INTRODUCTION
Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
Globalization has significantly transformed international cooperation, highlighting the necessity for countries to understand their own identities and how they are perceived by others This increased interaction emphasizes the importance of studying national character, which, despite its potential inaccuracies, reveals insights into the perceptions held by different populations This motivates my research project, aimed at exploring how the Vietnamese character is viewed by people from other nations.
My motivation to understand cultural perceptions intensified through my interactions with individuals from various Asian countries These encounters revealed the diverse and often misguided stereotypes surrounding Vietnamese people, particularly among those with limited knowledge of Vietnam Many mistakenly associate Vietnamese character with the influences of colonizing nations, believing that we primarily speak Chinese, French, or English rather than our native language Some individuals even erroneously think Vietnam is part of China, viewing the Vietnamese as clever yet arrogant and greedy Additionally, those who still perceive Vietnam through the lens of war often describe our people as brave but rude and miserable This wide array of misconceptions has fueled my determination to study the existence of these diverse perceptions within specific Asian communities.
2 whether there are significant differences between perceptions of different Asian communities towards the Vietnamese as well as reasons behind such stereotypes
The literature on Vietnamese character stereotypes is notably sparse, with only one relevant study identified While numerous studies have explored Asian stereotypes, particularly in the United States, there is a significant lack of research on how individuals from other Asian countries perceive Vietnamese people.
This study aims to explore how individuals from various Asian countries perceive Vietnamese character, with a specific focus on Filipino and Japanese students By examining these two distinct groups, the research will facilitate a comparative analysis of their attitudes towards Vietnamese culture.
This study, building on the insights of Devine & Andrew (1995), aims to highlight the critical distinction between recognizing stereotypes and endorsing them It will examine both the awareness of Vietnamese stereotypes and the degree to which these stereotypes are accepted or endorsed.
Therefore, the research problem that I choose for this study is: Awareness and endorsement of Vietnamese character stereotypes among Filipino and Japanese students.
Aims of the study and research questions
This study aims to investigate the Vietnamese character stereotypes recognized and endorsed by Filipino and Japanese students at the University of the Philippines Diliman It explores three key sub-topics, focusing on the distinction between knowledge of stereotypes and their endorsement By examining the Vietnamese character stereotypes known and/or endorsed by these two student groups, the research highlights the differences in perceptions between Filipino and Japanese students.
3 transmission and endorsement of such stereotypes, this research project also made an effort to find out the factors that led to those stereotypes
This research project was therefore guided by the following questions:
Research question 1: What are the primary Vietnamese character stereotypes that Filipino and Japanese students in UP Diliman are aware of and how do they differ?
The research investigates the primary Vietnamese character stereotypes held by Filipino and Japanese students at UP Diliman, highlighting the differences between these two groups and their own cultural stereotypes It aims to understand how these perceptions vary and the implications for intercultural relations By examining the stereotypes endorsed by both Filipino and Japanese students, the study seeks to uncover insights into their cultural biases and the potential impact on their interactions with Vietnamese individuals.
Research question 3: What are the factors influencing the transmission of
Vietnamese character stereotypes and their endorsement of such stereotypes among Filipino and Japanese students?
Background
Understanding the cultural backgrounds of the Philippines and Japan is essential, as these influences shape group perceptions and attitudes This research delves into these cultures to provide a comprehensive context for analyzing and discussing the collected data The Philippine cultural milieu serves as a foundational element in this exploration.
The Philippines has been well-known for its cultural mix of both Eastern and Western cultural heritage
The Philippines' Westernization stems from over four centuries of Spanish and American rule, which significantly influenced the assimilation of diverse cultures across its many islands This historical interaction fostered a sense of national unity and contributed to the rich Western cultural tapestry that characterizes the Philippines today.
The cultural composition of Philippine society has sparked significant debate, particularly regarding its unique religious landscape as the only Christian-majority nation in Asia (Palatino, 2010) This distinctiveness raises concerns about an identity crisis among young Filipinos, who, despite their Asian heritage, often feel a stronger affinity for Western culture and derive pride from that connection.
Palatino asserts that the Philippines is geographically situated in Southeast Asia; however, many Filipinos lack an appreciation and understanding of the cultural and religious practices of their neighboring countries This observation will be explored and validated in this thesis through direct interviews with young Filipinos.
