Literature Review and Research Model
Research background
The previous chapter examined various studies on consumer animosity, highlighting the phenomenon's popularity However, the existing literature has faced criticism for its insufficient theoretical foundation explaining the reasons behind consumer animosity This chapter aims to establish a theoretical framework that explores why consumers harbor negative feelings toward foreign countries, leading to a reluctance to purchase products from those nations.
Three theories uphold this research paper and serve as a theoretical framework:
- The social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986),
- The realistic conflict theory (Sherif, 1966)
- The planned behavior theory (Ajzen, 1991)
The social identity theory, proposed by Tajfel and Turner (1986), emphasizes that individuals categorize themselves into in-groups while distinguishing themselves from out-groups, fostering a sense of identity but also potentially leading to conflict Lantz & Loeb (1998) further explain that ethnocentrism applies to various social groups, including families, communities, and nations, and is influenced by the country of origin (COO), where the nation serves as the primary interest group.
Individuals often support national products due to perceived economic benefits or a sense of moral obligation to their country The global division into countries creates distinct groups, with each individual identifying primarily with their own nation, while viewing products from foreign nations as unrelated This group mentality fosters a natural inclination to prioritize and favor domestic products over those from other countries.
Ethnocentrism traditionally highlights the distinction between social in-groups and out-groups, yet consumer ethnocentrism research primarily focuses on identifying social in-groups based on country of origin (COO) Individuals often belong to multiple social groups that can overlap, and the influence of these identities on perceptions of in-groups and out-groups varies with the intensity of each identity Consequently, the strength of an individual's ties to a specific group can differ significantly.
The realistic group conflict theory, proposed by Sherif in 1966, suggests that inter-group behavior stems from the functional relationships between groups, influenced by their respective objectives and interests When these objectives are viewed as incompatible, it can lead to conflict Riefler and Diamantopoulos (2007) conducted a review of prior research on consumer animosity, confirming that the primary causes of such animosity have been widely studied.
Animosity towards foreign countries can be categorized into three main types: war animosity, economic animosity, and political and diplomatic conflict War animosity arises when consumers perceive historical or military crimes committed by a foreign nation Economic animosity occurs when consumers believe that a foreign country wields excessive economic power and engages in unethical trade practices Lastly, political and diplomatic conflict involves concerns over corruption or political decisions made by a foreign country that conflict with national interests.
The theory of planned behavior, proposed by Ajzen (1985, 1991), illustrates how an individual's social environment significantly impacts their intentions and behaviors, particularly in purchasing decisions This theory suggests that buying behavior is largely influenced by societal approval, especially from close circles like friends and family Shimp (1984) expands on this by introducing consumer ethnocentrism as a component of a broader construct that encompasses cognitive, affective, and normative orientations towards foreign products This construct is built on beliefs about product quality and value, normative attitudes toward purchasing foreign goods, and personal preferences regarding consumer choices Consumer ethnocentrism specifically highlights the normative belief that buying domestic products is appropriate while purchasing imported goods is not.
2.2 The Consumer attitude toward foreign product studies
Research on consumer attitudes towards foreign products reveals two main areas of focus The first area examines how the country of origin influences consumer perceptions and evaluations of foreign products, as highlighted by studies from Bilkey and Nes (1982), Han (1988), and others, often leading to conflicting results The second area investigates the underlying factors that shape these attitudes, including negative sentiments towards specific countries and their impact on purchase intentions and ownership, as discussed by Klein (2002) and Klein et al (1998).
Numerous studies have been conducted on country of origin cues, with estimates suggesting over 600 published works (Papadopoulos & Heslop, 2003) This figure likely underrepresents the true volume of research, as many additional studies have been presented at conferences or released as working papers and other publication formats.
Early research highlighted that consumers often infer product quality based on the country of origin, with products from developing nations typically viewed as inferior (Bilkey & Nes, 1982; Han, 1988) However, this perspective has faced criticism for relying solely on the "made in" label, ignoring the fact that consumers consider multiple cues when evaluating products Furthermore, many consumers are often unaware of a product's country of origin, which complicates their assessment of quality (Bilkey).
