the characteristics of the act of apology, as well as comparing how apologies are expressed in French and Vietnamese.
Par ailleurs, le corpus littéraire est bien apprécié de R Barthes et F Berthet
1979 : 4) 6 Ils considốrent le texte littộraire comme ô une pratique de langage du
According to Nguyen Van Dung (2000: 44), a primary function of language is to replicate specific modes and nuances of discourse Therefore, whenever social sciences engage with linguistic objects or, more precisely, discourse, it is essential to utilize literary corpus to enhance their analysis.
C Kerbrat-Orecchioni (1996) identifies literary texts as valuable material for conversation analysis, suggesting that literature acts as a magnifying mirror for ordinary conversation It condenses relevant facts with increased simplicity, clarity, and intelligibility, providing a rich source for reflection and analysis in this field.
Ce sont les raisons pour lesquelles nous décidons de construire un corpus littéraire contemporain
Our corpus consists of five contemporary French novels, primarily because this genre is the dominant form of French literature in terms of both quantity and media presence (Arnaud Genon: 2004) Additionally, this literary genre is abundant and accessible in Vietnam.
Our corpus does not include any news articles, as French news is often unavailable to us Additionally, the news we have encountered has not met our expectations, lacking statements of apology Instead, our corpus consists of 40 excerpts from five novels published between 2003 and 2009, three of which received the prestigious Prix Goncourt: "La maîtresse de Brecht" by Jacques-Pierre Amette (Albin Michel, 2003), "Le soleil des Scorta" by Laurent Gaudé (Actes Sud, 2004), and "Syngué sabour" by Atiq.
Rahimi, édition de P.O.L 2008 : Prix Goncourt 2008.
Pour assurer la représentativité relative de la formulation de l’excuse en franỗais, nous avons collectộ les œuvres de diffộrents ộcrivains Les œuvres choisies
The website www.fabula.org/revue/document126.php explores various aspects of life, including family, love, friendship, professional relationships, and war Notable novels discussed include "La maîtresse de Brecht," which examines love during the Cold War, "Le Soleil des Scorta," and "Syngué sabour" alongside Philippe Claudel's "La petite fille de Monsieur Linh," focusing on familial life and emotions Additionally, Marc Levy's "La première nuit" delves into themes of love, friendship, and work.
When examining characters, it is essential to gather a diverse range of works featuring individuals from various age groups, social backgrounds, and educational levels These characters can be elderly, adults, youths, or even children, and they inhabit both urban and rural settings Their professions vary widely, including roles such as teachers, archaeologists, astrophysicists, Stasi agents, officers, playwrights, actors, watchmakers, farmers, and retirees Additionally, their relationships encompass friendships, romantic connections, professional colleagues, marriages, and interactions between clergy and their congregants, as well as acquaintances.
… Cela offre une abondance de formules d’excuse et de réaction à l’excuse
Pour le corpus en vietnamien, nous avons décidé de collecter des nouvelles contemporaines Ce choix se repose sur les points forts de ce genre littéraire
Since the late 19th century, the short story has increasingly dominated contemporary Vietnamese literature, as noted by various writers, researchers, and literary critics Nguyen Ngoc (1991) asserts that it ranks first among literary productions and is the most representative genre of Vietnamese literature Critic Bich Thu (1996) emphasizes that contemporary short stories quickly address urgent issues of modern life Furthermore, these stories are written in a contemporary and varied language, reflecting the nuances of Vietnamese expression Finally, contemporary short stories are characterized by their closeness to everyday language and the acceptance of colloquial speech (Dao Than 1994), highlighting their relevance and accessibility.
8 Ces auteurs ont été cités par Nguyen Van Dung 200: 46, 47 dans l’analyse des interactions verbales en général et de l’acte d’excuse en particulier
Our corpus consists of 36 excerpts from 23 contemporary short stories, with some excerpts taken from the same story The selected stories were published between 2007 and 2011, sourced from the anthology "Truyện ngắn hay 2011" by Nxb Thời đại, which features the best short stories of 2011.