Filipinos maintain a deep connection to traditional Eastern values, particularly evident in their strong family ties As noted by Mulder (1991, p 73), family belonging and security are fundamental aspects of life in the Philippines, prompting individuals to go to great lengths to provide for their loved ones This kinship often leads to a focus on family welfare, sometimes at the expense of broader community awareness Additionally, the barangay system remains the smallest governmental unit in the Philippines, highlighting the enduring significance of cultural traditions in Filipino society.
Japan is celebrated for its robust and rapidly growing economy, deeply intertwined with its rich cultural heritage, making it a quintessentially Asian nation The country's success stems from its strategic approach to external influences, particularly from China and the Western world By selectively absorbing and adapting these influences, Japan enhances its own culture rather than losing it Notable examples include the integration of Chinese characters into the Japanese writing system and the incorporation of Buddhism, originally from India, into Japanese life.
Following the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan experienced significant modernization through the introduction of various Western and American cultural traits This blend of tradition and modernity has allowed Japan to preserve its rich cultural heritage while embracing contemporary social changes As a result, the country has become both inquisitive and progressive, effectively integrating modern influences into its society.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Stereotypes
The term "stereotype" originates from the Greek words "stereos," meaning solid, and "typos," meaning impression, translating to "solid impression." Initially, it referred to a printing technique using a solid plate to create numerous identical texts This process is defined by its key traits of reproduction, strict repetition, and rigidity, reflecting the fundamental essence of the term.
In 1850, the term "stereotype" was first documented to describe an "image perpetuated without change," indicating a shift in focus from the printing technique to the image itself, although it initially retained a literal interpretation.
Stereotypes – Pictures in our heads
The term "stereotypes" was first introduced in modern psychology by Walter Lippmann in 1922 in his influential work "Public Opinion." He described stereotypes as "pictures in our heads," a powerful analogy that continues to resonate in psychology today, illustrating how public opinion is formed based on these pre-existing and rigid mental images.
“pictures in our heads” form an “pseudo-environment” that is inserted between
In his exploration of the relationship between man and his environment, the author argues that individuals perceive facts not as they are, but through a distorted lens shaped by their surroundings He emphasizes that our understanding is often influenced by preconceived notions, stating, “For the most part, we do not first see and then define – we define first and then see.” This tendency leads people to categorize experiences into familiar frameworks, hindering true perception and understanding.
Stereotypes, as defined by Lippmann, are generalizations that attribute specific traits, characteristics, or behaviors to particular groups of people Consequently, when an individual is identified as part of a group, they are often assumed to embody the qualities typically associated with that group.
Lippmann's definition of "stereotypes" represents a pivotal moment in modern social psychology, leading to extensive research and numerous interpretations that fundamentally echo his original concepts.
In modern social psychology, stereotypes are understood as mental representations of groups and their members, while stereotyping refers to the cognitive process of categorizing individuals based on these broader group characteristics (Augoustinos & Walker, 1998).
Cognitive schemas play a crucial role in managing mental resources and influencing how we encode and retrieve information from memory Stereotyping operates as a top-down process, where general information—such as labels like "man," "Asian," or "teacher"—shapes our expectations about individuals associated with these categories This tendency to stereotype serves both cognitive convenience and the defense of our values.
Lippmann (1922) argued that viewing everything with fresh eyes is not only exhausting but also nearly impossible amidst our busy lives The overwhelming influx of information makes it impractical for individuals to process it all from new perspectives Consequently, we rely on mental shortcuts, or "pictures in our heads," to ease cognitive strain, a concept he described as an "economy of effort."
8 in the thinking process (Schultz and Haerle, 1995) which serve “cognitive convenience” (Snyder & Miene, 1994)
Stereotypes are also “the fortress of our traditions, and behind its defences we can continue to feel ourselves safe in the position we occupy” (Lippmann,
1922, p 96) People often choose to look at the world with their stereotypes so that their values and traditions can be protected, and their advantages are not at stake
Therefore, whether positive or negative, stereotypes are an indispensable part of human existence This makes it important to investigate more into the studies of stereotypes c Consequences of stereotypes
Stereotypes are, however, not simply “pictures in our heads” because their consequences are different from those of all the other types of schemata
Fisk and Taylor (1984) highlight that when a stereotypical attribute is identified, it triggers a complete schematic response, leading to inferences that extend beyond the immediate information available Additionally, stereotyping influences memory by overshadowing specific details with generalized cases, causing schema-irrelevant information to be perceived as insignificant.
