INTRODUCTION
Statement of problem and rationale of the study
After 6 years joining the World Trade Organization (WTO), Vietnam has increasingly strengthened its power and position worldwide through international economic integration Such achievements owe much to translators who deal with the linguistic aspects of all business contracts and transactions in order to raise mutual understanding between domestic enterprises and their international business partners
Economists are increasingly recognizing the significance of precise language in their field (Pedro, 2011) Mastery of economic terminology is essential for the success of business transactions, as every business document is filled with such terms In today's globalized environment, accurately translating economic terms is crucial for anyone aiming to conduct business internationally.
Numerous studies have addressed the complexities of economic translation, highlighting common errors and challenges Notably, Andreea-Rosalia Olteanu's research on "Errors and Difficulties in Translating Economic Texts" identifies prevalent mistakes and offers improvement strategies Similarly, Professor Pedro A Fuertes Olivera's study, "Metaphor and Translation: A Case Study in the Field of Economics," emphasizes the intricacies of translating economic documents at both the sentence and discourse levels While these studies provide valuable insights into economic translation, they often overlook the unique features of various languages In Vietnam, research by Phung (2013), Bui (2013), Bui (2011), and Hoang (2005) has explored economic translation, yet none have specifically focused on international trade terminologies This gap presents an opportunity for further investigation in this critical area.
“Translation Procedures Applied in Translating Economic Terms Related to International Trade”
This study aims to identify the translation procedures commonly used for international trade terminologies and will statistically analyze the frequency of each procedure to determine the most prevalent one This understanding will serve as a foundation for the researcher’s recommendations on effectively translating international trade terms Additionally, by providing valuable insights into English-Vietnamese translations of economic terms related to international trade, this paper aspires to benefit those interested in the subject.
Aims and research questions
This study aims to identify the translation procedures used for international trade terms in the book “International Economics: Theory and Policy” by Krugman, Obstfeld, and Melitz Beyond merely listing these procedures, the researcher analyzes the data to determine the most commonly used translation strategies By highlighting the dominant procedures, the study assists translators in producing high-quality translations efficiently, ultimately saving time and effort in their work process.
Specifically, the aims and objectives of the research are to answer the two following research questions:
1 What are translation procedures applied in translating economic terms related to international trade in part 1 and part 2 of the book “International Economics: Theory and Policy”?
2 What is the most dominant translation procedure applied in translating these economic terms from English to Vietnamese?
Significance of the study
This comprehensive study on translation procedures for economic terms aims to benefit translation and interpreting students, professional translators, and researchers interested in this field.
The research offers translation and interpreting students a comprehensive glossary of economic terms related to international trade, complete with precise translations This resource aids learners in enhancing their translation skills, particularly when working with economic documents Additionally, the study highlights the effectiveness and common usage of various translation procedures for economic terms, enabling students to select the most suitable methods for producing high-quality translations efficiently.
Professional translators can utilize the findings of this research to select appropriate translation strategies for economic terms Additionally, the study provides a valuable resource of economic terminology and its translations, enhancing their specialized vocabulary and significantly benefiting their workflow.
This study serves as a valuable primary source for researchers with similar interests, particularly in the translation of economic materials at the word level It provides a solid foundation for those looking to explore this topic further, especially at the sentence and discourse levels.
Scope of the study
This research focuses on the translation of terms related to international trade, a vast and complex economic field Conducting extensive research in this area necessitates a deep understanding of economics and international trade, presenting a significant challenge for a linguistic learner like the researcher.
Hence, the researcher only focuses on investigating translation procedures applied in translating international trade terms from part 1 and part 2 of the book
“International Economics: Theory and Policy” (ninth edition) by Krugman Obstfeld Melitz The translated terms are collected from the translation version published by National Political Publishing House.
Thesis structure
Overall, the paper is comprised of three following parts, each of which would be divided into some chapters:
Part 1 – Introduction: provides a comprehensive overview of the study including the rationale, aims, research questions, the significance, the scope and the structure of the research.
DEVELOPMENT
Translation Theory
As the demand for cross-cultural communication increases, the importance of translation has grown significantly Linguists and researchers worldwide are dedicating their efforts to refine the definition of translation, resulting in a variety of interpretations of the term.
Etymologically, translation originates from the Latin word translatio (to carry across or to bring across) According to Oxford Advanced Learners’
According to the Dictionary Sixth Edition (2000), translation is defined as "the process of changing something that is written or spoken into another language." While this definition is straightforward, it does not adequately capture the unique characteristics and complexities inherent in the translation process.
Considering Newmark's perspective on translation is crucial, as he defines it as "rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended." However, this definition overlooks the influence of readership and stylistic elements in the translated work In contrast, Catford offers a more comprehensive definition, stating that translation involves "the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)." This highlights that translation extends beyond the author's intent and hinges on linguistic equivalence Yet, translators often encounter challenges in finding equivalent terms in the target language, indicating that Catford's definition also requires further refinement.
Apart from these aforementioned definitions of translation, there is also a detailed discussion of Larson Larson (1984, p.3) states that:
Translation involves analyzing the vocabulary, grammar, communication context, and cultural nuances of the source language text to grasp its meaning This understanding is then reconstructed in the target language, ensuring that the vocabulary and grammatical structures align with the cultural context of the receptor language.
Larson emphasizes three crucial elements in translation: lexical aspect, grammatical aspect, and context This highlights that translation goes beyond mere language conversion To achieve high-quality translations, translators need to engage in analytical processes that thoroughly examine all linguistic features of the source text.
The researcher adopts Larson's (1984) comprehensive definition of translation as the foundational theoretical framework for this thesis, as it encompasses nearly all essential aspects of the translation process.
Translation procedures focus on the conversion of small linguistic units, such as words and sentences, within a text Over the years, various theories on translation procedures have emerged, notably those by Nida (1964), Vinay and Darbelnet (1957), and Newmark (1988) In his influential work, "Towards a Science of Translation," Nida categorizes translation procedures into technical and organizational aspects The technical procedures involve a detailed text analysis, which includes three phases: (i) analyzing the source language (SL) and target language (TL), (ii) conducting a thorough examination of the SL text, and (iii) identifying suitable equivalents.
1964, p 241) The other procedure focuses on checking and evaluating the translated text
Unlike Nida, Vinay and Darbelnet (1957) cited in Munday (2001) present seven translation procedures, namely: (1) loan, (2) calque, (3) literal, (4) transposition, (5) modulation, (6) total syntagmatic change, (7) adaptation
Peter Newmark's translation procedures are highly regarded and widely adopted by professional translators globally for their practicality and efficiency This paper utilizes Newmark's theory to analyze the translation of economic terms, focusing specifically on nine key procedures that are frequently used in terminology translation.
