Topics covered include: • work values that influence the meaning of work; • implications of the characteristics of the contemporary organisation for careers; • major career concepts and
The meaning of work
This chapter will equip you with the ability to understand the evolving dynamics of organizational structure and workforce Additionally, you will learn about the implications these changes have on career development and progression.
Organizations worldwide are undergoing significant transformations in structure, workforce composition, reward systems, service contracts, and technology, driven by technological, economic, and political developments The rise of the global knowledge economy has intensified competition, particularly in South Africa, where a surge in small enterprises is emerging alongside the downsizing of larger organizations that are outsourcing services As competition becomes fiercer and the business environment less stable, organizations are facing mounting pressure to optimize resources and enhance flexibility.
Modern organizations today and in the future are characterized by several key features: they operate without boundaries and are primarily knowledge-based and virtual These organizations exhibit flexibility in their functions and workforce size, are largely composed of specialists, and have flatter structures with a shrinking workforce They prioritize active learning, have reduced command-and-control dynamics, and offer less defined job roles Additionally, they often outsource components while retaining strong core competencies, employ a diverse workforce, and are committed to the development of their employees These organizations foster a stronger attachment to professional or project teams and provide careers based on flexible work assignments.
Some characteristics of the traditional and modern workplace are summarised in Table 2.1.
The Henley Centre — a dedicated forecasting centre — made the following predictions about the changing nature of work in 1998 (Furnham, 2000):
The future of work is shifting towards a shorter week, with employees expected to work around 25 hours across three to four days Businesses will operate around the clock, allowing for greater flexibility, while individuals will have more time to engage in leisure activities and contribute to their communities.
As they become more advanced, personal computers will enable people to communicate audio-visually across the globe.
About 25 per cent of all people will work from home and 10 per cent of the top companies will be virtual organisations.
Careers will offer little job tenure, and people will have to make provision for periods of unemployment.
Based on intensive research studies, Hankin (2005) reports the following five future trends that will have a major influence on the 21st-century world of work:
As the population ages, many individuals are remaining active and healthy well into their 90s due to lifestyle changes and medical advancements Financial pressures and personal aspirations are motivating these seniors to continue working, reflecting a shift in the traditional retirement narrative.
The 21st-century workforce is becoming more diverse, featuring female heads of households, same-sex couples, stay-at-home fathers, dual-income families, and unmarried partners As these varied household types emerge, company benefits programs are rapidly adapting to prioritize flexibility, which is essential for supporting and retaining a diverse workforce.
In the 21st-century workplace, five generations—Silent Generation, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Baby Boom Echo (Generation Y), and Generation 2020—will collaborate, each bringing unique needs, values, and working styles Successful companies will leverage the wisdom and experience of older employees while harnessing the energy and innovation of younger workers to cultivate a dynamic multi-generational workforce.
The increasing diversity in the workplace encompasses various aspects such as race, ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, and sexual orientation To thrive, companies must cultivate a corporate culture that not only embraces this diversity but also integrates it into their operational framework, fostering a more productive and inclusive environment.
In the 21st century, employees are increasingly prioritizing spirituality in the workplace, seeking a higher purpose and personal growth alongside their professional lives Organizations that foster an environment of trust, respect, and ethical behavior will cultivate a dedicated workforce and inspire innovative thinking As workers look for balance and meaningful engagement, companies that integrate these spiritual components will attract and retain committed talent.
Table 2.1 Differences between the traditional and modern workplace (Adapted from
Mechanistic, product-oriented, functional divisional structures
Seniority-based, time-based promotions
Dynamic, competitive environment; unpredictable global markets
Learning organisations driven by knowledge and information technology
Command and central management style
Organisation responsible for individual career planning and development
Individual loyalty to organisation for lifelong and steady growing employment
Job security, job-for-life
One or two career choices at early career age
Small component of core employees, big component consisting of part-time, casual, contract staff
Increasing emphasis on work–life integration
Repeated career choices at different age stages
Careers as learning cycles (several organisations)
The Work Design Collaborative, an applied research consortium dedicated to exploring the future of work, has made twelve insightful predictions about the evolving nature of employment.