Stereotypes function as cognitive frameworks that shape behavioral expectations in interpersonal interactions, often leading to self-fulfilling prophecies, where individuals' actions confirm preconceived notions This dynamic exacerbates divisions between in-groups and out-groups, fostering in-group favoritism and out-group bias While not always directly causal, stereotypes are intricately linked to prejudice, which manifests as emotional reactions to negative stereotypes, and discrimination, which reflects prejudicial behaviors.
Because stereotyping can have such influence on people’s perceptions and behaviour in interpersonal interaction, study of stereotype content is necessary, especially to manage impressions and discontinue wrong stereotypes
9 d Awareness and endorsement of stereotypes
This study highlights the crucial distinction between stereotype awareness and stereotype endorsement, as understanding a stereotype has significantly different effects compared to actively endorsing it.
The relationship between stereotypes and prejudice has been a significant focus for theorists, with the assertion that prejudice often arises from the existence of stereotypes (Allport, 1954; Tajfel, 1981) This notion carries profound implications, as Ehrlich (1973, as cited in Devine, 1989) argued that stereotypes are ingrained in the social heritage of a society Consequently, it is understood that prejudice may be viewed as an inherent aspect of human existence.
The misconception arises from not distinguishing between awareness of stereotypes and endorsing them According to Devine (1989), stereotypes are ingrained associations that automatically activate in response to stimuli, without conscious thought Although individuals may be aware of various stereotypes through socialization, their personal beliefs may not align with these stereotypes Only those stereotypes that are actively endorsed qualify as beliefs, and it is primarily negative beliefs about a group that can lead to prejudice.
This distinction has been testified in many studies For example, in
In their 2016 study, "Knowing about Racial Stereotypes versus Believing Them," Nasir, McKinney de Royston, O'Connor, and Wischnia revealed that African American and Latino students in the United States experience a notable disparity between societal stereotypes and individual beliefs Despite evidence suggesting a decline in racism towards African Americans, numerous studies highlight the complexities of this issue, indicating that perceptions of racism vary significantly depending on who is evaluating the situation.
Related research
Stereotypes have garnered significant attention since the term was first introduced, leading to extensive research in the field, particularly focusing on stereotype content This article explores the primary methodological trends in stereotype content research and highlights key studies that have shaped our understanding of this topic.
This review explores key methodological trends and significant studies in stereotype content research, highlighting its impact on perceptions and behaviors in interpersonal interactions Despite the recognized importance of this field, the most effective methods for researching stereotype content remain unclear The two primary methodologies frequently employed are the checklist method and the open-response method, each offering unique insights into how stereotypes are formed and understood.
Checklist method and the Princeton Trilogy
The seminal study on racial stereotypes, conducted by Katz and Braly in 1933, involved 100 Princeton University students who were asked to select adjectives from a list of 84 to describe 10 different groups According to Devine & Elliot (1995, p 1139), participants not only chose adjectives but also added their own, ultimately identifying five key adjectives that they believed best represented each group The findings revealed that the students associated specific characteristics with each racial group, highlighting the persistence of racial stereotypes.
The checklist method received strong consensus among respondents and has become a prominent tool in stereotype content research Its popularity has led to numerous replications and follow-up studies, highlighting its significance in the field.
Between 1933 and 1962, significant studies on stereotypes were conducted, notably the Princeton trilogy, which includes Katz and Braly's original research, Gilbert's 1951 duplication, and the 1969 study by Karlins, Coffman, and Walters These studies aimed to evaluate shifts in the content, consensus, and favorability of stereotypes concerning ten distinct groups, all involving Princeton University students across three generations.
While the checklist method is widely used, it has significant drawbacks Ehrlich & Rinehart (1965) noted that although students can include adjectives beyond the provided list, the method remains psychologically limiting, as respondents are less inclined to contribute their own terms when options are available Similarly, Devine (1989) highlighted the inadequacy of checklists in her research, revealing that many important characteristics of Black individuals identified by respondents were absent from the original list.
Additionally, in the specific case of the Princeton trilogy, the respondent’s knowledge of stereotypes and his or her endorsement of stereotypes were not distinguished (Devine & Elliot, 1995; Ehrlich & Rinehart, 1965)
Devine & Elliot (1995) made an attempt to overcome the shortcomings of Katz and Braly (1933)’s study
Devine & Elliot's study investigates the persistence of racial stereotypes about Black Americans held by White Americans, addressing the question, "Are racial stereotypes really fading?" Despite previous research, including studies that replicated Katz and Braly's 1933 procedure, suggesting a decline in negative stereotypes, Devine & Elliot's findings challenge this notion and indicate that these stereotypes may still be prevalent.