Truyện ngắn hay 2009-2010 – Nxb Thanh niên (Recueil des meilleures nouvelles des années 2009-2010, Edition de la Jeunesse), Truyện ngắn hay 2007-2008 – Nxb
Lao động (Recueil des meilleures nouvelles des années 2007-2008, Edition du Travail), Truyện ngắn hay 2007 – Nxb Hội nhà văn (Recueil des meilleures nouvelles de l’année 2007, Edition de l’Association des Ecrivains)
Comme nous menons une recherche sur l’acte de langage, les nouvelles que nous avons collectées sont riches d’interactions verbales
The collected news covers various themes, including love with titles like "Waiting for the Eclipse" and "First Love," family dynamics explored in "My Daughter-in-Law" and "Don't Flow, River," everyday life depicted in "A Crystal Shoe" and "Money Scattered," as well as the impact of war illustrated in "The Woman Wading Through Dew."
Description du corpus
This section aims to outline the characteristics of an apology, including the various types of apologies, the relationship dynamics between the offender and the offended, the impact of the apology on the social identities of both parties, and the different responses elicited by the apology.
A partir des 76 interactions recueillies en deux langues dont 72 verbales et 4 non verbales, paraverbales ; nous essayons de proposer des types d’excuse suivants
2.1.1Types d’excuse basés sur la raison réparatrice
Based on the reasons for making apologies, there are three types of excuses: the supposedly reparative excuse, the retrospective excuse, and the prospective excuse The following summary table illustrates the frequency of these types of apologies.
Interactions verbale en vietnamien Formules prétendûment réparatrices
Ce taux est encore illustré par le graphique suivant :
Graph 1 shows that the retrospective excuse is the most commonly used in both French and Vietnamese, while the prospective excuse has a modest usage rate in both languages The supposedly reparative formula is relatively widespread in French and also exists in Vietnamese, as I, being a native speaker, use it in certain contexts.
- Xin lỗi bác nhưng cái này không phải do em làm
→ Excusez-moi mais ce n’est pas ce que j’ai fait
Cependant dans notre corpus, nous ne trouvons pas ce type d’excuse
2.1.2 Types d’excuse basés sur la présence des interactants
Based on the presence of the offender and the offended, there are two types of apologies: direct apologies and indirect apologies Following the statistical analysis, we will create a table and a graph to illustrate these types of apologies.
Le tableau et le graphique nous montrent que l’excuse directe est la plus utilisée, l’excuse indirecte n’est pas très répandue dans les 2 langues : nous trouvons
In our Vietnamese corpus, we identified two instances of indirect excuses, while no such examples were found in our French corpus However, we believe that this type of excuse also exists in French We hope to uncover more evidence of this in a larger corpus as we continue our research on the topic.
2.1.3 Types d’excuse basés sur la manière de réaliser l’excuse
En se basant sur la manière de réaliser l’excuse, on a 3 types d’excuse : excuse explicite, excuse implicite, excuse mixte (explicite et implicite)
Interactions verbales en vietnamien a Excuses explicites 14/36 (39%) 9/36 (25%) b Excuses implicites 13/36 (36%) 20/36 (55,6%)
- Description de l’état d’âme approprié (regret, honte, )
5/36 (16,7%) 6/36 (16,7%) c Excuses mixtes (explicite et implicite)
Excuse explicite Excuse implicite Excuse mixte
Excuse explicite Excuse implicite Excuse mixte
Observing the data presented in the chart, it is clear that Vietnamese individuals tend to prefer implicit apologies, while the French favor explicit ones The preference for mixed apologies, which combine both explicit and implicit elements, shows a relatively similar rate between the two cultures.
Nous venons de présenter des types d’excuse qui se trouvent dans notre corpus Nous procéderons à leur analyse dans le chapitre suivant
In interactions, partners can exhibit varying degrees of closeness or distance, reflecting a horizontal relationship axis that ranges from familiarity and intimacy to separation.