The traditional social bonds between workers and companies are diminishing as the reliance on large organizations for job security and value creation decreases Historically, workers were dependent on corporations for their livelihoods, fostering long-term connections with their employers However, in today's knowledge-driven economy, the significance of these corporations has waned, leading to a decline in these once-close relationships.
In today's dynamic work environment, individuals, akin to atoms, will unite to form collaborative teams, or 'molecules', for specific projects This highly networked approach allows people to come together for a project, disband, and then reassemble in new configurations for future endeavors Similar to the Hollywood model where actors, directors, and producers collaborate on various projects, this flexible teamwork structure is becoming increasingly common Typically, business projects are short-term, lasting about a year or less, with multi-year projects being uncommon.
The resurgence of guild structures will redefine social organization for professional talent, with guilds and confederations emerging as the primary model for smaller groups These guilds will play a crucial role in talent recruitment, mentorship, and the enforcement of professional quality standards Focused on shared interests or expertise, guilds will resemble contemporary organizations like the Screen Actors Guild, fostering collaboration and professional development within specific fields.
The future of work will see a significant shift towards greater location diversity, with approximately 60% of the workforce operating across multiple sites based on task requirements, available tools, and customer needs The traditional industrial model of a centralized workforce will gradually fade, as work activities are expected to be divided among central offices (30% of the time), remote locations (40%), and various community-based settings (30%).
The traditional eight-hour workday is evolving into a flexible schedule spread across a fourteen-hour window This change accommodates global collaboration, enhances quality of life, and allows workers and their families to align with local community and educational activities.
Changes in organisations: Implications for careers
This chapter enables you to explore various career development theories, including the trait-and-factor and person-environment-fit approaches, as well as Holland's theory on types and their relationships You will learn about Jung's psychological processes relevant to occupational choice, and how Dawis and Lofquist emphasize the importance of individual-work fit for work adjustment Additionally, Super's insights on self-concepts, career maturity, and life stages will be discussed, alongside cognitive-behavioral approaches to career decision-making Krumboltz's theory will be examined in terms of decision-making determinants and outcomes, while Hackett and Betz's model highlights self-efficacy expectations in the career development of men and women The life-career theory by Tiedeman, O’Hara, and Miller-Tiedeman will also be reviewed, along with Bordin's perspective on childhood experiences influencing career choices Roe's theory will be explored concerning the role of needs and parent-child relations, and you will gain insights into the person-in-environment perspective presented by Cook, Heppner, and O’Brien Furthermore, Brown's views on values in career choice, along with Savickas's career construction theory and logotherapy, will be discussed in the context of modern workplace counseling Finally, this chapter will differentiate between the three waves of career development theory and intervention, address practical applications of these theories, and consider ethical issues in career counseling.
Career choice involves the decisions individuals make regarding their professional paths, often leading them to seek guidance from career counsellors Career development practitioners assist clients of all ages in navigating various career-related challenges In today's flexible and diverse job market, career counselling is essential for helping individuals make informed decisions and manage their careers throughout their lives This process also fosters the development of psychological resources and competencies, enabling individuals to address the emotional challenges that arise as they progress in their working lives.
Career counselling, as defined by Kidd (2006:1), is a personalized, ongoing interaction between a practitioner and a client This process utilizes psychological theories and established communication skills to assist clients in making informed career decisions and addressing various career-related challenges.
Career Development Practitioners (CDPs) serving as career counsellors must possess professional training and competence to effectively provide career counselling services The Competency Framework for CDPs in South Africa, established by the DHET in 2015, specifies essential competencies that these practitioners should uphold It is crucial for career counsellors, as specialized CDPs, to be proficient in all competencies detailed in the framework, as highlighted in Tables 4.1 and 4.2 (Coetzee, Roythorne-Jacobs & Mensele, 2016; DHET, 2015).