Transference involves incorporating a source language (SL) word directly into a target language (TL) text without translation, primarily to achieve a specific stylistic effect This technique is frequently applied to proper names, including newspaper titles, geographical locations, street names, and new technical terms that lack equivalents in the target language, such as "blog," "web," and "Internet."
A transferred word is adapted to the TL (maintaining the pronunciation and morphology) e.g: Coffee: Cà phê
Translation often involves rendering a word or phrase literally into the target language, particularly for established terms like organizational names and common collocations For instance, the abbreviation WTO is translated as World Trade Organization, which in Vietnamese is Tổ chức thương mại thế giới.
ASEAN: The Association of Southeast Asian Nations: Hiệp hội các quốc gia Đông Nam Á
MOET: The Ministry of Education and Training: Bộ giáo dục đào tạo
Shift or transposition involves a change in the grammar/ part of speech from
SL to TL e.g: After her return: Sau khi cô ấy trở về nhà
He is thought to have left: Người ta cho rằng anh ta đã đi
Modulation means the variation in the message when it is translated into the
TL due to change in the point of view, including:
I grew up here; I know the place like the back of my hand
Tôi đã lớn lên tại đây; vậy nên, tôi rõ nơi này như lòng bàn tay
The thief was caught by the police
Cảnh sát đã bắt được tên trộm
In translation, a source language (SL) cultural term is often matched with a target language (TL) equivalent that conveys its meaning For example, the phrase "A quarter mile down the road he stopped and looked back" translates to "Đi khoảng 400 mét, anh ngoảnh lại," illustrating how cultural expressions can be adapted while retaining their essence.
He graduated after obtaining a degree with high distinction
Anh ta tốt nghiệp loại xuất sắc
This procedure uses a cultural-free word/ expression in a translation for a cultural word/ expression in the source text e.g.: Will the Pentagon decide to terminate the program?
Liệu Bộ Quốc Phòng Mỹ có quyết định ngừng chương trình này không?
The original word's meaning is elaborated through multiple words, often used in transference to convey cultural expressions For example, to attend the barbecue, one must present a student ID, which translates to: "To participate in the outdoor barbecue (a gathering with food grilled outdoors), one must bring a student ID."
This approach integrates multiple translation techniques to address a specific issue, especially prevalent in translating cultural terms For instance, when translating a sentence like "He bought old coins on eBay," transference may be used alongside a functional or cultural equivalent to convey the intended meaning effectively.
Anh ta mua những đồng xu cổ trên trang mạng đấu giá trực tuyến Ebay.
Overview of terminology
Translators often encounter significant challenges when dealing with technical terms, as accurate translations require a deep understanding of specialized fields Without sufficient knowledge, their grasp of the text may be limited For example, the word “bear” typically refers to a heavy wild animal, but in economic contexts, it signifies someone who sells shares in anticipation of a price drop This illustrates how technical terms can have meanings that differ greatly from their common definitions, highlighting the importance of expertise in translation.
Terminology refers to the specific set of technical words or expressions associated with a particular subject, as defined by the Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary This definition emphasizes the unique characteristic of terminology, which involves words that carry specific meanings within a given context.
Terminology refers to specialized words and fixed expressions used within specific fields such as computing, science, and commerce Professionals in these areas gradually become acquainted with their respective vocabularies, incorporating these terms into their daily work According to Nguyen (1960), terminology encompasses both individual words and established phrases relevant to a particular domain.
“specialized areas” Similarly, according to Nguyen (1981) cited in Hoang (2005),
Terminology refers to the specific vocabulary used within a language, encompassing precise words and phrases that denote concepts and subjects across various specialized fields.
Linguists define terminology in various ways, but it generally refers to a collection of specialized terms used within a specific professional domain A thorough understanding of this terminology is essential for achieving high-quality translations.
The table below shows some clear examples of economic terms:
Table 1.2.1: Examples of economic terms
Specific factor model Mô hình các yếu tố sản xuất chuyên biệt
Mobile factors Yếu tố linh động
Diminishing returns Lợi tức giảm dần
Budget constraint Ràng buộc ngân sách
According to Baker (1998), terms are distinct from ordinary words as they refer to specific conceptual entities, properties, activities, or relations within a particular subject field, highlighting their specialized purpose Professionals in various fields utilize specialized terms that are unique to their disciplines, while common words are used in everyday life and do not necessitate specialized knowledge for understanding.
11 argument, there are several characteristics that can distinguish terminology from ordinary words
According to Hoang (2005), terminology encompasses six key qualities: accuracy, systematism, internationalism, nationalism, practicality, and popularity In contrast, Nguyen (1985) and Do (1981), as referenced by Bui (2013), propose that terminology consists of only three essential features: accuracy, internationality, and systematicity This divergence highlights the ongoing debate in the field regarding the comprehensive characteristics of terminology.
In this paper, the researcher adopts the perspective of Hoang (2005), who provides a more detailed and comprehensive theoretical background on terminology compared to Nguyen (1985) and Do (1981).
The foremost feature of terminology is accuracy, as highlighted by Nguyen (2005), who asserts that a good term should represent a single concept within a specific field Luu (1977) reinforces this idea by noting that each linguistic signal corresponds to one essential meaning, ensuring clarity in communication It is crucial for terminology to convey concepts in fields such as education, sports, business, and technology precisely, as this prevents misunderstandings between different concepts Each technical term must denote only one concept, guiding readers to the specific knowledge it represents Ultimately, this characteristic underscores the "one-to-one equivalent" model between a term and its corresponding concept, which is vital for effective terminology translation and comprehension (Hoang, 2005).
As noted by Nguyen (2002) in Bui (2013), each term holds a specific position within a comprehensive definition system and is part of a broader terminology framework This indicates that the significance of a term is determined by its interconnections with other terms in the system.
The systematic nature of terminology is crucial for its meaning, as individual terms can lose significance when isolated For instance, Hoang (2005) demonstrates this with economic terms where suffixes like –er, -or, and –ee denote specific roles, such as employer, employee, and creditor.
The prevalence of economic acronyms such as WTO (World Trade Organization), BOT (Balance of Trade), and GNP (Gross National Product) underscores the international nature of economic terminology These terms maintain consistent meanings across different languages and regions, reflecting the growing trend of globalization As the world becomes more interconnected, both general and economic terms are increasingly being standardized on a global scale.