Relation entre l’offensé et l’offenseur
Total des interactions en deux langues (/76)
Relation horizontale et excuse en franỗais
Relation horizontale et excuse en vietnamien
Observing Table 4, it is evident that both the French and Vietnamese tend to make more excuses to familiar individuals than to those they do not know well Specifically, 65% of excuses in French (26 out of 40) are directed towards known individuals, compared to 75% in Vietnamese (27 out of 36) Conversely, when interacting with less familiar individuals, the number of excuses decreases significantly, with only 35% in French (14 out of 40) and 25% in Vietnamese (9 out of 36).
Concernant les relations familières, les excuses sont très nombreuses dans les
In our analysis of two corpora, we found a limited number of excuses (16 out of 76 interactions) within family relationships, specifically among parents and children, siblings, and spouses Notably, there are only 7 interactions in French and 9 in Vietnamese that pertain to these familial connections.
La relation verticale peut se diviser en 2 sous-catégories : relation égalitaire et relation inégalitaire
Relation entre l’offensé et l’offenseur
Total des interactions en deux langues (/76)
Inégalitaire 26 (34%) 13 (32,5%) 13 (36%) de bas en haut 20 (26%) 8 (20%) 12 (33%) de haut en bas 6 (8%) 5 (12,5%) 1 (3%)
Relation verticale et excuse en franỗais
Relation de bas en haut
Relation de haut en bas
Relation verticale et excuse en vietnamien
Relation de bas en haut
Relation de haut en bas
In both of our corpuses, we observe that the production and exchange of apologies occur most frequently in egalitarian relationships, such as those between spouses, friends, romantic partners, and colleagues, with a prevalence of 67.5% in French and 64% in Vietnamese.
In unequal relationships, apologies are predominantly issued from the lower to the higher authority, such as from children to parents, subordinates to superiors, students to teachers, and sellers to customers, comprising 20% in French and 33% in Vietnamese While apologies from higher to lower authority do occur, they are significantly less common, accounting for only 13% in French and 3% in Vietnamese.
In summary, apologies typically occur among acquaintances, with the frequency of such exchanges decreasing as the relationship distance increases In vertical relationships, apologies are more conducive to egalitarian interactions, while in hierarchical relationships, they are more commonly issued from the lower to the higher status individuals rather than the reverse.
2.3 Excuse et face des interactants
As discussed in the first part, speech acts are categorized into two main types: face-enhancing acts (FFAs) and face-threatening acts (FTAs) The act of apologizing, which can negatively impact the face of the participants, falls into the latter category This raises the question of whose face is threatened by the apology: that of the speaker or the listener? Furthermore, it prompts an exploration of whether the act threatens the positive or negative face of the interactants involved.
2.3.1 Excuse et face du locuteur
Apologies can pose a threat to the speaker's positive face, as they indicate an admission of error or wrongdoing When someone offers an apology, it highlights their acknowledgment of a mistake, thereby compromising their positive self-image Consequently, an apology is considered a face-threatening act (FTA) for the speaker's positive face.
Monsieur Bark is overwhelmed with shame and guilt, feeling a deep nausea that torments him He expresses remorse to Monsieur Tao-lạ for the actions he took against his country and people during his youth, acknowledging the destruction and violence he caused He reflects on his past as a reckless child, admitting to being a true scoundrel for his deeds.
(Interaction 12 – corpus en franỗais) Interactants : les 2 amoureux
- Je te demande pardon, je suis en retard, parce que les derniers jours, j’étais trop occupé
2.3.2 Excuse et face de l’interlocuteur
TYPES D'EXCUSE ET MOYENS DE REALISATION
Types d’excuse et moyens de réalisation de cet acte
1.1 Types d’excuse basés sur la raison réparatrice
En se basant sur la raison pour laquelle on s’excuse, on a 3 types d’excuse : formule prétendument réparatrice, excuse rétrospective, excuse prospective
1.1.1 Formule prộtendument rộparatrice (“Excusez-moi! ằ ô Dộsolộ ! ằ, ô Pardon ! ằ se colore d’une tonalitộ ô agonale ằ (plus ou moins nette selon l’accompagnement prosodique et mimo-gestuel) : ô Excusez-moi ằ, en cette acception, ne signifie nullement ô excusez-moi ằ, mais presque au contraire, ô je ne suis pas du tout de votre avis ằ C’est en fait un ô excusez-moi mais ằ, et c’est dans le mais qu’est tout le sens [ ] Il s’agit d’excuses proférées à l’avance, le plus souvent sans contribution aucune, pour une offense encore à commettre : ô Excusez-moi mais alors là, franchement, cette fois- ci, vous dộconnez complốtement ằ (Renaud Camus 1985 :121) 9
Interactants : Adrian et son collègue Walter
Believe me, amidst tracking your temperature fluctuations and enduring the dreadful cafeteria meals, I've had plenty of time to listen to your nonsense The only solace in this ordeal was the delicious cakes brought to me by your lovely Aunt Elena.