Table 4.1 Core competencies for CDPs in South Africa (DHET, 2015)
Core competencies Knowledge, skills, attitudes and values
Effective communication is essential for a Client Development Professional (CDP) and encompasses various skills A CDP must conduct a thorough needs assessment to identify the type of assistance a client requires, while demonstrating strong listening and attention-giving abilities Proficiency in both verbal and non-verbal communication, along with excellent written skills, is crucial Additionally, a CDP should be perceptive to the client's appearance, demeanor, mood, and behavior, and possess questioning and summarizing skills to facilitate understanding Empathy and the ability to establish rapport are vital for building strong client relationships Furthermore, familiarity with various software tools for message delivery and strong presentation skills are important for effective communication.
Effective stakeholder relationship management is essential for a Community Development Professional (CDP) This involves engaging with individuals on a professional level and cultivating a robust network of stakeholders for support, advice, and information Additionally, a CDP should establish and maintain a comprehensive database of networks at national, regional, and community levels to facilitate ongoing collaboration and resource sharing.
To demonstrate ethical behavior, a Competent Development Professional (CDP) must adhere to relevant ethical codes and standards set by the appropriate professional body, stay informed about current legislative regulations regarding assessments, counseling, and personal information protection They should practice ethical decision-making and apply these standards in daily interactions with clients, ensuring compliance with legal principles concerning confidentiality and information disclosure Additionally, a CDP must respect copyright laws and ethical practices when reproducing materials and utilizing standardized assessment tools, while also understanding the ethical considerations involved in providing guidance and sharing information through telephonic, email, and chat room communications.
Core competencies in career advice and guidance encompass a deep understanding of ethical issues in both individual and group sessions Professionals should effectively utilize supervision and consultations when encountering challenges beyond their expertise Adhering to legal and professional credentialing standards is crucial for the protection and appropriate use of assessments Additionally, staying informed about current ethical and legal matters related to computer-assisted career guidance systems is essential for maintaining professional integrity.
Demonstrating professional behavior is essential for a CDP, which includes developing a client management system and maintaining accurate client records It is important to understand the boundaries of one's practice while fostering professional relationships Lifelong learning is crucial for skill enhancement, alongside effective planning and time management Additionally, evaluating personal performance and the services provided to clients is necessary Adhering to case management procedures and organizing services while supervising personnel are also key components of this competency.
Managing diversity is a crucial competency for a Career Development Practitioner (CDP), encompassing the understanding of individual differences such as gender, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, and physical and mental capacities It involves recognizing diversity in culture, values, skills, attributes, and personal circumstances, as well as identifying how these factors influence career choices Additionally, staying informed about current diversity issues is essential, along with creating a network of educational providers specializing in special needs training and establishing connections with employers who support special needs clients.
Core competencies Knowledge, skills, attitudes and values
To effectively utilize career information, a Career Development Practitioner (CDP) must know how to access vital resources such as career information, financial aid details, and tertiary education opportunities They should be familiar with entry requirements for tertiary institutions, NBT writing centers, school rewrite centers, and labor market insights, including the national scarce skills list and salary scales It is essential for CDPs to critically evaluate the quality of the information they use and to have a comprehensive understanding of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Additionally, they should provide guidance on career pathing, work availability, and opportunities like internships and learnerships, while also referring clients to reputable career-related resources Understanding relevant legislation in employment, education, and training, as well as monitoring occupational trends, is crucial for CDPs to assist individuals and groups in developing effective educational plans.
Delivering an effective career development service
A career development professional (CDP) must possess the ability to deliver informative career sessions, facilitate both individual and group discussions on career topics, and conceptualize effective career development programs Additionally, the CDP should be skilled in designing, implementing, and evaluating these programs to ensure they meet the needs of participants.
