Argumentation in Geography lessons in Vietnam
Research questions and objectives of the thesis
This research project aims to explore the integration of argumentation in Geography education in Vietnam It will examine the Geography curriculum and textbooks that incorporate argumentation, assess teachers' perceptions regarding its use, and evaluate the quality of students' written arguments.
1 How important are argumentation and reasoning tasks in the Vietnamese Geography schoolbooks?
2 In how far do Vietnamese Geography teachers understand the importance of argumentation in teaching Geography? (chapter 6)
3 How is the quality of pupils’ written argumentations in Geography contexts? (chapter 7)
In how far is it possible to integrate argumentation in the Vietnamese Geography lessons?
Structure of the thesis
This thesis comprises eight chapters, with the first chapter focusing on the significance of the study It outlines the research questions and provides an overview of the thesis structure.
The second chapter explores the theoretical foundations of argumentation, highlighting key findings from research in this field It provides clear definitions of arguments and argumentation while emphasizing their significance in effective communication.
The third chapter introduces local research by providing essential information about the Vietnamese education system, including school subjects, the Geography curriculum, Geography textbooks, and Geography teachers This section aims to equip readers with the necessary context regarding Vietnam for the study.
The fourth chapter outlines the methodological approach of the project, which incorporates both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies Key research methods utilized include quantitative analysis of argumentation tasks, classroom observations, expert interviews, and argumentation analysis.
Chapters five, six, and seven of the article present the findings from the empirical investigation, focusing on various aspects of argumentation in education Chapter five provides a detailed analysis of argumentation and reasoning tasks found in Vietnamese schoolbooks Chapter six explores Geography teachers' perspectives on integrating argumentation into their classrooms and schools Finally, chapter seven examines the quality of students' written argumentation, highlighting key insights from the research.
Chapter eight presents a comprehensive analysis of argumentation tasks in Geography schoolbooks, drawing on existing studies to evaluate their prevalence It also explores the perspectives of Geography teachers in Vietnam regarding the role of argumentation, informed by empirical research in educational sciences Additionally, the chapter examines factors influencing the quality of students' argumentation skills.
This chapter explores the integration of written argumentation in Vietnam, examining its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and potential consequences within Geography classes Additionally, it provides an outlook on the future of this educational project.
The importance of argumentation
The origins of research on argumentation – a philosophical view
Aristotle, a pioneering philosopher, conducted the first research on argumentation in his work "Rhetoric" (367-322 BC) This foundational text has influenced numerous scholars, with Stephen Toulmin being the most significant figure in the field Toulmin's book "The Uses of Argument," published in 1958, expanded on Aristotle's ideas and established a structured approach to argumentation His work not only laid the groundwork for argumentation theory but also served as a catalyst for its application across various disciplines Subsequent analyses by experts like Verheij (2006) and Rowe et al (2006) have further explored the elements of Toulmin’s argumentation structure.
Freeman, 2011) and established their theory based on Toulmin’s argument (Verheij,
2006), while other educational scientists transferred these ideas to their fields of interest such as Philosophy, History, Mathematics, Literature and Geography
Toulmin (2003) outlined the fundamental structure of an argument, which includes data (evidence), conclusions (contested assertions), and a final rule that establishes the validity relationship His framework emphasizes a detailed structure of argumentation, where an operator is often introduced to indicate the degree of validity in the relationship This is typically expressed through specific terms that clarify the strength of the argument.
Toulmin (2003) emphasizes the importance of defining exceptions that may render the validity of arguments irrelevant, while also highlighting the necessity of supporting data to substantiate these arguments His structured approach to argumentation has proven effective in analyzing data across various empirical studies in education Additionally, every argument is situated within specific thematic contexts, which determine what is considered contentious and what can serve as evidence or a concluding rule.
Figure 2.2 Toulmin’s graphical representation of an argument (2003, p 97)
Figure 2.3 An example of Toulmin’s argument (2003, p 97)
Recent studies have extensively explored the definition of argumentation, with van Eemeren et al (2014) examining its meaning across various languages In Dutch, the term "argumentatie" specifically denotes the process of argumentation.
“argomentazione” in Italian, or “argumentación” in the Spanish language and
Argumentation is defined by Eemeren et al (2014) as a complex communicative act aimed at resolving differing opinions It involves presenting a set of propositions that the arguer is accountable for, with the goal of making their standpoint acceptable to a rational judge who evaluates the argument reasonably.
Billig (1987) showed that an argument has an individual meaning and the individual meaning refers to any piece of a reasoned discourse According to Hample
(2003, p 439), “an argument is the face-to-face exchange of messages, especially those conveying reasons, in contemplation of actual or potential disagreement”
Kuhn and Udell (2003) shared a similar view They use the terms “argumentation” or
“argumentative discourse” to describe a social process or an activity; to them, argumentation is knowledge justification or persuasion Jiménez-Aleixandre and
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Rodriguez (2000) emphasizes the importance of argumentation in education, highlighting its role in scientific inquiry, which aims to generate and justify claims, beliefs, and actions for understanding nature Finocchiaro (2005) further supports this perspective, underscoring the significance of argumentative skills in the educational context.
An argument is defined as a reasoning instance that seeks to justify a conclusion through supporting reasons or defense against objections (Simon et al., 2006) The essence of an argument encompasses claims, data, warrants, and backings that shape its content Kuhn and Franklin (2006) distinguish between argument as a product and argumentation as a process, highlighting the dialogic nature of debates involving opposing claims Lapakko (2009) clarifies that argumentation differs from simply arguing, logic, debate, or persuasion; it is fundamentally the process of advancing, examining, and responding to claims through reasoned discourse.
According to the Cambridge online dictionary, an argument is defined as a disagreement or the process of disagreeing, while argumentation refers to a set of arguments aimed at explaining factors or persuading others In the context of Geography lessons, Budke and Meyer describe argumentation as a problem-solving method where conflicting statements are either affirmed or disapproved through reasoning The fundamental structure of argumentation comprises data, warrant, and conclusion, which can be enhanced with qualifier, backing, and rebuttal to create a comprehensive argument.