- Excusez-moi, Walter, mais qu’est-ce que c’est que ce nouveau genre avec Elena ?
9 Citộ par Kerbrat-Orecchioni, L’ ô ộchange ằ comme unitộ transphrastique dialogale L’exemple de l’excuse
- Je ne vois pas de quoi vous parlez !
(Interaction 22 – corpus en franỗais) Interactants : Vladenco Egorov, archéologue russe et Keira
- Je croyais ce salopard de Thornsten mort depuis longtemps, s’exclama Egorov en nous servant de la vodka Buvez ! dit-il, cela vous réchauffera
- Désolée de vous décevoir, répliqua Keira, mais il se porte comme un charme
(Interaction 33 – corpus en franỗais) Interactants : Ivory et Keira
- Non, c’est impossible, dit Ivory, cherchez encore, je suis certain que la clé de l’énigme s’y trouve
- Désolée de vous contredire, mais il n’y a rien, aucune donnée !
(Interaction 38 – corpus en franỗais) Interactants : Keira – archéologue et Isabelle – agent d’un organisme secret
Excuse me, madam, but throughout history, men have continually killed each other in the name of God Providing them with proof of God's non-existence would free them once and for all from their hatred of one another.
Nous voyons bien que ce type est rộpandu en franỗais, il existe aussi en vietnamien Par exemple :
- Xin lỗi bác nhưng cái này không phải do em làm
→ Excusez-moi mais ce n’est pas ce que j’ai fait
Après avoir observé ces exemples, nous trouvons que l’on utilise souvent les structures suivantes pour réaliser l’excuse de ce type
+ mais + l’idée contraire à celle de l’offensé
Based on this summary table, we can identify linguistic methods to perform this act Firstly, the use of imperative or elliptical sentences serves as a syntactic means Secondly, the lexical approach involves the adjective "ô dộsolộ ằ."
L’excuse rétrospective signifie que l’on fait des excuses après avoir commis des fautes Ce type est le plus rộpandu de l’acte d’excuse en franỗais ainsi qu’en vietnamien
Interactants : un jeune homme et l’ami de sa mère
- Je te remercie de m’avoir bien traité Toute ma famille pèche contre toi Bon, on en reparlera après, maintenant viens passer le Têt avec ma mère et moi
(Interaction 5 – corpus en vietnamien) Interactants: une femme et son beau-père:
Mai baisse la tête, puis regarde son beau-père les larmes aux yeux :
- Il n’y a aucun problème, papa C’est de ma faute
(Interaction 2 – corpus en vietnamien) Interactants : Bertold Brecht et sa maợtresse Maria Eich
- Tu ne devrais pas le prendre comme ỗa
(Interaction 2 – corpus en franỗais) Interactants : Brecht et sa maợtresse Maria
- Tu ne veux pas que j’appelle une habilleuse ?
Je blague Excuse-moi, dit Brecht
(Interaction 3 – corpus en franỗais) Interactants : une femme et son mari transformé en buffle
Soudain, elle serre le buffle dans ses bras en l’embrassant follement: Pardonne mon offense ! Malgrộ moi j’ai dỷ faire ỗa Pour te tenir, je n’ai pas d’autre faỗon !
Interactants : Théo Pilla et Hans Trow – les agents de la Stasi (services secrets est-allemands)
- Pourquoi tu la baises pas? Tu es amoureux … C’est quoi la solution!