Elliot pointed out 3 major shortcomings of Katz and Braly’s procedure and they tried to address those problems in their study
A study involving 147 White students at the University of Wisconsin aimed to clarify the distinction between stereotype awareness and stereotype endorsement Researchers Devine and Elliot measured these two concepts separately, ensuring participants understood that each question focused solely on either knowledge of stereotypes or personal beliefs Additionally, to modernize the adjective checklist, Devine and Elliot included 93 adjectives, of which 84 were derived from Katz and Braly’s original list.
(1933) study with 9 additional characteristics that were found to be significant in measuring stereotypes of the Blacks according to Devine (1989)
The study reveals significant disparities between individuals' knowledge of stereotypes and their endorsement of those stereotypes Katz and Braly's research focused on personal beliefs rather than mere awareness of stereotypes While there is a shared understanding of stereotypes among individuals, their acceptance and endorsement of these stereotypes vary widely.
Ota (2005)’s checklist was similar to that of Katz and Braly (1933)’s classic research on stereotype However, it was maintained that some among the
A pre-test was conducted to identify 84 challenging adjectives for students, resulting in the modification of 14 words and the omission of one due to redundancy This assessment follows the checklist by Ota (2005), available in Appendix B.
The open-response method serves as a valuable alternative to the checklist method for examining stereotype content, as it allows respondents to freely list their perceptions without psychological constraints.
Researchers have identified challenges in interpreting "non-objective" data from a survey that examined adjectives associated with specific groups To overcome these issues, some scholars gathered open-ended responses and categorized them according to the terms established in Katz and Braly's study (Devine & Baker, 1991).
According to Niemann et al (1994), the open-response method promotes more automatic processing compared to the checklist method, thereby mitigating some psychological limitations associated with the latter approach.
The open-response method, while advantageous, has notable limitations According to Niemann et al (1994), participants are constrained by their own mental frameworks, resulting in a limited number of responses Additionally, time constraints may hinder individuals from fully articulating their perceptions due to inadequate vocabulary, potentially omitting significant traits Furthermore, the variability in responses among individuals suggests that this method is more effective for assessing cultural stereotypes than for capturing personal beliefs.
National character research plays a crucial role in understanding stereotypes, focusing specifically on personality-related traits associated with individuals from different countries While national stereotypes encompass a range of attributes, including physical characteristics and abilities, national character stereotypes are primarily concerned with the personality traits that define people from specific nations (McCrae et al., 2013, p 832).
Significance of the study
This research aims to address the existing gap in the literature regarding Vietnamese stereotypes by conducting empirical studies among students from two different nationalities Additionally, if the findings reveal a significant difference between stereotype knowledge and stereotype endorsement, it will support the observations made in previous studies.
18 researchers are trying to prove and call people’s attention to, “knowing stereotypes” and “believing them.”
This study significantly contributes to the understanding of stereotype content by providing Vietnamese individuals with valuable insights into how Filipino and Japanese people perceive them Such knowledge is crucial for enhancing intercultural interactions, as existing stereotypes can shape foreign attitudes and behaviors towards Vietnamese people By raising awareness of these perceptions, the study prepares Vietnamese individuals for potential encounters Additionally, awareness of both positive and negative stereotypes can influence self-image and behavior in conversations The research aims to clarify the complexities and diversity of Vietnamese stereotypes, promoting more adaptive and effective intercultural communication Furthermore, it seeks to challenge the simplistic views held by foreigners, highlighting the multifaceted nature of Vietnamese identity.
This study aims to enlighten the Vietnamese about the origins of stereotypes and how the representation of Vietnamese individuals is shaped in various communities By examining the roots of these stereotypes, we can better understand the ways to either perpetuate or eliminate them While stereotypes are often deeply ingrained and challenging to change, recognizing their origins is a crucial first step, and this research fulfills that objective.
This study highlights the significance of understanding Vietnamese stereotypes among students from Japan and the Philippines, emphasizing the importance of regional and global cooperation in today's context.
19 provide better and more accountable information to facilitate the formation of better relations and cooperation
METHODOLOGY
Research setting
This research study was conducted at the University of the Philippines, Diliman, chosen for its capacity to provide valuable insights through a carefully selected sample.