Argumentation encompasses two key elements: the argument itself, which represents support for or opposition to a particular opinion or statement, and the process of argumentation, which involves organizing and presenting these components effectively.
Freeman is a significant researcher in argumentation schemes who proposed various theories to enhance the standard approach of argument theory In his 2011 work, he demonstrated that the fundamental structure of an argument is essential for understanding its effectiveness.
An effective argument must include at least one premise and one conclusion While simple arguments can consist of a single premise linked to a statement, more complex arguments typically feature multiple premises and conclusions These components interact in various ways, enhancing the overall structure and depth of the argument.
Figure 2.4 Various structures of premises and conclusions in an argument (Freeman, 2011 p 3-6)
The structure of the constituents of an argument arranged this way leads to the conclusion that a conclusion
(3) arises from a premise (1) to (2), or that several premises are relevant for the conclusion such as premises are (4) and
(5) relevant to (6); or statement (7) would be supported by premises (8) and (9) A modus ponens of an argument is the multi-facetted inference rules connecting statements (3) and
(6) to the conclusion (7) (fig 2.5) There are two premises in the argument structure (fig 2.5) (1), (2), (3) represent an argument and (4), (5), (6) another argument Both of them are premises for the conclusion (7)
Figure 2.5: Connecting elements in an argument (Freeman, 2011, p 6)
Figure 2.6 illustrates Freeman's argumentation scheme, which comprises multiple elements assigned to various arguments The diagram identifies at least four distinct arguments: one group includes elements (1), (5), (6), and (7), while another group comprises (8), (2), (7), and (9), and a third group features (3) and (7).
The importance of argumentation in education
The role of argumentation in the context of classroom teaching has been recognized by a number of relevant studies (Erduran & Jiménez-Aleixandre, 2007, Budke & Meyer, 2015)
Erduran and Jiménez-Aleixendre (2007) identified five key contributions of argumentation in education Firstly, argumentation enhances cognitive and metacognitive processes akin to expert performance, facilitating effective modeling for students Secondly, it promotes the development of communicative competencies, essential for effective learning and interaction.
Argumentation enhances students' critical thinking skills and fosters scientific literacy, enabling them to communicate effectively in the language of science It also facilitates socialization within scientific culture and aids in the development of epistemic criteria for evaluating scientific knowledge Additionally, argumentation significantly improves reasoning by guiding students in selecting theories or opinions based on rational criteria.
Figure 2.7: Potential benefits from argumentation (Erduran & Jiménez-Aleixendre, 2007, p 11)
Rhetorical moves persuasion justification Commitment to evidence
Developing epistemic criteria involves supports supports involves involves involves supports supports involves as as involves by enables connected a component of a component of connected
The study by Budke and Meyer (2015) explored the role of argumentation in education, highlighting four key benefits Firstly, it enhances argumentation competencies, enabling learners to comprehend and articulate oral and written arguments across various subjects, while also fostering their understanding of social arguments and encouraging community participation Secondly, the study emphasizes the development of assessment competencies, allowing students to refine skills such as opinion formation.
Figure 2.8 The role of argumentation (Budke & Meyer, 2015, p 14) translated from German by the author.
Critical thinking and reflection on personal and social values are essential for maturity and moral development, particularly through argumentation Budke and Meyer (2015) emphasize that social and emotional competencies can be cultivated in learners, enhancing their interaction skills, ability to compromise, and capacity to embrace differing perspectives These competencies also foster peaceful conflict resolution and personal growth Ultimately, argumentation plays a crucial role in developing professional competencies as well.
Argumentation in Geography lessons
Numerous empirical studies have explored the significance of argumentation in Geography lessons (Budke et al., 2010; Budke et al., 2015; Dittrich, 2017; Leder, 2017) Research by Budke highlights that argumentation can significantly alter students' perspectives on how they perceive the world (Budke & Meyer, 2015) This approach is particularly crucial in Geography education, as it enables students to engage with complex topics like climate change, resource usage, and human-environmental interactions through reasoned discussion (Budke et al., 2015).
Budke et al (2010) conducted extensive research on the application of argumentation in Geography, focusing on developing a model of argumentation competencies for teaching Their study concluded that effective argumentation consists of three key components: data, warrant, and conclusion Additionally, they identified essential competencies for both oral and written argumentation, which involve processes of reception, interaction, and production The primary findings of this research provide a foundational theoretical framework for integrating argumentation into Geography lessons in Vietnam, as explored in this thesis.
This study utilizes the theoretical framework established by Budke and Uhlenwinkel (2011) to assess the quality of students' written argumentation Their research outlines a systematic approach to evaluating the argumentation process in educational settings.
The quality of written argumentation can be assessed through a six-step process, which categorizes it into three distinct groups Firstly, strong argumentation is characterized by correct and precise evidence that includes implicit norms Secondly, argumentation is deemed acceptable when the evidence is accurate but lacks precision, still incorporating implicit norms Lastly, a statement is classified as non-argumentation if the evidence presented is incorrect.
This research builds upon a study by Budke (2012a) that analyzed argumentation tasks in German Geography schoolbooks It compares the number of argumentation tasks found in Vietnamese Geography schoolbooks with those identified in the German study Additionally, the research examines argumentation tasks across various branches of Geography, including physical geography, human geography, and human-environmental geography, as outlined by Weichhart (2003), to evaluate their presence in Vietnamese educational materials.
Further studies on argumentation in Geography lessons are discussed in the following paragraphs
According to Budke et al (2010), the production of pupils' written argumentations can be categorized into four distinct quality levels The first level involves students expressing their opinions without justification The second level features pupils who can justify their opinions on geographical topics but rely on inappropriate and irrelevant arguments, failing to address their intended audience The third level is characterized by students who provide relevant and valid justifications for their opinions, considering their audience, although their reasoning remains simplistic and one-dimensional The highest level is achieved when pupils articulate their views on geographical facts with well-founded, relevant arguments while appropriately addressing their audience.