Les exemples ci-dessus nous permettent d’identifier les moyens linguistiques dans la réalisation de l’excuse rétrospective
The article discusses the use of various linguistic elements in interactions, highlighting the employment of verbs, nouns, and adjectives in both Vietnamese and French corpora It notes specific examples such as verbs in interactions 3 and 5, nouns in interactions 2, 3, and 9, and adjectives in interaction 2 Additionally, it addresses syntactic means, including assertive sentences from interactions 26 and 30, injunctive sentences from interactions 3 and 35, and the combination of assertive and injunctive sentences in interaction 8 Finally, elliptical sentences are mentioned in interactions 5 and 27.
Enfin, c’est la combinaison des moyens lexical et syntaxique (interaction 4 en franỗais, interaction 29 en vietnamien : adjectif et phrase assertive)
Les excuses prospectives se rencontrent fréquemment (avec leur vraie valeur cette fois) en début d’interaction On présente des excuses avant de commettre l’offense
- Je suis désolé de vous déranger, monsieur Il a été impossible d’intervenir ce matin
- Vous êtes des incapables, j’ai promis à LONDRES que l’affaire serait réglée ce soir, je pensais que vous veniez m’apprendre qu’ils étaient à bord d’un avion en route pour l’Angleterre
(Interaction 35 – corpus en franỗais) Interactants : les 2 amoureux
Il est nécessaire que tu quittes tes folles idées – Je te demande pardon d’avance – celles de Thai, de Phat et de tes amis, intimes et non intimes
(Interaction 15 – corpus en vietnamien) Interactants : un jeune homme et une jeune fille inconnus
Puis il s’approche d’elle et lui demande doucement : ô Je vous demande pardon, que pensez-vous de ce livre quand vous savez que je suis son auteur ? ằ
Le moyen principal dans la réalisation de l’excuse prospective est la phrase assertive (interaction 35 – corpus en franỗais ; interaction 15, 26 – corpus en vietnamien)
In summary, among the types of excuses based on the reasons for apologizing, the retrospective excuse is the most commonly used in both French and Vietnamese This is easily understood, as people often seek forgiveness for mistakes they have already made Furthermore, various syntactic and lexical means are employed in the formulation of these three types of excuses.
1.2 Types d’excuse basés sur la présence des interactants
En se basant sur la présence de l’offenseur et de l’offensé, on a 2 types d’excuse : excuse directe, excuse indirecte
Une excuse est appelée directe s’il cible directement l’interlocuteur Dans ce cas, la personne à qui on adresse l’excuse et celle sur qui elle porte sont identiques
Interactants : un curé et sa brebis
- Mon père, je suis un pécheur Je pèche non seulement contre Dieu, mais aussi contre mes parents, contre cette terre
(Interaction 3 – corpus en vietnamien) Interactants : Vladenco Egorov, archéologue russe et Keira
- Je croyais ce salopard de Thornsten mort depuis longtemps, s’exclama Egorov en nous servant de la vodka Buvez ! dit-il, cela vous réchauffera
- Désolée de vous décevoir, répliqua Keira, mais il se porte comme un charme
(Interaction 32 – corpus en franỗais) Interactants : Adrian, Keira et Ivory
- Comment savez-vous cela ? demandai-je à mon tour
- Je suis professeur, au cas ó cela vous aurait échappé, pardonnez-moi d’être instruit
(Interaction 37 – corpus en franỗais) Interactants : les deux amis intimes
On the day of our separation, Duy embraced me and said, "I know you're upset, but please try to understand that I'm going through a pain that I can't share I still hold you in high regard and respect Please focus on your studies!"
(Interaction 21 – corpus en vietnamien) Interactants : le gérant de la supérette et Adrian
- Ne vous retournez pas tout de suite, il y a un type qui vous observe depuis le trottoir d’en face
Dans la réalisation des excuses directes, les moyens linguistiques sont très variés
Firstly, verbs are utilized in interactions 3 and 5 within the Vietnamese corpus, while nouns appear in interaction 2 with "ô faute," in interaction 3 with "ô pộcheur," and in interaction 15 with "ô pardon." Additionally, adjectives are present in interactions 32 and 36 of the French corpus, specifically with "ô dộsolộ."