The national characteristic of terminology emphasizes that terms should align with the grammatical and lexical norms of the local language According to Hoang (2005), "Clearly, terms belong to the national language." This means that terminologies in Vietnamese must adhere to Vietnamese grammatical rules and reflect the cultural context of Vietnam.
Terms should be based on shared knowledge within specific professional fields, making them understandable to those within that group However, to effectively communicate scientific and technological advancements to the broader society, it is essential that these terms are accessible to everyone Terms can be categorized into two types: those that facilitate common communication for daily activities and those that are tailored for specialized work contexts.
Nguyen (2005), as referenced by Bui (2013) and Hoang (2005), identifies three primary types of terminology: simple terms, above-word-level terms, and acronyms This research specifically examines the English-Vietnamese translation of economic terms, focusing exclusively on Vietnamese terminology, which consists of three components: Pure-Vietnamese (V), Sino-Vietnamese (H), and Indo-European (A) words, as noted by Tu (1968) in Bui (2013).
Economic terms
In today's globalized world, nations must collaborate to strengthen the global economy, which encompasses the economies of all countries and territories This interdependence fosters economic relations, as countries engage and interact with one another to promote mutual growth and prosperity.
“labor division” and “mutual benefits” (Krugman, Obstfeld & Melitz, 2011)
International economics examines the economic interactions between nations and the impact of global issues on economic activities worldwide This field encompasses three primary sub-branches: international trade, international investment, and international finance Key topics addressed within international economics include the gains from trade, trade patterns, protectionism, balance of payments, exchange rate determination, international policy coordination, and the international capital market.
(1) The gains from trade: mutual benefits each country gains by selling goods and services for each other
The pattern of trade addresses the fundamental question of which commodities are exchanged between nations, specifically identifying what goods are exported and imported by each country Understanding this trade pattern is crucial for analyzing global commerce dynamics (Salvatore, 2007)
(3) Protectionism: policies to reduce imported goods, and at the same time subsidize export in order to protect domestic industries from fierce international competition
The balance of payments is a comprehensive summary that records all transactions between a nation's residents and those of other countries over a specific time period.
The exchange rate represents the amount of domestic currency required to buy one unit of foreign currency, playing a crucial role in currency valuation This determination is linked to currency depreciation and appreciation, where depreciation indicates a rise in the domestic price of foreign currency, while appreciation signifies a decrease in that price.
In an interconnected global economy, the policies of individual countries significantly influence one another, often leading to conflicting interests due to differing national objectives A key challenge in international economics is establishing acceptable agreements among nations to promote global economic integration effectively.
The international capital market focuses on integrating the capital markets of individual countries into a cohesive global market This paper specifically examines "international trade" as a key area of study within the broader field of international economics.
1.3.2 Main characteristics and classification of international trade terms
International trade terms in Vietnamese translation consist of three main components: Pure-Vietnamese (V), Sino-Vietnamese (H), and Indo-European (A), reflecting the theoretical frameworks surrounding term features.
International trade terms are classified into three categories: simple terms (one-word terms), above-word-level terms, and acronyms Simple terms can be either verbs or nouns, with most being derived from Pure-Vietnamese (V).
Table 1.3.2.1: Examples of one-word-level terms
No English terms Vietnamese equivalents
Above-word-level terms are mainly translated by using Sino-Vietnamese words In English, above-word-level terms often appear in the form of nominal group For example:
Table 1.3.2.2: Examples of above-word-level terms
No English terms Vietnamese equivalents
1 Balance of payments Cán cân thanh toán
2 International market Thị trường quốc tế
3 Opportunity cost theory Lý thuyết chi phí cơ hội
4 Incomplete specialization Chuyên môn hóa không hoàn toàn
Economic acronyms fall into two main categories: the first category includes acronyms representing the names of international institutions and organizations, while the second category encompasses acronyms that form specific terms or specialized concepts.
Table 1.3.2.3: Examples of economic acronyms
4 MRT Marginal rate of transformation
Selection of subjects
The study analyzed 222 international trade terminologies sourced from the initial two sections of "International Economics" by Krugman, Obstfeld, and Melitz While the latter sections of the book delve into international finance, which was outside the researcher's focus, the first two parts concentrate on international trade theory and policy, encompassing 12 comprehensive chapters.
Chapter 2: World Trade: An Overview
Chapter 3: Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage: The Ricardian Model Chapter 4: Specific Factors and Income Distribution
Chapter 5: Resources and Trades: The Heckscher – Ohlin Model
Chapter 6: The Standard Trade Model
Chapter 7: External Economies of Scale and the International Location of Production
Chapter 8: Firms in the Global Economy: Export Decisions, Outsourcing, and
Chapter 9: The Instruments of Trade Policy
Chapter 10: The Political Economy of Trade Policy
Chapter 11: Trade Policy in Developing Countries
Chapter 12: Controversies in Trade Policy
Vietnamese translated versions of collected terms were exploited from the translation of the book published by National Political Publishing House.
Data collection instrument
The study's data was gathered by closely observing the document, specifically focusing on parts 1 and 2 of the book "International Economics: Theory and Policy," along with its translated version, to identify key terms essential for the analysis process.
Data collection procedures
The data collection was carried out in two following steps:
Step 1: The very first task was to study the chosen materials carefully and then, gather all key terms to create a bank of international trade terms
Step 2: The researcher arranged the collected terms in the alphabet order.
Data analysis procedures
The study utilized both qualitative and quantitative methods for data analysis The qualitative approach focused on identifying the translation procedures used in English-Vietnamese translations of the collected terms, while the quantitative method was employed to determine the percentage of the most prevalent translation procedures.
To be clearer, there were three steps of analyzing the collected data:
Step 1: Basing on the translation procedure theory of Peter Newmark, the researcher studied the data to find out the translation procedure applied in translating each collected term
Step 2: Classification tables were made use of to sort out the chosen terms based on each procedure Specifically, all of the terms translated by the same procedure were in a table as followed:
Table No…: International trade terms translated by …………(translation procedures)
English Terms Vietnamese translated version Analysis
The findings from this phase addressed the initial research question regarding the translation procedures utilized for economic terms in international trade, as presented in parts 1 and 2 of the book "International Economics: Theory and Policy."