The University of the Philippines, Diliman, is distinguished for its substantial influx of foreign students, both regular and exchange, creating a unique academic environment that is hard to replicate in Asia This diversity allows UP students to engage with peers from various nationalities, including Vietnamese, enriching their educational experience and making UP one of the most information-rich institutions in the Philippines and across Asia.
The research, therefore, took place at University of the Philippines, Diliman from October to early December 2016.
Participant selection
Participants in this study were selected through volunteer sampling due to the personal and subjective nature of the research, making random selection from the general population inconvenient and unethical The criteria for participation included being a UP student and having either Japanese or Philippine nationality.
The researcher issued an open call for participants, successfully recruiting 15 Filipino and 15 Japanese students Following recruitment, the researcher engaged with the participants to explain the project details, and those interested in participating signed a consent form (see Appendix A).
The study sample consisted of 30 students aged 17 to 23, with an equal distribution of 15 Filipino regular students and 15 Japanese exchange students Gender representation included 10 males (33.3%) and 20 females (66.7%) Academic levels were diverse, comprising one freshman (3.3%), four sophomores (13.3%), nine juniors (30%), ten seniors (33.3%), and three graduate students (10%).
The participants in the study represented a variety of academic backgrounds, including Anthropology, Applied Physics, Chemical Engineering, Chemistry, Community Development, Economics, Education, English, Food Technology, Islamic Studies, Psychology, Social Work, and Tourism Specifically, the distribution included one participant each from Anthropology, Applied Physics, Chemical Engineering, Chemistry, English, and Psychology (3.3% each), four from Community Development and Food Technology (13.3% each), three from Economics, Islamic Studies, and Social Work (10% each), and two from Education (6.7%) Additionally, there were four participants categorized as "others" or with no specific indication (13.3%).
Data collection
This study utilized a combination of quantitative and qualitative data collection methods to enhance its rigor, breadth, and depth The researcher gathered data through two primary phases, which included administering a questionnaire and conducting individual interviews.
The study utilized a structured questionnaire in the form of checklists, adopting the checklist method initially introduced by Katz and Braly in 1933 This approach is advantageous as it presents stereotypes through clearly defined language, providing an effective means of addressing the research objectives.
Participants may struggle to articulate their ideas about the group due to limited vocabulary, particularly in this study involving Filipino and Japanese students who are non-native English speakers This language barrier can hinder their ability to express themselves effectively in free response formats.
The questionnaire, designed for both Japanese and Filipino students, consists of three sections (see Appendix C) The first section gathers demographic information, including name, nationality, gender, age, student status, class standing, and major The subsequent sections focus on participants' awareness of stereotypes and their endorsement of personal beliefs regarding Vietnamese people The list of adjectives used was adapted from Ota (2005), where 14 unfamiliar terms were replaced, resulting in a final compilation of 83 words due to the overlap in meanings (see Appendix B).
In this study, in-depth interviews were utilized as a complementary tool to questionnaires, focusing on the exploration of sources that transmit and endorse Vietnamese character stereotypes.
The researcher utilized open-ended questions derived from participants' questionnaire responses, enabling them to elaborate on their understanding and maintenance of beliefs about Vietnamese people Key inquiries were rephrased versions of two fundamental questions, facilitating deeper insights into the participants' perspectives.
1 How did you know that Vietnamese people are ………? (an adjective listed by the participant)
2 Do you think that Filipino/Japanese people know much about Vietnamese people?
3 Why do you personally believe that Vietnamese people are ……….?
(an adjective listed by the participant)
Data analysis
The statistical analysis of questionnaire data involved compiling participants' descriptions by merging synonymous terms, such as "hardworking" and "industrious," and organizing them based on their statistical significance.
The research utilized a qualitative thematic analysis approach for the interviews, beginning with data familiarization through listening to audio recordings, transcribing them, and reviewing the transcripts multiple times The next phase involved initial code generation, where the data was coded to identify potential themes, guided by both empirical data and theoretical frameworks Subsequently, common themes were identified, and the codes evolved into distinct themes and sub-themes A thorough review ensured that each theme was adequately supported by data and clearly differentiated from one another Finally, the researcher crafted an analytic narrative to present the findings effectively.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Research question 1: What are the primary Vietnamese character stereotypes that
a Vietnamese character stereotypes as were aware of by Filipino students
Filipino students identified several key Vietnamese character stereotypes, with 73.3% noting a strong sense of tradition Additionally, 40% highlighted the extreme patriotism of the Vietnamese people, while 33.3% described them as conservative Other traits included a high level of religiosity (26.7%), industriousness (20%), intelligence (20%), and a strong loyalty to family ties (20%).