Secondly, the syntactic means include assertive sentences (interaction 35 – French corpus, interaction 28 – Vietnamese corpus), imperative sentences (interaction 37 – French corpus, interaction 7 – Vietnamese corpus), and the combination of assertive and imperative sentences.
(interaction 16 en franỗais, interaction 8 en vietnamien), les phrases elliptiques (interaction 5, 29 – corpus en franỗais)
En dernier lieu, c’est la combinaison des moyens lexical et syntaxique (interaction 4 en franỗais, interaction 29 en vietnamien : adjectif et phrase assertive)
When the target of an apology (L3) differs from the recipient of the apology (L2), the apology is classified as indirect This type of apology typically occurs within established relationships, such as between spouses, parents and children, siblings, friends, or colleagues Since L2 and L3 share a connection, L2 has the ability to convey the apology on behalf of L3 An example of this situation involves a third party who is not present during the interaction.
Interactants: La mère et sa belle-fille
Maman ! Laisse-moi partir Je ne suis plus digne de le revoir
This young woman is in a relationship with another man and has a child with him She acknowledges her mistake in front of her mother-in-law, which also serves as an apology to her husband, allowing the mother-in-law to convey this message to him.
C’est le même cas que l’exemple ci-dessous :
Interactants : un jeune homme et l’ami de ma mère
- … Dis à ta maman que je lui présente mes excuses …
Dans 76 interactions, il n’y a que ces 2 excuses indirectes En les observant, nous constatons que le moyen principal dans la réalisation de cette excuse est syntaxique avec les phrases assertive et injonctive
In summary, the direct apology is the most commonly used type of excuse based on the presence of the interactants, as it is evident that the offender is more easily forgiven when the offended party can hear and see the remorse, regret, and acknowledgment of wrongdoing The most frequent method of delivering these three types of apologies is through syntax, utilizing assertive and imperative sentences.
1.3 Types d’excuse basés sur la manière de réaliser l’excuse
En se basant sur la manière de réaliser l’excuse, on a 3 types d’excuse : excuse explicite, excuse implicite, excuse mixte (explicite et implicite)
L’excuse explicite est souvent sous forme d’un énoncé à l’impératif ou bien d’une expression performative
Excuse sous forme d’un énoncé à l’impératif
Ce type d’excuse est assez frộquent en franỗais (8/40) mais rare en vietnamien (2 /36) ô excuser ằ (xin lỗi), ô pardonner ằ (tha thứ ) sont employộs essentiellement
- Je blague Excuse-moi, dit Brecht (Interaction 3 – corpus en franỗais)
- Nous avons fait une erreur, votre père est bien mort il y a 6 ans Excusez- nous (interaction 6 – corpus en franỗais )
- Je suis professeur, au cas ó cela vous aurait échappé, pardonnez-moi d’être instruit (interaction 39 – corpus en franỗais)
- Pardonnez-moi, nous sommes des femmes Laissez-moi sortir de la grotte,
- Tenant la tête entre mes mains, je leur dit : Dis-lui de me pardonner, pardonnez-moi, mes amis
Excuse sous forme d’une expression performative
Toujours avec les mờmes verbes ô excuser ằ (xin lỗi), ô pardonner ằ (tha thứ ), ce type d’excuse est utilisé très fréquent (16/76 interactions)
- Entre 2 baisers, je t’ai demandộ pardon, pardon de t’avoir entraợnộe dans cette folle aventure
(interaction 23 – corpus en franỗais) Interactants : un jeune homme et une jeune fille inconnus
- Puis il s’approche d’elle et lui demande doucement : ô Je vous demande pardon, que pensez-vous de ce livre quand vous savez que je suis son auteur ? ằ
De plus, ce type d’excuse a aussi des variantes
Interactants : Théo Pilla et Hans Trow – les agents de la Stasi (services secrets est-allemands)
- Pourquoi tu la baises pas? Tu es amoureux … C’est quoi la solution!
(interaction 5 – corpus en franỗais) Interactants : Ivory et Adrian
It's not just what armillary spheres reveal that fascinates us; it's also what they conceal that we can intuitively grasp.