Core competencies Knowledge, skills, attitudes and values
To enhance client employability, a Career Development Professional (CDP) must effectively navigate various employment opportunities across state, para-statal, and private sectors They should facilitate client registration on national and regional unemployment databases and possess strong job hunting techniques Understanding the psychological significance of work is crucial, as is building a network of both general and specialized recruitment agencies Additionally, CDPs should aid individuals in recognizing their work-related interests, skills, knowledge, and values, while also offering expertise in CV writing and interview preparation.
Career development competency involves a comprehensive understanding of various decision-making and career development theories and models It requires knowledge of the lifespan career development process, including the strengths and limitations of these theories A career development professional must apply appropriate theories to the specific population they serve, effectively integrating multiple life roles and facilitating career transitions Additionally, they should recognize the influence of economic principles and government policies on career development practices, while possessing expertise in information, techniques, and models related to career planning and placement.
Conducting career assessments is a crucial competency for Career Development Practitioners (CDPs), involving the description and application of various non-standardized assessment methods such as questionnaires, checklists, interviews, inventories, tests, observations, surveys, and performance assessments When necessary, CDPs should refer clients to qualified professionals who are trained to administer standardized assessments.
Career concepts and career models
This chapter equips you with the ability to differentiate between life stages and developmental career stages, as well as various activities and tasks related to career adaptability You will learn about contemporary psychosocial career preoccupations that are not age-normed, and how childhood development influences adult career behaviors The chapter covers career development tasks during adolescence, late adolescence, and adulthood, introducing the concept of emerging adulthood and highlighting differences in career development between men and women It describes the characteristics and life tasks associated with early adulthood, including the establishment and achievement phases, and outlines organizational and individual strategies to address early career issues Additionally, the chapter explores the characteristics of middle adulthood, the process of individuation, the concept of generativity, and discusses the mid-life crisis, along with organizational support for mid-life career challenges Finally, it examines the late-life career stage, the dynamics of retirement in terms of motivation and adjustment, relevant retirement theories, the nature of organizational pre-retirement programs, and factors influencing early retirement.
Career development is influenced by individuals' career concerns in relation to age-normed life stages and non-age-normed developmental stages throughout their lifespan Key human development theories, including those proposed by Erikson and Levinson, alongside lifespan development theories like Super's, provide a framework for understanding this relationship.
2013) differentiate between various age-normed life stages (see Chapter 4) that individuals encounter through the lifespan (ie in childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood).
Chronological age plays a crucial role in identifying psychobiological developmental milestones throughout a person's life Life stages are typically categorized based on age, including childhood (up to 15 years), adolescence (15 to 18 years), emerging adulthood (18 to 28 or 30 years), early adulthood (28 to 45 years), middle adulthood (45 to 60 years), and late adulthood (beginning at 60 years and continuing to retirement).
This chapter explores life stages that offer crucial insights into the psychobiological tasks influencing career development Each stage presents unique psychosocial career concerns and distinctive developmental themes that individuals must address (Super, 1990) Super’s lifespan theory (1990, 1992, 2013) emphasizes that career changes can occur at any life stage, allowing individuals to revisit developmental tasks during transitional periods The underlying premise is that individuals possess the capacity for change throughout their lives (Valsinger, 2000), with Baruch (2004) noting that such change entails multi-dimensional and potentially multi-directional personal development.
Contemporary career theory, particularly postmodern perspectives by Savickas (2005, 2013), enhances Super’s life stage theory by introducing non-age-normed developmental stages that focus on career adaptability activities, regardless of an individual's age This concept of career adaptability has gained significance in modern career development theory, reflecting the challenges posed by uncertain and turbulent employment environments that shape individual career trajectories.