Figure 2 9 Quality levels in the production of pupils’ written argumentation (Budke et al.,
Leder (2017) proposed key strategies for integrating education for sustainable development into the Geography curriculum in Pune, India, emphasizing argumentation as a crucial tool These strategies involve updating the syllabus, textbooks, and examinations, promoting greater ownership and responsibility in content and methods, and developing teaching methodologies to enhance argumentation skills among teachers These approaches were also relevant when examining the challenges of incorporating argumentation in Geography lessons in Vietnam, as both countries face similar obstacles in this educational context.
Students express their opinion of a geographer using facts, but without giving reasons to support their statement
Students express their opinion on a geographical topic and can justify it, but do not useappropriate, relevant and valid arguments.
Students give their opinion and can justify it with the most appropriate, relevant and valid arguments Their reasoning is very simple and considers only one perspective
Students give their opinion and can justify it with the most appropriate, relevant and valid arguments Their reasoning is complex and takes into account several perspectives
Argumentation studies in Vietnam
Research on argumentation in Vietnamese Geography lessons is scarce, with limited studies focusing on this area Notably, Ho (2011) explored non-native argumentative writing among Vietnamese learners in English, highlighting the use of qualifiers such as can, could, might, should, will, and would in their writing Additionally, Trinh and Nguyen (2014) demonstrated that incorporating argumentation techniques can enhance Vietnamese learners' skills in writing argumentative essays in English, providing opportunities for self-exploration and peer discussion.
The study concluded that implementing a genre-based approach significantly enhanced students' understanding of the purpose and structure of the genre they were writing in, which in turn boosted their confidence in their writing skills Furthermore, it demonstrated that students' ability to produce effective arguments improved when given opportunities to practice during lessons.
General information on Vietnam
Education system in Vietnam
Education is one of the leading policies in Vietnam and it is always improved and adjusted to fit the development in Vietnam and the world The decision number
The "29-NQ/TW" resolution by the National Assembly of Vietnam in 2013 was pivotal in initiating a comprehensive reform of the country's education and training system This resolution led education experts and managers to develop a new educational framework, which included updated standards, curricula, and textbooks, along with retraining programs for educators and administrators Consequently, the new education system established in 2016 represents one of the most significant transformations in Vietnam's educational landscape.
Figure 3.2 The education system in Vietnam (Annex of the decision number 1981/QĐ-TTg of Vietnam Prime Minister, 2016 translated by the author into English)
University study oriented towards academic purposes (3-5 years)
University study oriented towards professional purposes (3-5 years)
Master study oriented towards professional purposes
Master study oriented towards academic purposes
Min im u m ag e req u ir ed No n -f o rm al ed u ca tio n
The education system in Vietnam is structured into eight levels, starting with primary school at around age six for five years Following this, students attend lower secondary school for four years, completing this stage by approximately 15 years old After lower secondary education, students have two pathways: they can pursue upper secondary education to prepare for university or opt for vocational training, which focuses on practical skills for specific professions like carpentry or skilled labor.
The new education system enhances opportunities for students to develop their argumentation skills In upper secondary school, pupils face a crucial choice between vocational and academic education, significantly impacting their future To navigate this decision-making process effectively, it is essential for learners to practice their decision-making abilities, with argumentation serving as a vital tool for justifying their choices.
In July 2017, Vietnam implemented significant changes to high school education objectives, establishing essential qualifications that students must achieve before graduation Experts outlined new goals and competencies aimed at fostering independent critical thinking among pupils, emphasizing skills such as self-control, self-study, effective communication, collaboration, creativity, and problem-solving abilities The framework encourages students to approach issues without bias and to engage in constructive argumentation, equipping them to formulate logical evidence and critically assess problems.
Teachers are encouraged to create lesson plans that incorporate argumentation to enhance students' creativity and problem-solving skills Additionally, utilizing argumentation in Geography classes fosters self-control and self-reflection among pupils, while also improving their cooperation and communication skills (Budke & Meyer, 2015).
This subchapter highlights significant reforms in the Vietnamese educational system that facilitate the incorporation of argumentation into new educational strategies The redesigned curriculum and textbooks will reflect these changes, ensuring that argumentation is utilized across various subjects, including Geography and beyond.
School subjects
Figure 3.3: Subjects in the school (National Assembly of Vietnam, 2005), translation into English by the author
Vietnamese high schools offer a curriculum that mirrors global education systems, encompassing twelve core subjects These include Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Technology, Literature, History, Geography, and Civic Education, ensuring a well-rounded academic experience for students.
Mathematics, Physics, Chemical Chemistry, Biology, Technology, Literature, History, Geography, Civic education, foreign languages (English, French, Russian etc.), Gymnastics, Informatics
Mathematics, Physics, Chemical Chemistry (grate 8-9), Biology, Technology, Literature, History, Geography, Civic education, foreign languages (English, French, Russian etc.), Music, Arts, Gymnastics and Informatics (English,
France, Russia…), Musical, Arts, Gymnastics and Informatics.
Grate 4th-5th: Mathematics, Vietnamese, English, Science, History, Geography, Music, Ethics,
Grate 1st–3rd: Mathematics, Vietnamese, English, Natural and Social Sciences, Music, Ethics,
35 education, foreign languages (English, French, Russian etc.), Gymnastics and Informatics The subjects differ according to the school level (see Fig 3.3)
In 2017, the Vietnamese education system underwent significant changes, particularly in school subjects Geography and History are now mandatory subjects for both primary and secondary education, while Geography has become an optional subject in upper secondary schools, as outlined by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training.