& Nes, 1982) Several studies have concluded that country of origin was
11 used as a cue in the absence of other information on which to evaluate products (J K Johansson et al., 1985) especially if consumers are less familiar with the product category (Han, 1989)
Recent research highlights the complexity and ambiguity surrounding country of origin cues (Levin & Jasper, 1996) Studies have examined various components of country of origin effects, such as the country of manufacture, assembly, and design (Papadopoulos et al., 1988) Additionally, the use of misleading captions to suggest a specific country of origin has been explored (Mueller et al., 2001) These findings indicate significant consumer confusion regarding country of origin, often leading to misinformation Consequently, much of the ambiguity and conflicting results related to country of origin effects may stem from consumers' misunderstandings and the intricate trade-offs they navigate.
2.2.2 Consumer attitudes towards foreign products and brands
Research on consumer attitudes towards foreign or imported products often reveals a general negativity towards these items While many studies focus on specific countries, particularly industrialized nations like Germany, Japan, and the UK, the approach varies Some studies treat attitudes towards foreign products as the dependent variable, investigating the factors that shape these perceptions, while others use these attitudes as the independent variable to analyze their influence on purchasing behavior and intentions (Balabanis et al.).
Consumer ethnocentrism, a key concept in marketing studies, stems from the broader idea of ethnocentrism, defined by LeVine and Campbell (1972) as the pride and attachment to one's own ethnic or national symbols, while viewing others with contempt This notion originated from Sumner's (1907) exploration of patriotism and nationalism and was further examined by Adorno et al (1950) in their influential work, The Authoritarian Personality Their research focused on the connection between hostility towards minority groups, such as Jews and Blacks, and personality traits like insecurity and low self-esteem, positioning ethnocentrism primarily as a personality characteristic.
The sociological context plays a crucial role in shaping ethnocentric attitudes, particularly through group influence (Forbes, 1985) Shimp & Sharma (1987) applied this concept to consumer behavior, defining consumer ethnocentrism as the belief among US consumers that buying foreign products is morally wrong, as it can harm the domestic economy, lead to job losses, and be seen as unpatriotic Highly ethnocentric consumers often regard domestic products as superior and view foreign products with contempt To assess this phenomenon, the CETSCALE, a 17-item measurement tool, was developed by Shimp & Sharma (1987) and has been widely utilized in research both within the US and internationally (Good & Huddleston, 1995; Sharma et al., 1995).
Recent research has explored the impact of hostile attitudes toward a specific foreign country on consumer perceptions of products from that nation Klein et al (1998) suggest that these influences are complex, arising from historical relations, quality judgments based on country of origin, and general attitudes toward foreign products They define animosity as lingering negative feelings tied to past military, political, or economic events, hypothesizing that such animosity affects consumers' willingness to buy foreign products rather than their evaluations of those products Evidence from a study in Nanjing, where historical animosity toward Japan persists due to wartime atrocities, supports this hypothesis However, it raises questions about the relevance of animosity and consumer ethnocentrism in smaller countries with high foreign trade levels, where consumers are more exposed to foreign goods and may have limited domestic alternatives in various product categories.
14 at all At the same time, foreign brands do not pose a perceived threat to domestic products and related jobs
Consumer Animosity
This section of the dissertation will explore the key concept of consumer animosity, reviewing previous studies on the topic It will introduce five distinct sources of animosity and develop a typology for animosity research, providing a comprehensive understanding of this important construct.
The concept of animosity in marketing, first introduced by Klein et al (1998), has been explored in numerous studies, including reviews by Riefler and Diamantopoulos (2007) and Nes, Yelkur, and Silkoset (2012) Subsequent bi-national research has built upon the foundational work of Klein et al., examining the impact of animosity on consumer behavior and marketing strategies.
A 1998 study focused on two dimensions of animosity: war animosity and economic animosity In 2012, Nes et al expanded this concept to include four dimensions: war animosity, economic animosity, political animosity, and people animosity These findings highlight that animosity towards specific foreign nations can be multifaceted, encompassing various forms of hostility.
18 countries has an important role in a wide range of international business and global marketing strategies
The animosity model of foreign product purchase plays a crucial role in consumer research by predicting how negative feelings toward a specific country influence the buying decisions of its products.