Change arises from various contexts surrounding individuals, including biological, psychological, social, spiritual, cultural, economic, and historical factors Both individuals and their contexts are dynamic and can influence each other; individuals shape their environments while being shaped by them This reciprocal relationship highlights that personal development is not only affected by external contexts but also allows individuals to introduce new perspectives, such as transforming a monotonous job into a unique opportunity for growth Ultimately, development is characterized by the emergence of novelty through the reorganization of perceptions.
In today's dynamic and technology-driven society, careers, personal life, and developmental stages are deeply interconnected, as individuals increasingly strive for balance and integration rather than separating their professional and personal activities This shift reflects a growing desire for flexibility throughout one's lifespan (Galinsky & Matos, 2011; Hankin, 2005; Savickas, 2011, 2013).
Apart from important psychobiological developmental turning points associated with people’s chronological age (life stage), the contemporary career is measured by continuous learning and identity changes through the lifespan (Hall,
Super's traditional life stages have evolved to encompass developmental career stage activities and tasks that facilitate career adaptability, creating a series of short learning cycles throughout an individual's adult life (Savickas, 2005, 2013) Each adult life stage involves a sequence of exploration, trial, and mastery experiences Consequently, career age—reflecting an individual's professional challenges, experiences, relationships, and ongoing learning across various organizations—has gained significance (Hall, 2013; Weiss, 2001) As career competency becomes increasingly vital, career age serves as a more meaningful metric for organizations and personal self-awareness than chronological age.
Savickas (2005, 2013), building on Super’s life stage theory, categorizes career development tasks into five key stages: growth (before age 15), exploration (ages 15-25), establishment (ages 25-45), management (ages 45-65), and disengagement (around age 65) In today's dynamic work environment, individuals often navigate multiple career paths, leading to various developmental stages within their adult life phases—early, middle, and late adulthood These stages, or maxi-cycles of learning, manifest as short-term mini learning cycles without fixed age limits, reflecting the cyclical nature of psychological career experiences As individuals adapt and manage their careers, they continuously explore and redefine their vocational identities Throughout their lifespan, people frequently recycle through these developmental stages, especially during transitions and challenges, prompting re-exploration and re-establishment of their career paths This recycling process varies for those with multiple careers or who face career breaks.
The developmental career stages outlined in Table 5.1 highlight specific activities related to career adaptability and essential self-management behaviors Each stage's activities aim to achieve primary adaptive goals, which foster a foundation for future success and growth (Coetzee et al., 2016; Hartung, 2013) Given the fluidity of work, occupations, and individuals' self-concepts, career development is an ongoing process that requires continual recycling and adjustment throughout one’s lifespan.
Table 5.1 Framework of developmental career stage activities and tasks (Coetzee et al, 2016) Developmental career stage (mini-cycles of learning)
Developmental activities of career adaptability
Vocational developmental tasks (career self-management behaviours) Orientation (exploration) Adolescence: school-to-work transition Adulthood: occupational transition
Exploring one’s interests, values and beliefs Acquiring knowledge about occupations and the world of work The goal is to find a best fit between the two
The crystallization of self-concept involves translating personal beliefs into a preference for specific occupations through experiences like job shadowing, part-time jobs, and volunteer work, while also gaining insights into the world of work Interest inventories play a crucial role in vocational guidance by aiding in exploration and education Constructing or revising a career identity narrative is essential, as it helps individuals narrow down their preferences to make informed occupational choices The implementation phase involves a trial-and-error approach, where individuals seek work that aligns with their interests, values, and self-concept, ultimately aiding in the discovery of their identity Finally, establishment focuses on becoming settled in a chosen occupation.
To successfully stabilize in a new position, it is essential to adapt to the workplace culture, demonstrate competence, and familiarize oneself with the organization’s people, politics, and history Understanding employer expectations and assessment criteria, while taking responsibility and being accountable, is crucial Consolidating one’s position involves addressing personal development through good work habits and a disciplined work ethic, as well as fostering positive interpersonal relationships and a cooperative attitude towards supervisors and colleagues Effective communication skills are vital for building friendships and navigating workplace dynamics For advancement, it is important to show initiative, embrace greater responsibilities, and align with company goals, which may sometimes necessitate transitioning to a different team or organization.