Figure 3.4 The new school subjects (Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training, 2017), own drawing and translation into English by the author
Geography curriculum
Geography is a fundamental subject in schools that equips students with knowledge about the Earth, including human habitats, natural environments, and social activities on various scales—national, regional, and global This discipline enhances learners' skills in responding to and adapting to both nature and society, as outlined by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (2006).
The primary objectives of Geography encompass three key areas: knowledge, skills, and emotions, as outlined by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (2006) In the realm of knowledge, students acquire insights into the Earth's physical features, human activities, and the distinct physical and social traits of various continents, including Vietnam.
Students can cultivate essential skills such as observation, analysis, and comparison of geographical phenomena while utilizing maps and atlases, creating and interpreting diagrams and graphs, and analyzing statistical data Additionally, geography education aims to foster positive attitudes towards nature and instill confidence in scientific understanding This approach enables learners to grasp geographical concepts and appreciate Vietnam's development on the global stage (Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training, 2006, p 5-6).
In Vietnam, Geography education begins in the 4th grade of primary school, where students receive foundational knowledge about the country's geography By the 5th grade, the curriculum expands to include both Vietnam's geography and global geographical concepts As students progress to secondary school, they delve deeper into geographical topics, enhancing their understanding of both local and international landscapes.
Geographical topics for grades 4 provide essential insights into physical geography, topography, human geography, and human-environmental geography, focusing on both global and Vietnamese contexts The curriculum in upper secondary school further expands on these foundational concepts, enhancing students' understanding of geography as outlined by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (2006).
The new Vietnamese curriculum aims to reform the educational system by emphasizing student competencies and encouraging a more active role for learners compared to the previous curriculum In Geography, a key requirement is the integration of argumentation into lessons.
The capacity to perceive the world from a spatial perspective
- Use a compass to locate a point in the field on a landscaped map
- Identify a punctual geographic location of e.g Acuity, a point, a public agriculture center, an industry, tourism, economic zones, etc.)
Capacity to explain geographical phenomena and processes (physical
- Analysis of the meaning of geographic locations for nature, for the socio-economic development of a country, region, Vietnam
- Analyzing the human impact on the natural environment through resource extraction
- Explain the necessity of the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection in Vietnam
Ability to use the tools of Geography and field studies
- Use maps, diagrams to get information on a geographical subject - In terms of natural features, population, economy, comments on the distribution of features on national, regional and global maps
- Compare the distribution of features on the map and atlas (including Vietnam)
- Use of additional informational channels (tables, graphs, pictures) on the map, on the Geography atlas of Vietnam etc
Capacity to collect, process and transmit geographical information
- Collect, process and systematize information from various sources based on a topic
- Develop a report outline, adapting the sources and materials to reporting
- Write complete reports and present geographical information in various forms (e.g oral formulations, written articles etc.)
Ability to apply knowledge and skills in practice
- Apply Geography-related knowledge and skills to study topics regarding Vietnam or other regions, which are proposed by another learner or by groups of pupils
- Apply the gained geographical knowledge and skills in choosing the appropriate behavior in the environment
Figure 3.5 Competences in Geography based on the latest curriculum (Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training, 2018, page 6 - 9), own drawing and translation into English by the author
Geography schoolbooks
According to the Education Law of Vietnam (National Assembly, 2005), schoolbooks serve as essential resources that provide students with comprehensive information on various subjects, aimed at enhancing their knowledge and skills to meet curriculum objectives.
In Vietnam, a standardized set of schoolbooks is utilized nationwide, ensuring uniformity for all students These textbooks are developed by collaborative teams of researchers, education administrators, and high school teachers The Vietnamese Education Publishing House Limited Company is responsible for managing and publishing these essential educational resources.
Geography schoolbooks are essential resources for teachers and students, with the current editions dating back to 2006 Although these schoolbooks are reissued annually, they offer minimal new information each time In addition to schoolbooks, educators can enhance their lessons by utilizing various supplementary materials, including the internet, newspapers, and other books.
In Vietnam, geography education starts in primary school with grade 4 and continues through to upper secondary school in grade 12, encompassing a total of nine geography textbooks used nationwide.
Figure 3.6 Geography schoolbooks in Vietnam (All Geography School books are Vietnamese education publishing house limited company)
In Vietnam, primary school Geography is integrated with History, utilizing textbooks titled "History and Geography" for grades 4 and 5 At the secondary level, Geography is taught through four dedicated textbooks from grades 6 to 9, followed by three additional textbooks for grades 10 to 12 in upper secondary school This structured approach ensures that all students across the country learn the same Geography content, facilitating easier oversight for education managers.
As part of the education reform, Geography lessons will undergo significant changes in primary and secondary schools, merging with History to form a new subject called "History and Geography," as outlined by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training in 2017 In upper secondary education, Geography will be offered as an independent and optional subject.
The education reform, as outlined by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (2017), introduces updated textbooks that provide a valuable opportunity to incorporate argumentation into Geography lessons This approach enables students to access a wealth of information and engage in diverse argumentative practices during their Geography classes.
Geography lessons
Geography education should align with official schoolbooks, as teachers develop their lessons based on the curriculum, textbooks, time constraints, and school schedules Each class is structured around specific lesson topics, often incorporating two or three sections that focus on distinct subtopics.
The schoolbooks normally follow a similar structure containing the title of the lesson, the task, information in text, picture, map or figure (see Fig 3.7)
Figure 3.7 A Geography lesson in the Vietnamese schoolbook (Nguyen et al., 2014d, p 73)
The title of the lesson, indicated as (1) in the figure, encapsulates the primary topic being taught Tasks, marked as (2) in Fig 3.7, serve as the main assignments for students, directing their focus on the key content of the lesson while also referencing supplementary information In Vietnamese textbooks, tasks can be positioned at the beginning, middle, or end of the sections When placed at the beginning, they provide an overview of the main topic; tasks in the middle clarify specific parts of the lesson, while those at the end summarize all the content covered.