Consumer animosity, a term introduced by Klein et al (1998), refers to the lingering feelings of hostility stemming from past or ongoing military, political, or economic conflicts The authors differentiated consumer animosity from the country of origin effect (COO), which affects perceptions of product quality based on its origin While COO may influence how consumers view the quality of specific products, consumer animosity leads individuals to avoid all products from a country associated with negative sentiments, irrespective of their quality Klein and colleagues provided empirical evidence for this concept by examining the historical context of the Nanjing massacre, where 300,000 Chinese were killed by Japanese forces in 1937 Their findings demonstrated that animosity significantly hindered consumers' purchasing decisions, regardless of their judgments about product quality.
Recent studies have consistently demonstrated that animosity influences consumer purchasing behavior across various countries, regions, and ethnic groups (Ang et al., 2004; Klein, 2002; Nijssen and Douglas, 2004; Shimp et al., 2004; Shin, 2001) However, the literature still lacks comprehensive evidence detailing the specific relationship between consumer animosity and purchasing decisions.
Research on the relationship between animosity and product quality judgments has yielded mixed results While Klein et al (1998) and subsequent studies indicated that animosity does not significantly affect product evaluations, contrasting findings by Ettenson and Klein suggest a more complex relationship.
Research by 2005 indicated that animosity can significantly affect long-term product judgments Similarly, a study by Shoham et al (2006) revealed that animosity negatively influences both consumers' willingness to purchase and their assessments of product quality The authors attributed these findings to the principle of cognitive consistency, as proposed by Festinger.
1957) This point was echoed by other researchers who indicated that high levels of animosity may affect product judgments (Rose et al., 2008; Tian & Pasadeos, 2012)
Rice & Wongtada, (2007) identified five sources of animosity mentioned in the literature: war, policy, economy, ecology, and social-cultural activities
Historical and ongoing military conflicts can foster animosity towards specific countries, as evidenced by various studies For instance, Hirschman (1981) noted that Jewish consumers often hesitated to purchase German-made goods due to historical grievances Similarly, the boycott of Japanese products by Chinese and Korean consumers, stemming from the atrocities committed by the Japanese military during World War II, highlights the lasting impact of war on consumer behavior (Klein et al., 1998; Shin, 2001; Tian & Pasadeos, 2012) Additionally, after the second Arab Intifada in 2000, Jewish Israelis became more cautious about buying products from Arab Israelis (Shoham et al.).
2006) It also seems that Iraqi consumers tended to shun the purchase of American products because of the recent occupation of Iraq although they
Many people worldwide, particularly in the Muslim world, Europe, and Asia, hold a negative perception of the U.S due to the Iraq invasion, with a 2003 survey revealing that one in four individuals in countries like India, China, South Korea, Indonesia, and the Philippines were hesitant to purchase American products Despite 20% of respondents considering U.S products to be of high quality, the animosity stemming from the Iraq war has also led American consumers to alter their foreign travel habits since 2002.
Policy animosity, as defined by Rice and Wongtada (2007), stems from negative sentiments towards a country's foreign or domestic policies, manifested through non-military actions like diplomacy and legal measures For instance, French President Sarkozy's threat to boycott the Beijing Olympics incited a Chinese boycott of French goods (O'Connor et al., 2008) Similarly, American consumers express animosity towards China due to political issues such as human rights and Taiwan's status (Witkowski, 2000) In Greece, consumers avoid products from nations that oppose their policies regarding Cyprus (Nijssen and Douglas, 2004), while Albanians in Kosovo have boycotted Serbian goods in response to Serbia's stance on Kosovo's independence (Call for boycott of Serbian products, 2006).
Economic animosity: According to Klein et al (1998), economic animosity arises from a foreign country‘s economic acts that a consumer
Economic animosity often arises from feelings of anger over perceived unfair trade practices or fear of domination by larger economies For instance, during the 1980s and early 1990s, American consumers expressed significant discontent towards Japan due to the success of Japanese cars, which they believed threatened jobs in the US automotive industry Similar sentiments have been noted in the relationships between the US and countries like China, Mexico, and Russia Additionally, smaller countries with high levels of foreign trade may feel uneasy about the influence of larger economies, as seen in the negative attitudes of Dutch consumers towards German products.