Table 5.1 Framework of developmental career stage activities and tasks (Coetzee et al, 2016) Developmental career stage (mini-cycles of learning)
Developmental activities of career adaptability
Vocational developmental tasks (career self-management behaviours) Orientation (exploration) Adolescence: school-to-work transition Adulthood: occupational transition
Exploring one’s interests, values and beliefs Acquiring knowledge about occupations and the world of work The goal is to find a best fit between the two
The crystallisation of self-concept involves translating personal identity into a preference for specific occupations through work and educational experiences such as job shadowing, part-time jobs, and volunteer work, while also gaining insights into the world of work Interest inventories play a crucial role in vocational guidance by facilitating exploration and education Building or revising a career identity narrative is essential for narrowing down occupational choices This process includes implementation through trial and error, as individuals seek work that aligns with their interests, values, and self-concept, ultimately aiding in the revelation of their identity The goal is to establish oneself within a chosen occupation or job.
Stabilizing in a new position involves adapting to the workplace culture, demonstrating competence, and understanding employer expectations, while also familiarizing oneself with the people and history of the organization Consolidating one’s position requires addressing personal development through good work habits and a disciplined work ethic, as well as fostering collaborative relationships and a supportive attitude towards colleagues and supervisors Advancing in one’s career may lead to promotions or the realization that upward mobility is limited; it involves taking initiative, assuming greater responsibilities, and aligning with company goals, which may sometimes necessitate a transition to a different team or organization This process is part of a developmental career stage characterized by ongoing cycles of learning.
Developmental activities of career adaptability
Vocational developmental tasks encompass various career self-management behaviors, including management and maintenance of one's career This involves both passive and active upholding, where passive upholding reflects a complacent attitude towards one's role, while active upholding demonstrates pride in achievements and engagement with the organization Additionally, updating skills through continuing education and staying informed about new developments is crucial for career success Innovating involves proactively seeking challenges and improving efficiency through new technologies Disengagement may occur when individuals distance themselves from their current roles, leading to career renewal, which often includes self-reflection and a recommitment to career goals Revising one's career identity and transitioning to new positions or retirement can involve a blend of exploration and disengagement, as individuals manage their current responsibilities while considering new opportunities.
Career choice and counselling
This chapter covers essential concepts in career development, including the definition and types of career anchors, career patterns, and the dynamics of working couples and family structures It explores work-family conflict, its various forms, and emphasizes the importance of work-family balance and work-life flexibility for couples Additionally, it outlines organizational strategies to support employees in managing work and family responsibilities The chapter also defines career plateauing, identifies its sources and types, and discusses organizational interventions to mitigate its effects Furthermore, it examines obsolescence, presenting different models and organizational measures to reduce its impact Lastly, the chapter addresses job loss and unemployment, detailing its effects on individuals, the stages of job loss, and organizational actions to assist laid-off employees.
Chapter 5 explores the various life and career stages, each marked by distinct challenges Early career stages focus on establishment and achievement, while middle career stages grapple with productivity, obsolescence, and job loss In late career stages, individuals face issues related to disengagement and retirement However, ongoing changes in the work environment—such as restructuring, downsizing, and subcontracting—can lead to career challenges at any life stage Consequently, issues like obsolescence and unemployment may arise throughout early, middle, and late adulthood To navigate these transitions effectively, individuals must engage in activities that promote career adaptability and developmental growth.
Chapter 5 explores key career issues beyond establishment, achievement, and retirement, focusing on career anchors, patterns, and challenges faced by working couples It addresses critical topics such as plateauing, obsolescence, job loss, and unemployment, highlighting that these concerns are relevant across various career stages and not limited to specific age-related life phases.