TABLE 1: Most frequently selected traits by Filipino students for knowledge of Vietnamese character stereotypes
The data indicates that nearly three-fourths of participants recognize traditional values as a dominant stereotype of Vietnamese people, while over one-third associate them with being extremely patriotic and conservative.
The interview revealed that all 15 Filipino participants had minimal knowledge about Vietnam, with some unaware of any distinct Vietnamese traits, relying instead on stereotypes of other nationalities.
For example, Ian claimed that he did not know much about Vietnam, and he attributed this to the fact that there had been little contact between the two countries
Ian: And I also have to admit that I have a very little affinity with the
Vietnamese culture is often unfamiliar to many, as exposure to it is limited and interactions with Vietnamese individuals are rare This lack of awareness extends to current events and cultural practices in Vietnam Moreover, the presence of exchange students from Vietnam is uncommon, making it even more challenging to gain insight into their rich heritage and traditions.
Interviewer: But do you think that Filipino people are getting more and more contact with Vietnamese people? Or still not that much?
Ian: Well I think still not that much Because I think Vietnam is not a typical destination of domestic helpers
A review by Lee (2009) highlights that eight out of nine commonly identified stereotypes of Vietnamese individuals align with or are connected to prevalent Asian stereotypes.
In Lee (2009)’s review, Asian stereotypes are characterized by traits such as industriousness, intelligence, and strong family loyalty Conversely, Katz and Braly highlight that Chinese stereotypes often include conservatism and superstitious beliefs.
(1933) Very religious shares certain similarities with superstitious Besides, meditative is the only adjective that does not have a direct correlation with other stereotypes as listed in Chapter 2
All participants acknowledged their limited knowledge about Vietnam, aligning with the research background that highlights Filipinos' lack of appreciation and understanding of their neighbors' cultural and religious practices Additionally, Japanese students demonstrated awareness of Vietnamese character stereotypes.
The most frequently selected traits as Vietnamese character stereotypes that the Japanese students knew were: traditional (46.7% of respondents), loyal to family ties (40.0%), kind (33.3%), conservative (26.7%), honest (26.7%), quiet
In the study, no adjective was selected by more than half of the participants, indicating a minimal difference in their frequency of selection, as shown in Table 2.
There are some adjectives added to the list, among which is gluttony, which the participant later explained as hungry
Interviewer: You think there exists a stereotype that Vietnamese people are hungry?
Yui: I mean they really want to eat because tourists from Vietnam eat very much in Japan
Similar to Filipinos, Japanese participants expressed limited knowledge about Vietnamese people, with four out of fifteen unable to select five adjectives to describe them Notably, one participant left all options blank, indicating a complete lack of awareness regarding Vietnamese stereotypes According to Hiro, a male exchange student majoring in social work, this highlights a significant gap in cultural understanding.
Interviewer: In the first part of the questionnaire, why did you not choose any word? Is it that you have no idea about cultural stereotypes of Vietnamese people?
Hiro: Hm, basically, I haven’t ever talked with my friends and my parents about Vietnam, so I could not come up with any basic or general ideas from the Japanese perspective
Hiro claimed that Vietnamese people had never been their topic of discussion, and he also had not heard any, even basic, information about Vietnamese characteristics
TABLE 2: Most frequently selected traits by Japanese students for knowledge of Vietnamese character stereotypes
In a study by Lee (2009), it was found that the Japanese often associate Filipinos with common Asian stereotypes, highlighting traits such as being quiet and conservative This aligns with broader literature that categorizes these characteristics as typical among Asian cultures, reflecting prevalent perceptions in cross-cultural interactions.
1933), and honest was considered Vietnamese stereotype in a specific study by Borresen (1982)
Japanese awareness of Vietnamese culture is limited, partly due to Vietnam's lack of global influence, which diminishes the motivation for Japanese individuals to learn about the Vietnamese Additionally, there are notable similarities and differences in the stereotypes held by Filipino and Japanese students regarding Vietnamese people, highlighting the varying perceptions across these cultures.
It is very easily noticeable that both the stereotypes selected by the Filipino and the Japanese are either Asian stereotypes or Chinese stereotypes as
29 revealed by many previous studies Three traits, namely traditional, loyal to family ties, and conservative in both lists
Filipinos exhibit a higher level of consensus on the most commonly selected traits compared to the Japanese, whose consensus levels are lower and more uniform across various traits This indicates that the stereotypes chosen by Filipinos are more widely accepted within the surveyed community at the University of the Philippines.