Ecological animosity can lead to consumer anxiety and negative feelings towards foreign countries, particularly in response to environmental issues A notable example is the French nuclear testing in the South Pacific, which fostered a boycott of French products among Australian consumers due to rising negative sentiments (Edwards et al., 2007; Ettenson et al., 1998; Ettenson and Klein, 2005) Additionally, the treatment of animals in certain countries can also incite ecological animosity; for instance, global whale conservation groups have urged consumers to boycott Japanese products in protest of the country's continued whaling practices.
Social-cultural animosity arises when consumers feel their cultures are threatened by foreign brands, leading to negative emotions such as discontent and worry For instance, the Iraqi resistance to American cultural influence exemplifies this phenomenon Additionally, religious animosity, stemming from differences in beliefs, is prevalent in countries like India and Turkey The outrage from Arab nations towards Denmark over the publication of Mohammed caricatures highlights how such tensions can escalate to international conflicts Furthermore, the animosity between the West and East reflects deeper social and cultural developments, complicating the understanding of whether these tensions are rooted in government policies or religious ideologies.
2.3.3 Extension of animosity sources in this study
The original study evaluated animosity on two dimensions: general animosity and specific animosity related to war and economic issues, employing a series of attitude statements This measurement approach has been widely adopted in subsequent research on consumer animosity, as noted by Riefler and Diamantopoulos.
Consumer Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is a significant attitude closely linked to social and interracial dynamics This section will examine existing research on consumer ethnocentrism and its measurement challenges Additionally, it will explore the connection between consumer ethnocentrism and animosity.
2.4.1 The concept of consumer ethnocentrism
Consumer ethnocentrism is derived from the general psychological concept of ethnocentrism, which is rooted deeply in most areas of inter-
Ethnocentrism, a concept introduced by Sumner in 1906, refers to the tendency of individuals to perceive their own group as superior and to favor similar groups while rejecting dissimilar ones Shimp and Sharma (1987) expanded this idea to define consumer ethnocentrism as the beliefs consumers hold regarding the morality of purchasing foreign products Consumers exhibiting high levels of ethnocentrism often view buying foreign goods as inappropriate and unpatriotic, believing it harms their domestic economy Consequently, these consumers tend to rate the quality of foreign products negatively and prefer domestic alternatives The extent of consumer ethnocentrism is quantified using the Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies Scale (CETSCALE), developed by Shimp and Sharma in 1987.
2.4.2 Relationship between consumer ethnocentrism and animosity
Klein and Ettenson (1999) found a positive correlation between consumer ethnocentrism and consumer animosity, both of which can arise from economic and political events and influence attitudes toward foreign products Empirical evidence indicates that both factors negatively impact purchase intentions However, animosity differs from consumer ethnocentrism, as it specifically targets a particular country, while consumer ethnocentrism relates to broader beliefs about domestic versus foreign products (Klein et al., 1998).
Chinese consumers are increasingly favoring domestic products over foreign ones, driven by rising consumer ethnocentrism and improvements in local offerings (Klein, 2002; Zhou & Hui, 2003) However, this trend does not extend to Japanese products, which are often rejected due to prevalent anti-Japanese sentiment in China.
Research indicates that consumer ethnocentrism and animosity have distinct effects on evaluations of foreign products Studies show that consumer ethnocentrism is closely linked to product judgments and purchase intentions, with individuals who view buying foreign goods as immoral often holding negative perceptions of their quality Conversely, animosity's impact on purchasing decisions does not consistently correlate with quality assessments; for instance, consumers with economic animosity towards Japan may still perceive Japanese products positively, while those with war-related animosity may have a negative view of them.
Cultural acceptability
People in society have varying experiences and perceptions regarding cultures different from their own Exposure to individuals from diverse cultures can reduce prejudice and promote understanding (Sharma et al., 1995) This openness reflects cultural acceptability, highlighting the importance of awareness and acceptance of cultural differences.