During the early years of a career, individuals begin to develop a career anchor, which is crucial for guiding their professional path While some may only recognize their career anchor during mid-career, its foundation is laid in early adulthood, particularly during the stages of establishment and achievement Understanding this concept early on can significantly influence career decisions and satisfaction.
A career anchor represents an individual's self-perceived talents, abilities, and core values, along with their developed motives and needs related to their professional life This concept significantly impacts the career choices and decisions a person makes throughout their professional journey.
Schein’s (1978) career anchor theory emphasizes the significance of an individual's career self-concept, which evolves through life experiences As people face decisions regarding self-development, family, or career, they become increasingly aware of the values and motivations influencing their choices This career self-concept serves as a stabilizing force, ensuring that when critical life or career decisions arise, individuals remain anchored to specific concerns, needs, or values that they refuse to compromise.
A career anchor is a combination of an individual's self-perceived talents, motives, and values that shapes their occupational self-concept and influences career decisions According to Greenhaus, Callanan, and Godshalk (2010), it serves as a core element in defining one's professional identity Schein (2006) further elaborates that a career anchor encompasses the patterns of perceived competencies and values that guide and limit career choices.
Career anchors play a crucial role in shaping an individual's internal career, reflecting the non-monetary and psychological factors that influence career decisions (Custodio, 2004) Typically, employees identify their career anchors after gaining several years of work experience, often around the age of 30, through self-reflection and feedback from their job performance (Erdogmus, 2003; Schein, 2006) Those with limited work experience may lack a defined career anchor, as they have not yet gathered enough insights to understand their competencies, motivations, and values (Schein, 2006).
The career anchor concept, as defined by Schein (2006), highlights that individuals within the same occupation can possess diverse career anchors, influencing their work preferences and motivations This variation means that people with different career anchors seek distinct work environments, are driven by unique incentives and rewards, and may react differently to mismanagement.
Schein (1978) posited that individuals typically have one dominant career anchor, yet his research indicates that many may possess multiple strong anchors He asserts that most people, upon careful reflection, will identify with one of eight specific anchor categories If individuals find themselves fitting into more than one category, they should consider scenarios that necessitate a choice and contemplate their decisions under pressure While new experiences can lead to changes in anchors, individuals usually cling to their established self-image once it is formed (Schein, 2006, 2013) According to Arnold and Randall (2010), it is crucial for individuals to evaluate which anchor would prevail in a decision-making scenario, as this 'winner' represents their true career anchor.
Researchers have suggested that career anchors, which encompass an individual's needs, values, and talents, often cluster together to shape career preferences, with one to three anchors typically being dominant (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2009; De Long, 1982; Feldman & Bolino, 1996; Rodrigues & Guest, 2010) Additionally, there is currently no empirical evidence to rule out the possibility that multiple career anchors can stabilize over time, leading to the presence of several dominant career anchors (Feldman & Bolino, 1996; Kniveton, 2004; Ramakrishna & Potosky, 2002).
Research continues to support Schein's career anchor construct, highlighting the influence of parental and socio-cultural factors on individuals' career preferences from an early age (Barclay, Chapman & Brown, 2013; Leong, Rosenberg & Chong, 2014) However, Rodrigues, Guest, and Budjanovcanin (2013) argue that individuals may recognize their dominant career values before entering the workforce While many people exhibit a primary career preference, their preferences can be flexible and evolve over time in response to changing work and life circumstances.
Origin of the concept career anchor
The concept of career anchors originated from a longitudinal study by Schein in 1961, involving 44 graduates from the Sloan School of Management In 1973, Schein revisited these individuals, approximately 10 to 12 years post-graduation, to analyze their career trajectories The interviews focused on their actual employment histories and the motivations behind their career choices, such as leaving organizations or pursuing further education While the employment histories showed little consistency, the reasons for their decisions exhibited significant similarities.