Step 3: The researcher calculated the prevalence of each translation procedure so as to find out the most commonly used one Fo r the accomplishment of this purpose, the following formula was applied:
Y: percentage of each type of translation procedure in the data
X: number of data in specified type of translation procedure
N: total number of international trade terms
The result would be the answer for the second research question “What is the most dominant translation procedure applied in translating these economic terms from English to Vietnamese?”
Data analysis
After collecting data, the researcher utilized a qualitative approach to analyze 222 international trade terms from "International Economics: Theory and Policy" by Krugman, Obstfeld, and Melitz The analysis was informed by a literature review of Peter Newmark's nine translation procedures, which include transference, naturalization, through-translation, transposition, modulation, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, and couplets.
This section presents a comprehensive analysis of the translation procedures used for economic terms, highlighting common terms that exemplify each type of procedure Due to the scope of this research, only selected terms are discussed, while additional terms can be referenced in the Appendix at the conclusion of this paper.
With the scope of 222 collected terms, 172 terms applying through translation procedures were detected, accounting for 77.48%
Table 3.1.1: Analysis of cases applying through translation procedure of the book “International Economics: Theory and Policy” by Krugman Obstfield Melitz
English terms Vietnamese equivalents Analysis
Absolute advantage Lợi thế tuyệt đối “Absolute advantage” is a compound noun formed from two single words “absolute” and
“advantage” These two components are literally translated from SL to TL Specifically, “absolute” is defined as “complete or total”, which is
The English term "absolute advantage" translates to Vietnamese as "lợi thế tuyệt đối," which literally means "completely" or "totally" and refers to a state of having a benefit that allows one to be more successful than others This phrase is derived from Sino-Vietnamese, emphasizing its significance in economic discussions.
The term "average" refers to the value obtained by summing multiple quantities and dividing that total by the number of quantities involved.
“trung bình”; “cost” is defined as
“the amount of money that you have to pay in order to buy, do, or produce something” equivalent to
“chi phí” Hence, the term
“average cost” is literally translated as “chi phí trung bình”, and this is a Sino-Vietnamese phrase
Phúc lợi xã hội bảo thủ
Someone's welfare is defined as their health and happiness, which is equivalent to “phúc lợi”, so
English terms Vietnamese equivalents Analysis
The term "social welfare" translates to "phúc lợi xã hội" in Vietnamese, while "conservative" refers to a resistance to change or new ideas, translating to "bảo thủ." Thus, "phúc lợi xã hội bảo thủ" is a direct translation of the term Additionally, "diminishing return," or "lợi tức giảm dần," describes the decreasing amount of profit gained from an investment, with "return" meaning the profit and "lợi tức" being its Vietnamese equivalent.
“decreasing”, which is equivalent to “giảm dần” Clearly “lợi tức giảm dần” is literally translated from the original one This is a H-
V term formed by a Sino- Vietnamese word “lợi tức” and a pure – Vietnamese one “giảm dần”
Thị trường vốn nội địa In the Vietnamese equivalent,
“thị trường”, “vốn”, “nội địa” signify “market”, “capital”,
“domestic” respectively, which proves that through translation is applied here
Export supply curve Đường cung xuất khẩu “Curve” is “a line on a graph that gradually bends and
English terms Vietnamese equivalents Analysis represents a change in the amount or level of something” referring to “đường” in Vietnamese;
“export” and “supply” are equivalent “xuất khẩu” and “cung ứng” respectively Hence, “đường cung xuất khẩu” is the literal translation of “export supply curve”
Externalities Các ngoại ứng “Ngoại ứng” is a Sino-
Vietnamese word equivalent to externality “Các ngoại ứng” is a borrowed concept and literally translated from “externalities” Import-substituting industrialization (ISI)
Công nghiệp hóa thay thế nhập khẩu
Import-substituting industrialization (ISI) is a widely recognized term in the global economic landscape This concept is often translated from the source language to the target language, highlighting its significance in economic discussions worldwide.
“industrialization” mean “xuất khẩu”, “thay thế”, “công nghiệp hóa” in Vietnamese language.“Import-substituting industrialization” (ISI) is literally
English terms Vietnamese equivalents Analysis translated as “công nghiệp hóa thay thế nhập khẩu”
Opportunity cost, or "chi phí cơ hội" in Vietnamese, refers to the value of the next best alternative that is forgone when making a decision The term "opportunity" signifies a chance to take action, while "cost" denotes the associated expenses Together, "chi phí cơ hội" encapsulates the concept of weighing the benefits of one choice against the potential gains of another Understanding opportunity cost is essential for making informed economic decisions.
The concept of "Optimum tariff" refers to the most effective or suitable tariff rate for a specific purpose or situation, aligning with the Vietnamese term "thuế quan tối ưu." This optimal tariff aims to balance trade benefits while protecting domestic industries, ultimately fostering economic growth and stability.
“tariff” is “thuế quan” Hence,
“thuế quan tối ưu” is a H-H term applying through translation The General
Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT)
Hiệp định chung về thuế quan và mậu dịch
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is a widely recognized term in the global economic landscape, often used to refer to international trade regulations Its translation involves converting this expression from the source language (SL) to the target language (TL), ensuring clarity and understanding across different linguistic contexts.
English terms Vietnamese equivalents Analysis
“The General Agreement on Tariff and Trade” is literally translated as “Công nghiệp hóa thay thế nhập khẩu”
Real wage, or "tiền lương thực tế," refers to the income earned based on the hours, days, or weeks worked In Vietnamese, this term translates to "tiền lương," highlighting the direct relationship between the time invested in work and the monetary compensation received Understanding real wages is crucial for evaluating the true purchasing power of earnings.
“real” is equivalent to “thực tế” Therefore, “tiền lương thực tế” is clearly a literal translation of the given term
35 cases applying shift or transposition translation procedure were detected in this research, occupying 15.77%
Table 3.1.2: Analysis of cases applying shift translation procedure of the book
“International Economics: Theory and Policy” by Krugman Obstfield Melitz
English terms Vietnamese equivalents Analysis
Constraint is a noun, which is defined as
The term refers to "something that limits your freedom to do what you want," which translates to "sự ràng buộc, sự ép buộc" in Vietnamese, functioning as a noun However, when rendered into Vietnamese, it transforms into the verb "ràng buộc," meaning "to restrict or limit something." This distinction highlights the nuanced differences in meaning between the two languages.
English terms Vietnamese equivalents Analysis the translation “ràng buộc ngân sách” involves a grammatical change from SL to TL This proves that transposition is applied here
Efficiency loss Tổn thất hiệu năng
"Efficiency loss" refers to the reduction in the ability to maintain or achieve optimal performance In Vietnamese, this term is translated as "tổn thất," which is a Sino-Vietnamese verb This translation involves a transposition procedure that changes the part of speech from a noun phrase to a verb phrase, resulting in "tổn thất hiệu năng" in the target language.