27 understanding, and acceptance of the values of other cultures (Craig & Douglas, 2005)
Research indicates that consumers in emerging markets are eager to engage with and be recognized as part of the global consumer community Studies have shown that cultural acceptability positively influences the perception of imported products, suggesting that consumers who embrace foreign cultures tend to rate these products more favorably Consequently, foreign exporters should communicate to Vietnamese consumers that an appreciation for diverse cultures is a pathway to joining the global marketplace.
Judgment of product
The relationship between animosity and purchase intention raises important questions, particularly whether animosity influences buying behavior independently of product judgment Research by Klein et al (1998), Klein and Ettenson (1999), and Klein (2002) indicates that consumers are often reluctant to purchase goods from countries they harbor animosity towards, even when recognizing the quality of those products This distinction highlights the difference between consumer animosity and consumer ethnocentrism While this concept has been widely accepted and validated across various countries, recent studies have begun to challenge this foundational argument.
Leong et al (2008) conducted a study on animosity across five countries—Indonesia, South Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand—each significantly impacted by the 1997 Asian economic crisis, alongside the U.S and Japan.
A recent study highlights that animosity significantly impacts consumers' willingness to purchase products from the U.S and Japan, contradicting earlier theories that suggested animosity affects purchase intention independently of product evaluation Maher and Mady (2010) found that while animosity doesn't necessarily lead to unfavorable product judgments, it is linked to decreased willingness to buy from the target country Supporting this, Huang et al (2010) demonstrated that consumer animosity, along with economic hardship and normative influences, shapes Taiwanese consumers' attitudes towards Japanese and Chinese products These findings challenge the traditional view of consumer animosity, indicating that the relationship between animosity and purchase intention is more intricate than previously thought, necessitating further investigation into this fundamental aspect of consumer behavior.
Reluctance to buy
This study adopts reluctance of buying foreign products, defined as perceived guiltiness and tendency to avoidance in buying foreign-made product (Suh & Kwon, 2002) The framework would be quite meaningful
Research on the factors influencing consumers' reluctance to purchase foreign products is limited This study focuses on the reluctance to buy rather than the willingness to buy, highlighting the impact of animosity on Vietnamese consumer behavior A more targeted research approach with specific products may better explain shifts towards proactive buying behaviors Conversely, reducing passive behaviors, such as reluctance to buy foreign products, can be more straightforward when discussing general products without naming specific brands, aligning with the findings of Suh & Kwon (2002).
Previous research has highlighted the significant role of consumer ethnocentrism in shaping attitudes towards foreign products (Durvasula et al., 1997; Netemeyer, 1991; Shimp and Sharma, 1987) It is established that consumer ethnocentrism strongly influences beliefs about foreign products and the willingness to purchase them We predict that this construct will notably increase reluctance to buy foreign products, as reluctance represents a more passive attitude that is easier to influence compared to proactive attitudes like willingness (Suh & Kwon, 2002).
Consumer ethnocentrism significantly impacts overall product beliefs and the hesitance to purchase foreign goods Research has previously validated the connection between consumer ethnocentrism and product judgment, highlighting its influence on perceptions of products However, the relationship between consumer ethnocentrism and other aspects of buying behavior lacks substantial literature support.
30 hypothesized path to reluctance to buy foreign products seems less doubtful in terms of the significance for the reason discussed above.
Hypotheses development and Research model
Research highlights the significance of ethnocentrism and animosity as key factors influencing the purchase intentions of both foreign and domestic products (Javalgi et al., 2005; Maher and Mady, 2010) In the context of Vietnam, a developing country, it is essential to explore how these concepts, along with cultural acceptability, interact and impact consumer behavior towards foreign products This study examines five critical factors affecting Vietnamese consumers: animosity, ethnocentrism, cultural acceptability, product judgment, and reluctance to purchase foreign goods, as illustrated in the provided framework (Figure 2).
Relationship between animosity and product judgment, consumer ethnocentrism and reluctance to buy
Consumer animosity is a crucial concept in understanding and predicting consumer behavior, as highlighted in various studies (Klein et al., 1998; Nijssen and Douglas, 2004; Riefler and Diamantopoulos, 2007) Our review of the academic literature reveals that the majority of researchers utilize Klein's widely recognized definition of animosity.