(3) in Fig 3.7) It is accompanied by pictures (number (5) in Fig 3.7), figures (number (4) in Fig 3.7) or maps These elements ensure a diversity of designs for the acquisition of knowledge
In Vietnam, the duration of Geography lessons varies by grade level For grades 4 and 5, lessons last between 35 to 40 minutes, with a total of 35 lessons per school year, as Geography is taught alongside History In secondary school, lesson duration increases to 45 minutes, resulting in approximately 52.5 Geography lessons annually Upper secondary school students are required to complete a total of 46.7 Geography lessons throughout the year.
The integration of argumentation in Geography classes relies heavily on the unities in class structure and lesson duration With approximately 45-minute lessons and a significant number of classes each year, both students and teachers experience considerable content pressure.
Table 3.1 Length of Geography lessons in Vietnam (Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training, 2006, p 5), own drawing and translation into English by the author
Geography teachers in Vietnam
Geography teachers can begin their careers in schools upon completing their training programs at colleges or universities They receive specialized degrees and subject training tailored for teaching Geography at primary, secondary, and upper secondary levels In primary education, a single teacher typically covers multiple core subjects, including Geography, often integrated with History.
Geography is taught by a separate teacher in secondary schools (grades 6 th to
The teacher training program at this level is conducted in colleges over a span of three years, allowing students to combine two subjects, such as Geography and History or Geography and Civil Training.
Teachers can instruct Geography at the upper secondary level (grades 10 to 12) after completing a four-year university degree Unlike colleges, university programs offer Geography as a standalone subject without combining it with others.
Duration of a lesson (in minutes)
Total number of lessons per schoolyear
The current reform of the teachers' training program ensures that educators obtain university degrees for teaching in primary and secondary schools For upper secondary education, a specific master's program is mandated, even if teachers already possess a master's degree for secondary education Annually, teachers participate in a brief training program that outlines the primary objectives for the upcoming school year and provides essential teaching methodologies.
The education system in Vietnam is undergoing significant changes, particularly in Geography classes, where integrating argumentation presents a substantial challenge Teachers are now required to modernize their teaching methodologies and incorporate argumentation into their lessons to enhance student engagement and critical thinking skills.
The methodology
Analysis of argumentation tasks in Vietnamese Geography schoolbooks
This article outlines the methodology for evaluating the significance of argumentation and reasoning tasks in Vietnamese Geography schoolbooks To address this research question, the study utilized a quantitative argumentation analysis method, as established by Rose et al (2015) and Budke et al (2010).
This study examines the tasks present in Geography schoolbooks used in Vietnam, which cater to students from grade 4 to grade 12 A total of nine Geography schoolbooks were analyzed, focusing specifically on the tasks included within them, such as texts, pictures, maps, and figures The primary research question addressed is the quantity of argumentation and reasoning tasks found in these Vietnamese Geography schoolbooks.
In our analysis of 44 tasks, we employed specific formulations like "What do you think ?", "What is your opinion on/about ?", "According to you ?", and "Why ?" to effectively distinguish between argumentation tasks and reasoning tasks.
Figure 4.1 An overview of the methodology used in the study
Focusing exclusively on tasks in education has several advantages Firstly, tasks are well-defined in schoolbooks, allowing for seamless integration of argumentation into Geography lessons Secondly, tasks represent specific work that students must complete, and when these tasks incorporate argumentation requirements, they encourage students to weave argumentation into their learning process effectively.
Literature overview/Observation in class/Group working/Workshop
4.1 Study 1: Importance of argumentation in
4.2 Study 2: The importance of argumentation in the perception of teachers
4.3 Study 3: Quality of pupils’ argumentation
- Quantitative analysis of argumentation tasks
- Observation in the class and teacher interviews (n@)
Applying argumentation in class and collecting pupils’ written argumentation (n"0)
- Taking notes during class observation
Argumentation analysis Budke and Uhlenwinkel
4.1.2 Collect and analysis of tasks
Comprehensive task-related information was gathered in Vietnamese, including details about the task, the intended grade level of the schoolbook, the specific lesson addressing the task, and the corresponding page number in the schoolbook where the task appears The results of this data collection are presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 The task in Geography schoolbooks in Vietnam
In analyzing the tasks outlined in Table 4.1, non-argumentation and non-reasoning tasks were filtered out (Toulmin, 2003; Weichhart, 2003; Budke et al., 2010; Budke, 2012a) To evaluate argumentation tasks, specific methods were employed (Budke, 2012b, p 12) These tasks prompt learners to articulate their opinions on geography-related subjects, often starting with phrases like “according to you…” or “from your point of view…” For example, a typical prompt might ask, “From your point of view, in the current condition, which factors play a huge role in industrial distribution?” (Le et al., 2014a, p 120) Additionally, argumentation tasks focus on examining both the pros and cons of a given issue.
The advantages and disadvantages of the sea effect on Vietnam's economy and human life are significant areas of study (Nguyen et al., 2014c, p 91) Understanding these impacts requires careful consideration and decision-making regarding how to address open-ended questions related to this topic.
“How does the humanity affect the distribution of flora and fauna on the Earth?”
Secondly, the question “How many argumentation and reasoning tasks concern different part of?” was addressed According to Weichhart (2003), Geography topics are part of physical Geography, human Geography or human –
No Grade Lesson Page Physical
46 environment interaction (see table 4.1) This approach enabled us to analyze the characteristics of the argumentation tasks and to compare them with similar tasks in German Geography (Budke & Uhlenwinkel, 2011)
The analysis of argumentation in Vietnamese Geography schoolbooks faced challenges due to a scarcity of argumentation tasks Consequently, the focus shifted to reasoning tasks, which typically begin with "Why " and encourage students to explore underlying reasons In contrast, argumentation necessitates more substantial evidence and requires students to articulate their own viewpoints.
& Uhlenwinkel, 2011) Therefore, the tasks were analyzed once more including reasoning tasks.