Xác định tỉ giá hối đoái
This translated term involves a shift in grammar from a noun phrase in SL to a verb phrase in
Determination, defined as the quality of persisting in difficult situations, is a noun that emphasizes resilience In Vietnamese, this concept is expressed as the verb “xác định,” showcasing a linguistic transposition This transformation highlights the dynamic nature of language and the various ways in which determination can be articulated across cultures.
Indifference curves Đường cong bàn quan
“Curves” in the plural form equivalent to “các đường” is transposed into singular form
International negotiation Đàm phán quốc tế
“International negotiation” is a noun phrase
English terms Vietnamese equivalents Analysis
“Negotiation” is the main noun and
“international” is an adjective modifying the main noun However, “international negotiation”- a noun phrase is translated as
“đàm phán quốc tế” – a verb phrase in TL There appears a shift in grammar from a noun phrase to a verb phrase
Oligopoly Độc quyền tập đoàn
The term "oligopoly," originally a single word, transforms into the compound noun "độc quyền tập đoàn" when translated into Vietnamese This grammatical alteration illustrates the application of the transposition procedure in language translation.
Lập luận về lao động rẻ mạt
“Argument” is a noun meaning “a situation in which two or more people disagree, often angrily [= disagreement]” and it is equivalent to
“sự tranh luận, sự lập luận” Yet, in Vietnamese equivalent, “lập luận” is a Sino-Vietnamese verb denoting “to argue”
Phân biệt về giá cả
This translated term involves a grammatical change from a noun phrase to a verb phrase
“Discrimination” is equivalent to “sự phân biệt” in Vietnamese language, and “price discrimination” should be translated literally as
“ sự phân biệt về giá” However, it is turned into a verb phrase as “phân biệt về giá cả”
English terms Vietnamese equivalents Analysis
The term "transfer" refers to the process of moving someone or something from one location or job to another, which can be translated as "sự chuyển giao, chuyển tiếp." In a grammatical context, this term is adapted into the verb phrase "chuyển giao thu nhập," indicating a shift in usage This concept also highlights the issue of unequal exchange.
Trao đổi không công bằng
Findings
What are translation procedures applied in translating economic terms related to international trade in part 1 and part 2 of the book “International Economics: Theory and Policy”?
In the previous chapter, the researcher conducted an analysis of 222 international economic terms sourced from parts 1 and 2 of the core book A qualitative approach was utilized to categorize these terms based on their translation types.
35 procedure, and the quantitative one was employed to calculate the frequency and percentage of each procedure
Based on Peter Newmark's translation procedure theory, the researcher identified six types of translation procedures: through translation, shift translation, couplets, modulation, descriptive equivalent, and cultural equivalent These procedures were applied to translate 222 terms collected from the book The frequency of each translation procedure used is detailed in the table below.
Table 3.2.1: Frequency and percentage of translation procedures found in English-Vietnamese translation of international economic terms in the book
“International Economics: Theory and Policy” by Krugman Obstfield Melitz
3.2.2 Research question 2: What is the most dominant translation procedure applied in translating these economic terms from English to Vietnamese?
Figure 3.2.2: The percentage of translation procedures applied in the English-Vietnamese translation of international economic terms in the book
“International Economics: Theory and Policy” by Krugman Obstfi eld Melitz
The chart shows that translation accounts for the highest percentage of procedures at 77.48%, followed by shift translation at 15.77% In contrast, only 6.3% of international economic terms are translated using couplets, modulation, descriptive equivalents, and cultural equivalents, with cultural equivalents being the least utilized translation method.
In translating international economic terms from "International Economics: Theory and Policy" by Krugman, Obstfeld, and Melitz, the predominant translation procedure utilized is direct translation.
Discussion
Following data analysis, the researcher discovered that translation was the most commonly employed method for translating international economic terms, a finding supported by several underlying reasons.
According to Newmark (1988), literal translation, also known as "through translation," is a prevalent method in translation that ensures accuracy and simplicity This approach allows translators to convey the exact meaning of words and expressions in the target language, exemplified by terms like "comparative advantage."
The terms "average cost" and "domestic capital market" translate to "lợi thế so sánh," "chi phí trung bình," and "thị trường vốn nội địa," respectively Utilizing straightforward translations enhances comprehension and retention for readers, making it an effective tool for improving readability Additionally, through translation serves as an ideal approach for interpreting economic acronyms, which are frequently found in economic textbooks and often represent names of international organizations or common phrases.
International Economics encompasses various theories and policies, utilizing universally recognized acronyms like WTO, IMF, ISI, and NAFTA Employing these acronyms through translation enhances clarity, resulting in concise and memorable terms that facilitate understanding in the field.
Vietnam's integration into the global economy began with its accession to the WTO in 2007, marking the emergence of international trade as a new economic field within the country As sectors like international trade, investment, and finance have only recently been explored, many related terminologies remain unfamiliar in the Vietnamese language Therefore, translation serves as the most effective method for introducing these new terms to Vietnamese readers.
Shift translation is the second most frequently used translation procedure among the six identified, highlighting its significance in the translation process This method, known as transposition, entails altering the grammatical structure from the source language (SL) to the target language (TL), as noted by Newmark (1988) The effectiveness of this strategy is evident in the translation of 35 terms collected from the book.
““International Economics: Theory and Policy”
The differences in word formation and structural patterns between Vietnamese and English can significantly impact translation quality For example, the term "variable coefficients" is plural in English but is translated as "hệ số biến thiên," omitting the plural indicators "những" or "các." This grammatical adjustment from plural to singular, along with the removal of unnecessary words, enhances the conciseness of the translation Furthermore, the Vietnamese language plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity of expressions, as seen in compound nouns like "price discrimination," which translates to "sự phân biệt giá cả."
International negotiation, or "sự đàm phán quốc tế" in Vietnamese, often translates into verb phrases like "phân biệt giá cả" and "đàm phán quốc tế." These verb phrases highlight the action being taken, enhancing the clarity and impact of the message Consequently, transposition emerges as the second most prevalent translation method identified in this study.
Modulation is a translation strategy that shifts the perspective from the target language (TL) to the source language (SL), particularly in the context of international economic terms This approach is essential because Vietnamese typically favors active voice, while English commonly uses passive voice By transforming passive expressions in English into their active counterparts in Vietnamese, modulation enhances the naturalness of the terms for Vietnamese readers.