Research question 2: What are the primary Vietnamese character stereotypes
a Vietnamese character stereotypes endorsed by Filipino students in comparison to their stereotype awareness
The most frequently selected traits as Vietnamese character stereotypes that the Filipino students endorsed were: loyal to family ties (40.0% of respondents), traditional (33.3%), brilliant (26.7%), extremely patriotic
(26.7%), intelligent (26.7%), passionate (26.7%), very religious (26.7%), cheerful (20.0%), conservative (20.0%), scientifically minded (20.0%) (see Table 3)
Table 3 clearly indicates that no trait was selected by more than half of the participants, suggesting a lack of consensus, as the variations in the number of participants choosing these adjectives are not statistically significant.
TABLE 3: Most frequently selected traits by Filipino students for endorsement of Vietnamese character stereotypes
The assessment indicates that most traits identified are consistent with Asian characteristics, as noted by Lee (2009), or specifically Chinese traits highlighted by Katz and Braly (1933) Key traits include a strong loyalty to family and adherence to tradition Notably, the traits of being passionate and cheerful do not align with the stereotypes discussed in the Literature Review Additionally, the selected traits closely mirror those found in stereotype awareness studies.
The lower consensus in this table is expected, as it addresses the endorsement of stereotypes and personal beliefs, which can significantly differ among individuals.
31 b Vietnamese character stereotypes endorsed by Japanese students in comparison to their stereotype awareness
Japanese students identified several key traits as stereotypes of Vietnamese character, with kindness being the most frequently endorsed at 60% Other notable traits included industriousness (40%), intelligence (33.3%), and cheerfulness (26.7%) Additionally, traits such as honesty, talkativeness, cleverness, and generosity were each recognized by 20% of respondents, alongside stubbornness, traditional values, and a strong sense of religiosity.
TABLE 4: Most frequently selected traits by Japanese students for endorsement of Vietnamese character stereotypes
Among these adjectives, the Japanese seemed to understand Vietnamese’s industriousness in a quite special and positive manner Yui claimed that unlike the Japanese, the Vietnamese are willingly industrious
Yui: My Vietnamese friends in Japan are very hardworking, and
Interviewer: But we have quite different ideas about the Japanese We think that you are very hardworking
Yui: Ah, I think that we are forced to be hardworking, but Vietnamese people are willing to work hard
In a study of adjectives frequently chosen by the Japanese, three—industrious, intelligent, and traditional—align with Asian stereotypes identified by Lee (2009) Additionally, the traits of stubborn and very religious echo Chinese stereotypes from Katz and Braly's 1933 findings, while kind and honest reflect Vietnamese stereotypes noted by Borresen in 1982 Notably, the adjectives talkative and generous diverge significantly from common stereotypes.
The latest findings reveal significant differences between Japanese people's awareness of stereotypes and their acceptance of them Encouragingly, most of the identified traits are positive, with "kind" emerging as the most prominent characteristic.
Japanese students in the study show a strong consensus regarding personal beliefs, which is unusual given that such beliefs typically vary significantly among individuals The differences in personal beliefs will be further examined in response to the third research question.
33 c Difference in the endorsement of Vietnamese stereotypes between Filipino and Japanese students
Research indicates significant differences in stereotype endorsement between Filipino and Japanese students, despite similar levels of stereotype awareness among Filipinos While Filipino students exhibit minimal variation in endorsing stereotypes, Japanese students tend to prioritize personal beliefs over commonly known stereotypes Additionally, distinct disparities emerge when comparing the two groups, particularly regarding less prevalent traits that were frequently selected.
Research question 3: What are the factors influencing the transmission of
Detailed answers to the questionnaires as well as the transcripts of the interviews analysed are provided in Appendix E a Factors influencing the transmission of Vietnamese character stereotypes:
The transmission of stereotypes is influenced by several clear factors, including media, hearsay, education, and history Although jokes were not mentioned by either Filipino or Japanese students during interviews, the other factors were consistently identified across all discussions This article will analyze these influences specifically among Filipino students.
The media and hearsay were considered the major sources of stereotype transmission in almost all interviews However, the stereotypes on the media and
34 through hearsay, as were synthesized from all the interviews, are extremely vast and diverse
The selected stereotypes encompass a mix of both positive and negative characteristics, showcasing a range of contradictory traits Positive attributes often highlighted include being traditional, industrious, intelligent, and pleasantly quiet, while negative traits frequently mentioned are conservative, loud, and excessively patriotic.