- Pardon ? demanda Ivory en se tournant vers moi
- Le vide et le temps, lui dis-je
Dans ces exemples ci-dessus, nous constatons que ceux qui disent ô Pardon ằ voudraient réaffirmer, vérifier l’information écouté Cependant, il arrive qu’on dit ô Pardon ằ pour contredire, rộfuter son partenaire
Ex : Interactants : Hans Trow – l’agent de la Stasi (services secrets est- allemands) et Maria Eich – une comédienne
- Vous n’avez donc pas de relations privilégiées avec lui Vous savez que nous le savons La solitude ó vous êtes
- Vous vous trompez, je ne me sens pas seule
- Non, je ne suis jamais seule
- C’est la stricte vérité, reprit Maria, je ne me sens jamais seule, jamais !
Ce type d’excuse existe peu en vietnamien et il est regrettable que nous n’en trouvions pas dans le corpus en vietnamien
In the play "Les Fourberies de Scapin," the character expresses deep remorse, pleading for forgiveness with heartfelt sincerity However, this type of apology is predominantly found within the Vietnamese corpus, highlighting a cultural distinction in the expression of regret and the nuances of seeking forgiveness.
- Oh là là! Vraiment? Donc, nous vous demandons pardon sincèrement Essayez de nous comprendre, s’il vous plaợt!
En somme, les excuses explicites sont généralement réalisées par les moyens syntaxiques avec la phrase injonctive (interaction 3 – corpus en franỗais, interaction
7 – corpus en vietnamien), la phrase elliptique (interaction 27, 29 – corpus en franỗais) et le moyen lexical avec le nom (ô pardon ằ dans l’interaction 12 – corpus en franỗais, les interactions 18, 24, 32 – corpus en vietnamien )
Cependant, nous trouvons une question sous forme d’une requête
Ex : Interactants : une femme et son mari dans le coma
Elle l’embrasse ô Tu me pardonnes ? ằ
Bilan comparatif sur la rộalisation de l’excuse en franỗais et en vietnamien
The analysis of excuses in French and Vietnamese reveals both similarities and differences in how excuses are expressed in these two languages Our focus is on the types of excuses based on their formulation: explicit, implicit, and mixed excuses In this section, we provide a comparative overview of the realization of these types in both languages The following table illustrates the linguistic means used to express these types of excuses, facilitating a clearer comparison.
Interactions verbales en franỗais (total /36)
Interactions verbales en vietnamien (total /36)
Nom 1 (excuse explicite) 1 (excuse implicite)
Verbe 0 2 (dont 1 explicite, 1 implicite) Adjectif 4 (excuses implicites) 1 (excuse implicite)
Phrase injontive 9 (excuses explicites) 9 (dont 8 excuses explicites, 1 implicite) Phrase assertive 4 (excuses implicites)
Combinaison des phrases assertives et injonctives
5 mixtes (explicite et implicite) Phrases elliptiques 4 (excuses explicites) 0
3 Combinaison des moyens lexicaux et syntaxiques
Firstly, apologies can be expressed verbally, paraverbally, or non-verbally by both the French and the Vietnamese Verbal expressions of apology are more common and are often accompanied by paraverbal and/or non-verbal cues.
Secondly, the verbal expression of apologies is highly nuanced in both French and Vietnamese Both cultures employ a diverse range of lexical and syntactic tools to convey their sentiments Typically, these elements are used in combination to enhance the effectiveness of the apology.
Both French and Vietnamese utilize various lexical means, including verbs, nouns, and adjectives, to express apologies In the Vietnamese corpus, verbs are prevalent in interactions, while nouns and adjectives are prominent in the French corpus Additionally, the combination of nouns and verbs is noted in Vietnamese interactions Both languages feature a performative verb for the act of apologizing: "s'excuser" in French and "xin lỗi" in Vietnamese, which are used in direct formulations.
In terms of syntactic means, apologies can be expressed using assertive, imperative, and elliptical sentences Often, assertive and imperative sentences are intertwined The frequency of using imperative sentences and the combination of assertive and imperative sentences in apologies is nearly identical in both languages.