Couplets is a translation technique that merges two or more procedures, making it an effective strategy for translating terms without equivalents in the source language (SL) These terms often include proper names, such as Brander-Spencer analysis, Heckscher-Ohlin theory, and the Doha Round In such instances, proper names can be translated using transference or naturalization, while the remaining components are translated through translation This combined approach preserves the integrity of the original proper names and enhances the international recognition of the translated terminology.
3.3.4 Descriptive equivalent and cultural equivalent
Descriptive and cultural equivalents represent the least frequently used translation methods for cultural terms between source language (SL) and target language (TL) In today's globalized context, it is crucial to apply these equivalents judiciously to maintain the clarity and accessibility of international economic documents.
The research indicates that translation is the most effective method for conveying international economic terms, ensuring accuracy and conciseness in the target language (TL) This approach enhances the accessibility of new and unfamiliar terms, making them more comprehensible for readers.
Using couplets and thought translation for proper names and recognized expressions is highly recommended, as these methods enhance the international appeal and recognition of translated terms.
Translators must carefully consider the use of descriptive and cultural equivalents, as these approaches can limit readership and hinder the clarity of translated terms within a particular culture.
In summary, translators engaged in international trade documents should prioritize translation as their primary method Nonetheless, alternative translation procedures may also be valuable in certain contexts, as the ultimate goal of all translators is to deliver effective translations that foster mutual understanding among speakers of different languages.
CONCLUSION
Recapitulation of the study
A recent study has examined the translation procedures used for economic terms in international trade, focusing on the ninth edition of "International Economics: Theory and Policy" by Krugman, Obstfeld, and Melitz.
The research ensured accuracy and reliability by providing a comprehensive theoretical background on translation and terminology in the literature review Utilizing both qualitative and quantitative methods, the study analyzed 222 terms collected from key textbooks The data analysis process yielded significant findings that have been presented.
A recent study identified six key translation procedures frequently used for translating economic terms: direct translation, shift translation, couplets, modulation, descriptive equivalent, and cultural equivalent Notably, direct translation emerged as the most dominant method among these procedures.
Based on the research findings, the author offers specific recommendations for various translation procedures, which can serve as a valuable reference for translators handling economic documents.
Limitations of the study
Due to the time constraints and the researcher’s limited ability and experience, some limitations still remain in the study
As a student not specializing in international economics, the researcher focuses primarily on the linguistic aspects of international trade terms rather than their technical details This approach may result in minor misunderstandings of certain Vietnamese equivalents, potentially leading to inaccuracies in the classification of translation procedures.
This study focuses on analyzing the translation procedures used for 222 economic terms extracted from the book "International Economics: Theory and Policy." However, the limited number of terms may not provide a comprehensive understanding of the translation strategies employed in the field of economics.
42 investigation on common procedures applied in such a broad and extensive field as international economics
Due to space constraints, the researcher is unable to provide a comprehensive analysis of all collected terms in the findings; however, an accurate classification of these terms is presented in the Appendix.
There is still a lot of room for further investigation and research on the translation of economic terms
This paper explores the translation of economic materials at the word level, providing a foundational resource for researchers interested in studying this subject at the sentence and discourse levels.
This paper focuses specifically on the procedures used in translating international economic terms Future research could explore other aspects of translation, including translation methods, equivalents, and errors, which represent promising avenues for further study.
The terminology systems of various economic subfields, including game theory, bargaining theory, experimental economics, microeconomics, macroeconomics, and monetary economics, remain largely unexplored Therefore, it is essential to conduct studies focused on the translation of terminology across these economic branches to enhance understanding and communication in the field.
The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies by Baker (1998) serves as a foundational text in the field, while Bui (2013) contributes to the discourse with two significant works on the translation of taxation and tax terms, highlighting the complexities involved in these specialized areas Additionally, Bui (2011) explores the translation of economic metaphors from English to Vietnamese, offering insights into cultural and linguistic nuances in economic discourse Together, these works underscore the importance of accurate translation in the realms of taxation and economics.
Catford, J.C (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation: an Essay in Applied
Linguistics London: Oxford University Press
Do, H.C (1981) Từ vựng nghĩa Tiếng Việt Hanoi: Education Publisher
Hall, S (2010) Define International Economics Ehow Electronic Newspaper
Retrieved February 7, 2014 from http://www.ehow.com/about_6472031_define-international-economics.html Hoang, T.B (2005) A study on the translation of economic terminology Hanoi:
Hoang, T.B (2005) A Study on Translation of Economic Terminologies – A Case
Study on an Economic Textbook Hanoi: Vietnam National University
Krugman, P.R., Obstfeld, M., & Melitz, M.J (1996) Kinh tế học quốc tế: Lý thuyết và chính sách, Tập I (Những vấn đề về thương mại quốc tế) Hà Nội: NXB
Krugman, P.R., Obstfeld, M., & Melitz, M.J (2012) International Economics:
Theories and Policy (9 th ed.) New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Larson, M.L 1984 Meaning –Based Translation Boston: University Press of
Luu, V.L (1977) Ngôn ngữ và Tiếng Việt Hanoi: Social Science Publisher
Munday, J.(2001) Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications.