(1998, p.90), which is: ―the remnant of antipathy related to previous ongoing political, military, economic or diplomatic events will cause a direct negative effect on consumers‘ purchase behavior in the international
Animosity is defined as a powerful emotion characterized by dislike and hatred, often arising from historical or ongoing military, political, or economic conflicts This sentiment typically emerges between nations or groups and is fueled by perceived injustices or actions that violate social norms (Abraham, 2013).
Animosity is defined similarly by two scholars, highlighting negative sentiments toward a country due to its aggressive behaviors It can be categorized into war animosity, stemming from provocative military actions, and economic animosity, resulting from trade disputes or economic dominance by a more powerful nation Although Russell & Russell (2006) argue that animosity should be limited to past events, recent incidents can also evoke such feelings Research on Country-of-Origin shows that consumers often rely on a country's reputation to assess products, finding it more trustworthy than objective information Additionally, Social Identity Theory suggests that individuals favor their own group over others, while Realistic Group Conflict Theory posits that fear of losses from an out-group fosters negative biases, leading to prejudices in consumer evaluations rather than objective assessments.
1979) Likewise, the homogenous hostility results in the reluctance and rejection to redeem product from infiltrating nations (Njissen and Douglas,
2004) In consequence, animosity toward the foreign counterparts negatively influences product judgment and reluctance to buy products from that country (Ettenson and Klein, 2005; Shoham et al., 2006; Verlegh,
2007) Although Klein denied the negative effect of animosity on quality judgment (Klein et al., 1998; Klein, 2002), Shoham et al (2006) found that this relationship exists
Animosity and consumer ethnocentrism are distinct constructs with notable differences, particularly in their contextual applications Ethnocentrism is universally applicable across various countries and cultures, while animosity is context-specific (Klein et al., 1998; Abraham, 2013) In Vietnam, both constructs are particularly relevant due to the long-standing patriotism among its people and the hostility provoked by the Chinese government's actions A review of existing literature reveals inconsistencies in hypotheses and findings regarding these constructs Many studies indicate that animosity can elevate levels of ethnocentrism (Klein et al., 1998; Nijssen and Douglass, 2004) LeVine & Campbell (1972) suggested that aggressive behaviors from one country can foster negative attitudes towards related products, thereby reinforcing ethnocentrism Additionally, Shankarmahesh (2006) noted that animosity may extend to consumer ethnocentrism Both ethnocentrism and animosity are linked to product origin and have emerged in marketing literature from fields such as psychology and sociology (Balabanis et al.).
Marketing literature identifies animosity and ethnocentrism as psychological and behavioral responses to specific countries of origin Ethnocentrism connects social and moral norms to consumer behavior, where ethnocentric consumers believe that purchasing foreign products negatively impacts the domestic economy and employment Animosity, on the other hand, reflects lingering hostility toward a country and can enhance in-group solidarity and ethnocentric behaviors Researchers emphasize the need to examine animosity as a precursor to ethnocentrism, highlighting its significance in consumer evaluations of foreign products, particularly as it may strengthen ethnocentric sentiments.
An out-group's aggressive behavior can intensify feelings of ethnocentrism, resulting in negative perceptions of products, people, and ideas from the offending nation This consumer animosity often manifests as a reluctance, or even outright refusal, to purchase goods from the aggressor country, further solidifying consumer ethnocentrism.
Therefore, this research aims to examine whether the former hypotheses exist in Vietnamese context
H1: Vietnamese Consumer Animosity to China negatively affects Chinese Product Judgment
H2: Vietnamese Consumer Animosity to China positively affects to reluctance to buy Chinese product
H3: Consumer Animosity to China positively affects Consumer Ethnocentrism
Relationship between ethnocentrism and product judgment, reluctance to buy
Consumer ethnocentrism is a key concept explored in this paper, extensively discussed in various marketing studies (Shimp and Sharma, 1987; Klein et al., 1998; Pecotich & Rosenthal, 2001; Balabanis & Diamantopoulos, 2004) It is defined both psychologically and in terms of consumer behavior Ethnocentrism, originally defined by Sumner (1906) as viewing one’s own group as central to everything, influences consumer perspectives Shimp & Sharma (1987) describe it as the belief that purchasing foreign-made products is inappropriate or immoral This suggests that consumers tend to favor cultures similar to their own while rejecting those that conflict with their cultural values (Adorno et al., 1950).