Angela, a sophomore psychology major at UP, developed her understanding of stereotypes largely from a TV series she watched, identifying the trait of being "reserved" as a key characteristic portrayed in the films.
In an interview, Angela reflected on the perception of Vietnamese people as reserved, citing a Filipino film from her youth that portrayed a Vietnamese character in this light She believes this stereotype holds some truth, contributing to the common belief about the reserved nature of Vietnamese individuals.
On the other hand, Ian, a male chemistry-majored senior in UP, chose loud and talkative as the stereotypes he was aware of about Vietnamese people
He based his answers on the stereotypes spread on Internet forums which can be considered a form of social media or hearsay
Many people perceive Vietnamese individuals as talkative and loud, a stereotype often reinforced by online discussions This belief stems from the observation that when Vietnamese people engage in phone conversations, they tend to speak with a volume that may resemble shouting, similar to behaviors noted in other countries.
According to Appendix C, 13.3% of participants preferred both quiet and loud representations of Vietnamese people, highlighting the complex stereotypes portrayed in the media This duality in perceptions can negatively influence how individuals view the Vietnamese community.
Like the media and hearsay, such sources of information with high credentials as education and history also triggered different stereotypes, and even contradictory stereotypes
On the positive side, among frequently chosen traits are traditional, industrious, and pleasantly quiet On the negative side, among frequently chosen traits are conservative and excessively patriotic
Angela recognized the stereotype of Vietnamese individuals as reserved and hardworking, a perception influenced by her studies in Southeast Asia 30 This stereotype was further emphasized by the mythological tale of "Nguu Lang – Chuc Nu." However, it is important to highlight that Angela's reference to this story may not be familiar to many Filipinos.
Angela: In one of my subjects here in UP, there was a lesson about Nguu
Interviewer: Ah… Nguu Lang and Chuc Nu Really? What subject is that?
Angela: SEA 30 Southeast Asia 30 It’s an elective, GE, general knowledge It involves hard work And the two characters are lovers…
Interviewer: And they could not come to each other
Angela: Uh…uh…uh… Barriers They are reserved and hard-working people From that stories
Ian recognized the stereotype of Vietnamese people as conservative and highly patriotic, viewing these characteristics as negative This perception was influenced by his experiences in history class.
Interviewer: Vietnamese people are conservative and extremely patriotic?
In high school history classes, we learned about a significant event in Asian history involving a Vietnamese monk who self-immolated.
Ian: Yes You have So, I think that’s what makes you conservative You are too much bound with your cultures or your practices And I think that’s a Buddhist monk
Despite high-credential sources in education and history, stereotypes about the Vietnamese often vary and can even contradict one another, with some viewing them as reserved while others perceive them as conservative and violent This inconsistency suggests that Angela and Ian failed to capture the full spectrum of Vietnamese stereotypes, relying on limited perspectives rather than a comprehensive analysis of diverse sources Consequently, their conclusions represent only a small fragment of the broader reality.
The analysis failed to consider the context of the evidence presented, particularly regarding the mythological story of "Nguu Lang – Chuc Nu," which is fictional and set in a different time period Relying on this tale to form stereotypes may lead to inaccurate conclusions Similarly, Ian's stereotype is based solely on a single case, which does not accurately represent an entire nation.
Participants unfamiliar with Vietnamese culture relied heavily on general Asian stereotypes, particularly those linked to Chinese perceptions For instance, Kim, a junior majoring in Social Work at UP, had very little specific knowledge about Vietnam.
Kim expresses that many people tend to generalize Asians, often assuming someone is Chinese or Japanese unless specifically asked about their Vietnamese identity She acknowledges her ability to distinguish between Chinese and Japanese people based on physical features but notes that Vietnamese individuals often resemble Chinese individuals, leading to assumptions about their ethnicity.
37 lot of the things people think about the Vietnamese are just stereotypical of Asians ii Among the Japanese students:
The understanding of Vietnamese stereotypes among the Japanese is notably limited, as indicated by most respondents Nevertheless, they acknowledged the existence of certain stereotypes During the interviews, it became clear that the sources of their information shared common characteristics.
In this research, Vietnamese stereotypes were primarily conveyed to Japanese students through the lens of the Vietnam War, which, for some participants, represented their only perception of Vietnam.