Newmark, P (1988b) Approaches to Translation Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall Newmark, P.P (1988) A Textbook of Translation Hemel Hempstead: Prentice-Hall
Nguyen, N.B (2005) A study on English – Vietnamese translation of sport terminology Hanoi: Vietnam National University
Nguyen, T.G (1985) Từ vựng học Tiếng Việt Hanoi: Education Publisher
Nguyen, V.T (1960) Khái niệm ngôn ngữ học Hanoi Publisher
Nida, E A (1964) Towards a science of translation, with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating Leiden: Brill Olteanu, A.R (2012) Errors and Difficulties in Translating Economic Texts
Retrieved December 3, 2013 from http://lectura.bibliotecadigitala.ro/Olteanu_Adriana/Errors_and_difficulties_i n_translating_economic_texts.pdf
Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary (6th Ed) Oxford University Press
Pedro A.F.O.(1998) Metaphor and Translation: A Case Study in the Field of
Economic Retrieved December 5, 2013 from http://www.pedrofuertes.net/uploads/Metaphor%20and%20Translation.pdf Phung, T.H.A (2013) Equivalence in English – Vietnamese Translation of
Salvatore, D (2007) International Economics (9 th ed.) New York: John Wiley &
No English terms Vietnamese equivalents
1 A full-employment economy Một nền kinh tế hoàn toàn không có thất nghiệp
2 A general equilibrium Cân bằng chung
3 A hands-off policy Một chính sách không can thiệp
4 A large price cut Sự cắt giảm giá lớn
5 A one-factor economy Nền kinh tế có một yếu tố sản xuất
6 A partial equilibrium Cân bằng bộ phận
7 A substitution effect Tác động thay thế
8 Absolute advantage Lợi thế tuyệt đối
9 Abundant factor Yếu tố sản xuất dồi dào
10 Ad valorem tariff Thuế quan theo giá trị
11 Amount of goods Lượng hàng hóa
12 An income effect Tác động thu nhập
13 An integrated market Thị trường hợp nhất
14 Appropriate technology Công nghệ phù hợp
15 Average cost Chi phí trung bình
16 Average cost of production Chi phí sản xuất trung bình
17 Balance of payments Cán cân thanh toán
18 Better-performing firms Công ty hoạt động hiệu quả hơn
19 Biased growth Sự tăng trưởng thiên lệch
20 Biases expansion of production possibilities
Sự mở rộng thiên lệch khả năng sản xuất
21 Capital –abundant Giàu có về lao động
22 Collective action Hành động tập thể
23 Common market Thị trường chung
24 Comparative advantage Lợi thế so sánh
25 Conservative social welfare Phúc lợi xã hội bảo thủ
27 Customs union Liên minh thuế quan
28 Derived demand Nhu cầu dẫn xuất
29 Developing country Nước đang phát triển
30 Diminishing return Lợi tức giảm dần
31 Domestic capital market Thị trường vốn nội địa
32 Domestic market failure Thất bại thị trường trong nước
33 Dual economy Nền kinh tế hai khu vực
34 Dynamic increasing returns Lợi tức tăng dần năng động
35 Economic dualism Tình trạng kinh tế hai khu vực
36 Economic geography Địa lý kinh tế
37 Economic incentives Những khuyến khích kinh tế
38 Economic interdependence Sự phụ thuộc lẫn nhau về kinh tế
39 Economies of scale Lợi thế nhờ quy mô
40 Economy’s consumption Sự tiêu thụ của nền kinh tế
41 Effective rate of production Tỷ lệ sản xuất có hiệu quả
42 Efficiency case for free trade Tính hiệu quả biện minh cho tự do mậu dịch
43 Excess return Lợi tức vượt mức
44 Export –competing industry Ngành cạnh tranh xuất khẩu
45 Export credit subsidies Các khoản trợ cấp tín dụng xuất khẩu
46 Export earning Lợi nhuận từ xuất khẩu
47 Export subsidy Trợ cấp xuất khẩu
48 Export supply curve Đường cung xuất khẩu
49 Export-biased growth Sự tăng trưởng thiên lệch về hàng xuất khẩu
50 External price Giá bên ngoài
52 Factor abundance Sự dồi dào của yếu tố sản xuất
53 Factor intensity Sự tập trung của yếu tố sản xuất
54 Factor-price equalization Sự san bằng các mức giá yếu tố sản xuất
55 Fixed coefficients Hệ số cố định
56 Free-trade area Khu vực mậu dịch tự do
57 Gains from trade Những cái lợi từ thương mại
58 General equilibrium analysis Sự phân tích cân bằng tổng thế
59 Global asset market Thị trường tài sản toàn cầu
60 Gross domestic product (GDP) Tổng sản phẩm quốc nội (GDP)
61 High value added per worker Giá trị gia tăng cao tính theo đầu người
62 Highly skilled labor Công nhân tay nghề cao
63 High-technology industries Các ngành công nghệ cao
64 High-wage sector Ngành có mức lương cao
65 Immiserizing growth Sự tăng trưởng nghèo hóa
66 Imperfect capital market Thị trường vốn chưa hoàn thiện
67 Imperfect competition Cạnh tranh không hoàn hảo
68 Import –competing industry Ngành cạnh tranh nhập khẩu
69 Import demand curve Đường cầu nhập khẩu
70 Import quota Hạn ngạch nhập khẩu
71 Import tariff Thuế quan nhập khẩu
72 Import-biased growth Sự tăng trưởng thiên lệch về hàng nhập khẩu
Công nghiệp hóa thay thế nhập khẩu
74 Income distribution Sự phân phối thu nhập
75 Industrial policy Chính sách công nghiệp
76 Infant industry argument Lập luận về ngành công nghiệp non trẻ
77 Interest group politics Nhóm lợi ích
78 Inter-industry trade Mậu dịch liên ngành
79 Internal industry trade Mậu dịch nội bộ ngành
80 Internal price Giá bên trong
81 International trade Thương mại quốc tế
82 International capital market Thị trường vốn quốc tế
83 International equilibrium Trạng thái cân bằng quốc tế
Quỹ tiền tệ quốc tế (IMF)
Sự phối hợp chính sách trên phạm vi quốc tế
86 Inter-temporal trade Thương mại liên thời gian
87 Knowledge spillovers Sự thẩm thấu kiến thức
88 Labor allocation Sự phân bổ lao động
89 Labor market pooling Sự hợp nhất thị trường lao động
90 Labor productivity Năng suất lao động
91 Labor theory of value Thuyết giá trị lao động
92 Labor-abundant Giàu có về đất đai
93 Learning curve Đường cong học hỏi
94 Linkage argument Luận chứng về sự liên kết
95 Local content requirements Yêu cầu về nội dung địa phương
96 Low-skilled labor Công nhân tay nghề thấp
97 Low-wage sector Ngành có mức lương thấp
Sự phối hợp chính sách kinh tế vĩ mô