Ethnocentric consumers believe that purchasing foreign-made products negatively impacts their local economy and contributes to rising unemployment As a result, they often choose to boycott these overseas goods, regardless of other factors.
Ethnocentrism plays a crucial role in consumer assessment, particularly when domestic alternatives are unavailable (Nijssen and Douglas, 2004) Research by Sharma et al (1995) reveals that ethnocentric consumers often associate the purchase of foreign goods with moral implications, leading to a reluctance to buy such products This belief negatively impacts their purchase intentions and evaluations of foreign items, as reflected in CETSCALE scores (Olsen et al., 1993; Marcoux et al., 1997; Shoham and Brenic, 2003) Previous studies employing the CETSCALE have effectively measured consumer ethnocentrism (Netemeyer, Durvasula).
Research by Lichtenstein (1991) and Shimp & Sharma (1987) indicates that elevated CETSCALE scores correlate with negative perceptions of foreign products and a hesitance to buy them This provides a strong theoretical basis for the subsequent two hypotheses.
H4: Consumer Ethnocentrism negatively affects Chinese Product Judgment
H5: Consumer Ethnocentrism positively affects reluctance to buy Chinese products
Cultural acceptability and ethnocentrism, product judgment
Consumers who possess high cultural acceptability tend to embrace and appreciate cultural differences They are open to learning from others, enjoy interactions with diverse groups, and feel less threatened by cultural variations (Loo & Shiomi, 1999).
36 high degree of cultural acceptability tend to evaluate imported products more favorable than those with a low degree of cultural acceptability
Research indicates that consumers who embrace cultural differences and value diverse perspectives tend to exhibit lower levels of ethnocentric behavior (Sharma et al., 1993) This suggests that fostering cultural appreciation can significantly reduce ethnocentrism among individuals.
H6: A positive relationship between cultural acceptability and product Judgment is expected
H7: A negative relationship between cultural acceptability and consumer ethnocentrism is expected
Product Judgment and reluctance to buy Chinese product
Product judgment reflects consumers' attitudes towards specific items, influenced by both cognitive and emotional factors (Rezvani et al., 2012) While logical reasoning plays a role, emotions often dominate purchasing decisions, significantly impacting consumer behavior (Hansen, 2005) Negative feelings, such as animosity, can lead to the undervaluation of foreign products (Ettenson and Klein, 2005; Shoham et al., 2006) Recent marketing studies have focused on purchase intention, defined simply as "what we think we will buy" (Park, 2002), and as a psychological action indicating an individual's behavior towards products (Wang and Yang, 2008) It is important to note that purchase intention and attitude are distinct concepts.
Attitude plays a crucial role in evaluating products, while intention drives the motivation to make purchases (Ramadania et al., 2014) The connection between consumer attitudes and purchasing behaviors highlights the importance of product judgment in the buying process (Javalgy et al., 2005) Although Fishbein et al (1975) argued that attitudes do not significantly influence purchasing behavior, subsequent research has demonstrated a positive correlation, particularly concerning foreign products (Javalgy et al., 2005) Mowen and Minor (2002) emphasized that actual behavior encompasses the ownership, use, and disposal of products (Ramadania et al., 2014) Additionally, psychological factors such as judgment and emotions are believed to impact purchase intention, which includes concepts like willingness and reluctance to buy Prior studies on animosity and ethnocentrism have further established the role of product judgment as a mediator in the relationship between these factors and purchase intention (Huang et al., 2010; Nguyen et al., 2008; Klein et al., 1998) Based on these findings, the final hypothesis can be proposed.
H8: Chinese Product Judgment negatively affects reluctance to buy Chinese Product
Reluctance to buy and Chinese product ownership
These hypotheses focus on Vietnamese consumers' attitudes toward buying Chinese products and their behavioral intentions (i.e., reluctance to
38 buy) To assess nomological validity, we also include in the model measures of actual ownership of products from the target country (China) Therefore,
H9: reluctance to buy will be a significant predictor of ownership of products from the target country (China)
Animosity construct and its antecedents