En ce qui concerne la combinaison des moyens lexicaux et syntaxiques, il n’y a pas de grande différence dans la proportion d’utilisation de cet acte (19% en franỗais et 14% en vietnamien)
A côté des points communs, l’acte d’excuse est réalisé différemment en franỗais et en vietnamien
Vietnamese people tend to favor implicit apologies, with acknowledgment of wrongdoing being the most common form used In contrast, the French exhibit a nearly equal preference for both explicit and implicit apologies; when opting for implicit apologies, they most frequently express an appropriate emotional state, particularly regret.
Table 6 reveals that the frequency of assertive sentences conveying implicit apologies is higher in Vietnamese (33%) compared to French (11%) Notably, these assertive phrases effectively express implicit excuses.
In unequal relationships, the frequency of apologies in French occurs both upwards (from subordinate to superior) and downwards (from superior to subordinate) with a relatively balanced distribution (8 out of 13 interactions for upward and 5 out of 13 for downward) In contrast, Vietnamese apologies predominantly flow from the subordinate to the superior (12 out of 13 interactions), with very few occurring in the opposite direction (1 out of 13).
Enfin, les Franỗais utilisent souvent la phrase elliptique ô Pardon ? ằ quand ils voudraient demander à nouveau quelque chose qu’ils n’entendent pas très bien, par exemple :
Interactants : Théo Pilla et Hans Trow – les agents de la Stasi (services secrets est- allemands)
- Pourquoi tu la baises pas? Tu es amoureux … C’est quoi la solution!
Vietnamese speakers rarely use certain formal phrases, often opting for elliptical or interrogative expressions instead In discussions about top-down relationships, they might say "Dạ?" (Yes?) or "Cái gì ạ?" (What?/How?), incorporating a particle that conveys respect, such as "ôạ" for addressing individuals like sir, madam, or family members.
I didn't hear you clearly, what did you say, Madam? In terms of equal relationships or hierarchical ones: Huh? What?
2.3 Essai d’explication par les facteurs socioculturels
Vietnamese culture has historically absorbed influences from various Eastern and Western religions, including Indian Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and Christianity Among these, Confucianism has had the most significant impact on the Vietnamese mindset Renowned lexicologist and historian Dao Duy Anh noted that for over two thousand years, Confucianism has remained a steadfast presence in both Chinese and Vietnamese societies It permeates all levels of society, affecting not only scholars but also ordinary individuals in remote areas One could argue that every person in China and Vietnam lives within a Confucian framework, deeply influenced by its principles throughout their lives.
In Confucianism, honor holds significant value, deeply influencing the Vietnamese mindset This emphasis on respect and honor is evident in the Vietnamese people's keen awareness of maintaining face in social interactions.
“Tốt danh hơn lành áo”(Un bon renom vaut mieux des habits décents)
The saying highlights the significance of face and honor in human interactions, particularly in Vietnamese culture The fear of losing face often prevents individuals from making direct apologies Consequently, Vietnamese people tend to offer few explicit apologies, favoring implicit excuses and indirect formulations These are often presented as assertive statements that explain the reasons behind their behavior, thereby minimizing the negative impact of the apology on the speaker's face.
Influenced by Confucianism, Vietnamese society has developed a hierarchical structure where individual behaviors must adhere to social ranks Unlike the French ethos, which promotes equality among all humans as children of God, Vietnamese culture embodies a hierarchical ethos Confucian morality emphasizes the supreme authority of the king rather than a divine figure and outlines five cardinal relationships: ruler and subject, father and son, elder and younger siblings, husband and wife, and friends In this societal framework, the king wielded absolute power over his people, while paternal authority within families was also absolute Siblings were expected to respect and obey their elders, regardless of their economic independence Today, while the powers of family heads are constrained by customs and laws, the Vietnamese family structure still reflects these traditional values.
According to Nguyen Van Dung (2000:12), deep-rooted traditions from ancient times continue to influence modern society In this context, individuals in higher social positions seldom offer apologies to those in lower positions, with parents never apologizing to their children and elders rarely expressing regret to the youth.