Analysis of teachers’ perception of argumentation
This study utilizes expert interviews (Edwards & Holland, 2013) to gather essential insights from Geography teachers in Vietnamese high schools The interviews aim to explore the teachers' knowledge, experience, and practices regarding the application of argumentation in Geography instruction Additionally, the research focuses on understanding the attitudes of these educators towards incorporating argumentation into their lessons, addressing the central research question.
This study investigates the extent to which Vietnamese Geography teachers comprehend the role of argumentation in their teaching practices The methodology involved developing specific tasks and interview questions, followed by systematic data collection and analysis to assess teachers' understanding and application of argumentation in Geography education.
4.2.1 Interviews with teachers-formulation of question
This study aims to analyze Vietnamese Geography teachers' understanding of argumentation, their experiences with it, their attitudes toward its integration, and the potential for incorporating argumentation into Geography teaching These dimensions were refined into specific objectives, which guided the formulation of interview questions, as outlined in table 4.2.
47 were refined through a theoretical system to study in how far Vietnamese Geography teachers understand and apply argumentation in their classes
Table 4.2 Processing of formulation of interview questions (own drawing)
Specific aims (2) Example of operational interview questions (3)
Geography teachers understand argumentation in teaching
- Definition or knowledge about theoretical concepts related to argumentation
- The role of argumentation in the process of learners’development
- What do you think about argumentation?
- In how far can children develop their skills and understanding by using argumentation? (please illustrate both possibilities and problems)
- In how far have you been trained to teach argumentation in your classes?
- What can pupils learn by using argumentation in Geography lesson?
- How important is argumentation in Geography lessons?
Experience with argumentation in using argumentation in Geography lessons
- Which topics in Geography do you consider suitable for pupils’ argumentation? Please motivate your choices
- How far is it possible to teach argumentation using textbooks?
- In your opinion, for which age level can argumentation be best applied in Vietnam?
- How can you encourage your pupils to develop their argumentation skills? Which methods are useful?
- The degree of using argumentation in Geography lessons
- The obstacles in using argumentation in Geography lessons
- the importance of argumentation into Geography lesson
- To what extent is it possible to integrate argumentation in Vietnamese Geography lessons? (please illustrate both possibilities and problems)
- What advantages and disadvantages do you encounter when you use argumentation in your classes?
Possibilities to integrate argumentation in Vietnamese Geography lessons
- Specific class activities suitable for argumentation tasks
- school management based on argumentation
- What changes are needed for integrating more argumentation in your teaching?
- Where do you need support in this case?
The process of data collection included the following aspects: the selection of the Geography teachers, observation in classes, interviews and transcriptions
The study involved Geography high school teachers in Vietnam, requiring authorization from a local Educational Department Manager to conduct interviews With this official approval, high school principals were approached for permission to interview their Geography teachers The headmaster or local Geography teachers' group leader facilitated introductions to the selected teachers, ensuring the researcher had no influence over the selection process This collaboration proved successful, as all interviewed teachers possessed extensive experience in teaching Geography and offered valuable insights during discussions on argumentation.
The researcher observed 40 geography high school lessons in Dong Thap province to gain insights into teachers' use of argumentation during their instruction This observation aimed to enhance the quality of subsequent interviews by providing a more personalized context based on the classroom dynamics.
From October 2015 to March 2016, interviews were conducted over a six-month period, equivalent to two semesters in the Vietnamese high school system A total of 36 out of 43 upper secondary schools were approached for participation, selected based on their geographical proximity and similar academic schedules.
A study involving 40 Geography teachers across 24 schools in Dong Thap province revealed that the majority possess significant teaching experience, ranging from 5 to 35 years.
Table 4.3 Overview of the interviewed teachers
Teacher Sex Age Years of experience in teaching Geography
Male Female Age range Medium age 35-25 years
The interview format facilitated an open dialogue between the researcher and Geography teachers, allowing for flexibility in task sequence based on their interactions As a result, some responses provided a more detailed understanding of teachers' perceptions of argumentation Each interview lasted between 8 to 38 minutes and was conducted in Vietnamese, with full transcriptions available.
The content analysis method developed by Mayring (2014) was employed in this research, categorizing the findings into four distinct groups Detailed subcategories and relevant examples are outlined in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4 Categories and subcategories of teacher knowledge in argumentation analysis
Main category Subcategories Answer to the following questions
- Concept, definition and knowledge about theory of argumentation
- The role of argumentation in the process of learning
- Do you know what argumentation is?
- To what extent can children develop their skills and understanding by using argumentation? (please illustrate possibilities and problems)
- What can pupils learn by using argumentation in Geography lessons? Teachers’ experience in using argumentation in class
- Argumentation based on Geography schoolbooks
- Pupils’ argumentation skills of in teachers’ opinion
- In how far have you been trained to teach argumentation?
- In your view, which Geography topics are suitable for pupil’ usage of argumentation? Please motivate your choice(s)!
- To what degree is it possible to teach argumentation using textbooks?
- In your opinion, what age is must suitable for applying argumentation in Vietnamese Geography lessons?
- How can you encourage your pupils in their argumentation? Which methods are useful?
Teachers’ attitudes towards integrating of argumentation in
- Opportunities of using argumentation in Geography lessons
- Obstacles in implementing argumentation in Geography lessons
- The importance of implementing argumentation in Geography lessons
- In how far is it possible to integrate argumentation in Vietnamese Geography lessons? (please illustrate both possibilities and problems)
- What advantages and disadvantages do you encounter when you use argumentation in Vietnamese Geography classes?
Teachers’ suggestions to intensify argumentation in
- Teaching materials with argumentation tasks
- Teacher activities with argumentation tasks
- school management based on argumentation
- If you want to integrate more argumentation tasks in your teaching, what should be changed?
- What kind of support do you need?
The extensive expertise of high school teachers in argumentation allows for the application of content analysis to all interview responses For practical purposes, the findings from this content analysis have been translated into English.