99 Marginal cost Chi phí biên
100 Marginal product of labor Sản phẩm biên của lao động
101 Marginal revenue Doanh thu biên
102 Marginal social benefit Lợi ích xã hội biên
103 Market equilibrium Trạng thái cân bằng thị trường
105 Market structure Cơ cấu thị trường
106 Mobile factor Yếu tố linh động
107 Monopolistic competition Cạnh tranh độc quyền
108 Monopolistic competition model Mô hình cạnh tranh độc quyền
109 Multi-good model Mô hình nhiều hàng hóa
110 Multinational Corporations Các tập đoàn đa quốc gia
111 Mutually beneficial trade Thương mại hai bên đều có lợi
112 National default Sự vỡ nợ quốc gia
113 National procurement Sự mua sắm quốc gia
114 National welfare Phúc lợi xã hội
Các nước công nghiệp hóa mới (NICs)
116 Nominal wage Tiền lương danh nghĩa
117 Non-tariff barriers Các hàng rào phi thuế quan
118 North – South debate Cuộc tranh luận Bắc-Nam
Hiệp định tự do thương mại Bắc Mĩ (NAFTA)
120 Opportunity cost Chi phí cơ hội
121 Optimum tariff Thuế quan tối ưu
Thỏa thuận thị trường hiệu quả (OMA)
123 Partial equilibrium analysis Sự phân tích cân bằng bộ phận
124 Pattern of trade Mô thức thương mại
125 Political argument for free trade Lập luận chính trị ủng hộ tự do mậu dịch
Các hiệp định mậu dịch ưu đãi
127 Prisoner’s Dilemma Tình thế tiến thoái lưỡng nan của tù nhân
128 Production of a commodity Sự sản xuất một loại hàng hóa
129 Product differentiation Sự khác biệt về sản phẩm
130 Production function Hàm sản xuất
Giới hạn khả năng sản xuất
132 Profit-maximizing firm Hãng tối đa hóa lợi nhuận
134 Pure monopoly Độc quyền thuần túy
135 Quota rent Tiền thuê hạn ngạch
136 Real wage Tiền lương thực tế
137 Relative commodity prices Giá cả hàng hóa liên quan
138 Relative demand curve Đường cầu tương đối
139 Relative supply curve Đường cung tương đối
140 Relative wage Tiền lương tương đối
141 Scarce factor Yếu tố sản xuất khan hiếm
Sự thay đổi công nghệ thiên về kĩ năng
143 Special-interest politics Lợi ích chính trị đặc biệt
145 Specialization Sự chuyên môn hóa
146 Specialized suppliers Nhà cung cấp chuyên biệt
147 Specific factor Yếu tố chuyên biệt
148 Specific factors model Mô hình các yếu tố sản xuất chuyên biệt
149 Specific tariff Thuế quan theo khối lượng
150 Standard trade model Mô hình thương mại chuẩn
151 Strategic trade policy Chính sách thương mại chiến lược
152 Tariff-imposing countries Nước cấm nhập khẩu
153 Terms of trade Tỷ số (điều kiện) mậu dịch
154 Terms of trade argument for a tariff
Lập luận về điều kiện mậu dịch ủng hộ thuế quan
155 Terms of trade gain Cái lợi về đều kiện mậu dịch
Hiệp định chung về thuế quan và mậu dịch (GATT)
157 The possibility of technological spillovers
Khả năng thẩm thấu công nghệ
158 The relative abundance of Sự dồi dào tương đối của các yếu tố sản xuất
159 Theory of the second best Lý thuyết về cái tốt hạng nhì
160 Trade creation Sự hình thành mậu dịch
161 Trade diversion Sự chệch hướng mậu dịch
162 Trade war Chiến tranh thương mại
163 Uneven development Sự phát triển không đồng đều
164 Unit labor requirement Yêu cầu lao động theo đơn vị sản phẩm
Chương trình hỗ trợ điều chỉnh thương mại Mỹ (TAA)
Hạn chế xuất khẩu tự nguyện (VER)
167 Wage differentials argument Lập luận về sự khác biệt về lương
168 World Bank (WB) Ngân hàng thế giới (WB)
169 Worse-performing firm Công ty hoạt động kém hiệu quả hơn
170 Marginal propensity to spend Xu hướng chi tiêu biên
171 Service off-shoring Dịch vụ gia công
172 Red-tape barrier Rào cản hành chính
No English terms Vietnamese equivalents
1 A cycle of retaliatory trade moves Một vòng luẩn quẩn các biện pháp thương mại trả đũa
2 Antidumping laws Luật chống bán phá giá
3 Appropriability Khả năng chiếm hữu
4 Beggar-thy – neighbor policies Chính sách đi-xin-các-nước-láng-giềng
5 Budget constraint Ràng buộc ngân sách
6 Capital-intensive Thâm dụng vốn
7 Conflicts of interest between nations Xung đột lợi ích giữa các quốc gia
8 Conflicts of interest within nations Xung đột lợi ích trong nội bộ các quốc gia
9 Consumer surplus Thặng dư người tiêu dùng
10 Consumption distortion loss Tổn thất do lệch lạc trong tiêu dùng
11 Criteria for selection Tiêu chuẩn lựa chọn
13 Efficiency loss Tổn thất hiệu năng
14 Exchange rate determination Xác định tỉ giá hối đoái
15 Indifference curves Đường cong bàn quan
16 International lending and borrowing Vay và cho vay quốc tế
17 International negotiation Đàm phán quốc tế
18 Isovalue lines Đường đồng giá trị
19 Labor-intensive Thâm dụng lao động
20 Net losses Thiệt hại ròng
21 Oligopoly Độc quyền tập đoàn
22 pauper labor argument Lập luận về lao động rẻ mạt
23 Price discrimination Phân biệt về giá cả
24 Price setters Người định giá
25 Price takers Người chấp nhận giá
26 Producer surplus Thặng dư của người sản xuất
27 Production distortion loss Tổn thất do lệch lạc trong sản xuất
28 Productive capital Vốn sản xuất
29 Reciprocal dumping Bán phá giá qua lại
30 Technology transfer Chuyển giao công nghệ
31 Trade deficit Thâm hụt thương mại
32 Trade surplus Thặng dư thương mại
33 Transfers of income Chuyển giao thu nhập
34 Unequal exchange Trao đổi không công bằng
35 Variable coefficients Hệ số biến thiên
No English terms Vietnamese equivalents
1 Non-traded goods Hàng hóa không buôn bán được
2 Magnified effect of goods prices on factor prices
Tác động khuếch đại của giá cả hàng hóa đến giá các yếu tố sản xuất
3 Weighted social welfare Phúc lợi xã hội có trọng số
4 Per-capital income Thu nhập trên đầu người
No English terms Vietnamese equivalents
1 Brander-Spencer analysis Sự phân tích Brander – Spencer
2 Commodity export cartels Cacten xuất khẩu hàng sơ chế
3 Heckscher-Ohlin theory Lý thuyết Heckscher-Ohlin
4 Leontief paradox Nghịch lý Leontief
5 Metzler paradox Nghịch lý Metzler
6 Ricardian model Mô hình Ri-các-đô
7 Stolper-Samuelson effect Hiệu ứng Stolper-Samuelson
8 The Doha Round Bàn đàm phán Đô-ha