Research methods to investigate the quality of pupils‘ argumentation
This study aims to explore the competencies of students in constructing written arguments during Geography lessons in Vietnam Utilizing the argumentation analysis framework proposed by Budke and Uhlenwinkel (2011), the research specifically examines the quality of students' argumentation skills.
The data collection process involved four key steps, beginning with the formation of a group of Geography teachers tasked with incorporating argumentation into their lessons This group consisted of six experienced Geography teachers, each with 6 to 18 years of teaching experience in upper secondary schools within Dong Thap province The selected schools included two in urban areas, one in a rural area, and one gifted school, allowing for an examination of potential differences in argumentation competencies among students from urban, rural, and gifted educational backgrounds.
The second step involves the integration of argumentation tasks into Geography lesson design, with collaboration between the researcher and Geography teachers The researcher introduced theoretical approaches to argumentation and its instructional methods in Geography classes, referencing works by Toulmin (2003) and Budke et al (2010) Discussions focused on the most effective ways to incorporate argumentation into Geography lessons in Vietnam.
In the third phase of the project, teachers collaborated to identify appropriate lessons and topics for argumentation tasks Considering the curriculum and the school year schedule in September 2016, they selected the topic "Cultures of Some Ethnic Groups in Africa" from lesson five (pages 19-23) in the 11th-grade Geography textbooks.
The topic "Problems of Africa" (Le et al., 2014b, p 19) is structured into three key areas: physical and mineral challenges, population and social issues, and economic difficulties As outlined by the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (2006, p 104 - 105), this 45-minute lesson aims for students to gain knowledge about Africa's main development sectors, understand obstacles to social and economic progress, and memorize some local names Additionally, students will develop skills in analyzing relevant figures and texts related to Africa's economic and social problems.
Africa faces significant social challenges, including low educational attainment, entrenched negative customs, ethnic conflicts, poverty, hunger, and health issues These persistent problems profoundly impact daily life for many Africans and hinder the continent's overall development (Le et al., 2014b, p 21).
In response to the assertion that "many bad activities done by some ethnic groups in Africa are not rejected" (Le et al., 2014b, p 21), teachers created an argumentation task asking, "Should traditional activities of ethnic groups in Africa be prevented or rejected? Please explain your opinion." This task, developed collaboratively by the Geography teacher group, was not part of the schoolbook and served as a focal point for analysis in this study.
Lesson preparation begins with teachers identifying the lesson's objectives and the knowledge and skills students should acquire Next, they extract relevant information from the schoolbook that aligns with the curriculum Teachers also seek additional resources from teacher guides, magazines, or online sources to provide a comprehensive explanation of the topic Subsequently, they outline the lesson activities in a notebook and create a PowerPoint presentation Finally, teachers gather supplementary materials, such as maps and pictures, to enhance the lesson.
In a lesson focused on argumentation tasks, teachers presented various ethnic activities from different groups in Ethiopia, including the lip plate tradition, the Surma people's practice of drinking cow blood, lion hunting among the Maasai, and non-medical approaches to treating illnesses The information about these cultural practices was sourced from online resources.
All teachers utilized computers and projectors to showcase lesson content, including videos, images, and texts, adhering to the sequence outlined in the schoolbooks However, the activities presented did not align with the expected curriculum standards.
53 all positive, teachers gave the pupils the argumentation task “Traditional actives of ethnic groups in Africa should be prevented or rejected? Please explain your opinion”
Students were allotted five to seven minutes to compose their arguments Following this, teachers gathered the written submissions and proceeded with the lesson using the schoolbook's content.
A total of 220 statements were gathered from 11th-grade pupils, aged 16 to 17, who all wrote on the same topic for their argumentations Each student successfully expressed their opinions and completed the task within the allotted time.
All leaners’ answers were listed in a table (see a sample in table 4.5) The subsequent analysis targeted the opinion, the data, the warrant, the backing and the rebuttal in pupils’ statements
Table 4.5 Analysis of pupils’ written argumentation
(Note: M is male, F is female, O is opinion, D is data, W is warrant, B is backing, Q is qualifier, R is rebuttal)
No Argument Gender Argumentation Points
93 In my opinion, the majority of customs in
Africa should be maintained (O1), while some should be banned (O2) Those customs, which present the cultural value and featured characteristics of the African
(W1), may (Q) attract plenty of tourists
The positive impact of (W1) on the economy (D1) is significant; however, the persistence of outdated customs could negatively affect the local population and tarnish the region's traditional heritage.
Pupils’ argumentation (table 4.5) has two opinions, one data, two warrant, one qualifier and one rebuttal The point come out base on argumentation analysis (Budke
In this project, we utilized the written argumentation analysis framework proposed by Budke and Uhlenwinkel (2011, p 118), which is illustrated in Figure 4.2 The findings from the analysis were categorized into three distinct groups: the first category addresses the basic structure of argumentation, the second examines the complexity of the arguments presented, and the third highlights instances where students' statements lack sufficient argumentation.
55 Figure 4.2 Argumentation analysis (Budke & Uhlenwinkel, 2011, p 188), translation from German into English by the author
The analysis of pupils' written argumentations focused on the presence of evidence supporting their opinions regarding the discussed topic When students articulated their viewpoints and provided supporting evidence, it was classified as a simple argumentation, earning two points in the evaluation.
The importance of argumentation in Vietnamese Geography schoolbooks
Argumentation and reasoning tasks in Vietnamese Geography school books
Table 5.1 reveals that argumentation and reasoning tasks constitute 8.86% of the total tasks found in Vietnamese Geography schoolbooks.
Table 5.1 Argumentation and reasoning tasks in Geography schoolbooks
Schoolbooks used for analysis (books)
Tasks in the Geography books (tasks)
Percentage of argumentation and reasoning tasks (%)
Vietnamese Geography schoolbooks contain a minimal number of argumentation tasks, with only 14 out of 1953 total tasks, accounting for just 0.72% This scarcity is primarily attributed to the curriculum's emphasis on knowledge acquisition, leading to a predominance of tasks centered on information review Consequently, only a handful of tasks encourage students to express their opinions.
Highlight the special in the population and the social of
Germany (Le et al., 2014b, page 57)
What methods should be applied in order to solve the problem of unemployment? Please explain your view (Nguyen et al., 2012, page
Figure 5.2 An argumentation task in Geography schoolbooks
Argumentation tasks in schoolbooks differ significantly from common tasks, as they require students to articulate their opinions on specific topics, whereas common tasks focus on summarizing information from the texts.
Argumentation tasks vary by school level, with no such tasks present in primary school, where Geography is taught alongside History for grades 4 and 5 This absence is attributed to the young age of students, typically six to nine years old, who are deemed too immature for engaging in argumentation tasks.
Argumentation tasks are integral to secondary and upper secondary education, where geography is taught as a standalone subject At this stage, students have matured enough to effectively seek relevant reasons and evidence to support their arguments Figures 5.3 and 5.4 provide a visual representation of the prevalence of these argumentation tasks within these educational levels.
In the argumentation tasks depicted in figure 5.3, students are tasked with expressing their opinions on current global issues, particularly focusing on environmental protection They must either agree or disagree with a given statement and substantiate their views with evidence and reasoning This exercise encourages pupils to engage with significant environmental challenges, including climate change, water pollution, and biodiversity loss, as outlined in their Geography textbooks.
Figure 5.3 Argumentation task in the upper secondary schoolbooks
Figure 5.4 illustrates argumentation tasks found in secondary school Geography textbooks, highlighting that the process of argumentation is consistent across different educational levels In these tasks, students are tasked with selecting a natural factor, such as landscape or minerals, that has influenced social and economic development They are required to gather evidence and provide justification to support their arguments.
Figure 5.4 Argumentation task in the secondary-level schoolbooks
In Vietnam's Geography schoolbooks, there are a total of 159 reasoning tasks, highlighting a curriculum that emphasizes knowledge acquisition These tasks require students to extract pertinent information from the textbooks to address "why"-questions, ensuring that their responses are grounded in the material provided rather than personal opinions.
"Environmental protection is of vital importance" Is this statement correct? Why? (Le et al., 2014b, page 15)
Natural factors play a crucial role in shaping the economic and social development of a city In my view, climate significantly influences these aspects by affecting agriculture, industry, and living conditions For instance, a favorable climate can boost agricultural productivity, leading to increased food security and job creation Conversely, extreme weather events can disrupt economic activities and displace communities Additionally, natural resources such as water bodies and forests contribute to tourism and recreation, enhancing the city's appeal and economic prospects Overall, the interplay between natural factors and urban development is vital for fostering sustainable growth and improving residents' quality of life.
Figure 5.5 illustrates a reasoning task for students, prompting them to identify evidence supporting the necessity for Vietnam to effectively distribute its population This task is based on the reasons outlined in the grade 12 schoolbooks, specifically in lesson number 16.
Figure 5.5 Reasoning tasks in the Geography schoolbooks
Table 5.1 illustrates a significant increase in reasoning tasks as students progress from primary to upper secondary school, starting with 18 tasks in primary school, rising to 57 in secondary school, and peaking at 84 in upper secondary This growth in reasoning tasks correlates directly with students' age, indicating that older students possess more advanced reasoning skills.
5 2 Argumentation and reasoning tasks in Geography-related contexts
The chart below presents the distribution of argumentation and reasoning tasks within Geography-related contexts, highlighting that 173 out of 1953 tasks in Vietnamese schoolbooks focus on these skills The analysis reveals that 45% of these tasks are situated in the human Geography context, while 31% pertain to human-environment interactions, and 24% are related to physical Geography Examples for each context will be detailed in the subsequent subchapters.
Figure 5.6 Argumentation and reasoning tasks in Geography-related contexts (n3 tasks)
Why does Vietnam have to make the population distribution reasonable? Describe some of the directions and measures taken in the past (Le et al., 2014c, page 72)
5.2.1 The argumentation and reasoning tasks in human Geography
Argumentation tasks in human geography involve students expressing their opinions on various topics, including population, health, politics, and food An illustrative example of such a task can be found in figure 5.7.
In the task illustrated in figure 5.7, students articulate their thoughts on a human geography topic, specifically exploring the connection between telephone and internet services and their impact on Vietnam's economy and society.
Figure 5.7 An argumentation task in human Geography context
In reasoning tasks, students explore the underlying causes behind conclusions related to economic, population, and environmental issues For instance, Figure 5.8 illustrates a task where learners must identify the reasons for the economic disparities in Southern Europe compared to other regions By utilizing information from their textbooks, students are expected to articulate why Southern Europe's economy is less developed than that of other European areas.
Figure 5.8 A reasoning task in economic Geography
5.2.2 Argumentation and reasoning tasks in human-environment interaction
The distribution of reasoning and argumentation tasks in grades 4 th to 12 th
This section presents the number of argumentation and reasoning tasks in the schoolbooks for different grades
Figure 5.13 The percentage of argumentation and reasoning tasks in Geography schoolbooks from grade 4 th to grade 12 th
Overall, the percentages of argumentation and reasoning tasks in Vietnamese Geography schoolbooks increase from grade 4 th to grade 12 th The fluctuation from grade 4 th to grade 8 th is around 5.0%
In grades 5 and 8, the number of argumentation and reasoning tasks is notably lower compared to other grades, primarily due to the fact that half of the content in their textbooks focuses on physical geography in Vietnam.
Why should we protect and replant forests? (Nguyen et al., 2014d, page 93)
From grade 9, the percentage of argumentation and reasoning tasks increases from 9.6% to a peak of 15.7% by grade 12 This rise is attributed to students' maturity and the accumulation of knowledge and information, leading to more complex tasks compared to earlier school years.