As employment experience increases, these reasons become more apparent
Initially, individuals are drawn to careers that present challenges and offer higher salaries and responsibilities However, after gaining several years of experience, they often gravitate towards specific roles that resonate with their personal values The term "career anchor," introduced by Schein (1996), describes the underlying motivations and patterns that influence career choices People typically recognize their career anchor when their self-image is affected by significant job changes, such as promotions or layoffs This concept helps individuals organize their experiences, define their long-term contributions, and establish personal success criteria for self-evaluation.
Schein (1978, 1990a, 1996, 2006, 2013) identified eight career anchors that shape individuals' career self-concepts, encompassing their motives and values Building on this framework, Feldman and Bolino (1996) redefined Schein's career anchors into three primary categories: talent-based, need-based, and value-based anchors, each reflecting distinct inherent motivations.
Life and career stages
Organisational choice and career development support
This chapter equips you with the ability to understand the concept of organisational culture and entry, while also exploring the various factors that influence individuals' choices of an organisation through different theoretical perspectives Additionally, it highlights the significance of organisational career development support, referencing the organisational career development system, and discusses various career development support practices Finally, it outlines the ethical principles that govern organisational career development support.
This chapter discusses factors that influence individuals’ choice of an organisation and organisational career development support practices
Organisational choice involves an individual's decision to select a specific organization for employment, distinct from the broader process of occupational choice While numerous tools exist to aid in career selection, resources for choosing an organization are limited, and career development practitioners often overlook this aspect in their counselling Unlike occupational choice, which is a lengthy process, organisational choice is typically made quickly, consciously, and can be easily reversed Ultimately, selecting an organization is a matching process, central to the theme of entering a new workplace.
Organisational entry refers to the transition of individuals from the external environment into an organisation, allowing them to engage and participate within that organisation for a specified duration (Cascio, 2003; Wanous, Poland, Premack).
Organisational entry involves two key processes: individuals evaluating various organisations to find the best fit for their career goals and values, and organisations assessing candidates to identify those most likely to succeed within their environment This dual perspective highlights the individual's ability to select positions and accept offers, alongside the organisation's role in choosing from potential applicants.
The competition for talent has prompted companies to recognize that a solely selective hiring approach, based on matching job and candidate characteristics, is insufficient for attracting the right employees Consequently, the resourcing strategy, especially the screening and selection process, is now seen as an interactive social process where applicants hold significant power in deciding whether to engage with the organization This shift underscores the importance of understanding the factors that influence an individual's choice of an employer.
For the purposes of this book only some classical theories illustrating how individuals choose an organisation are discussed — see Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Theories of organisational choice
Expectancy theory explains how individuals choose an organization based on motivational factors This motivation is influenced by three key components: expectancy, which is the belief in receiving a job offer; instrumentality, which refers to the perception that the organization will deliver specific outcomes; and valence, the attractiveness of those outcomes to the individual Understanding these elements can help organizations enhance their appeal to potential employees.
Unprogrammed decision making is a non-compensatory model where job seekers engage in a two-phase process when selecting an organization Initially, they assess various options based on key factors, eliminating those that fail to meet their minimum criteria Once a suitable job is identified, it becomes their 'implicit choice.' In the subsequent phase, applicants reaffirm this choice, potentially distorting information if necessary to justify their decision (Osborn, 1990).
The process by which the individual determines for which organisation to work (Behling, Labovitz & Gainer, 1968)
Objective factor theory A graduate chooses a job by ranking and evaluating a limited number of clearly measurable features for each job offer.
The Subjective Factor Theory suggests that individuals choose their positions based on their personal and emotional needs, as well as how well the organization's image aligns with those needs.
Critical contact theory suggests that job candidates struggle to differentiate between potential employers, as their decision-making is influenced by a lack of experience rather than objective or subjective factors Consequently, candidates rely heavily on their interactions with different organizations to inform their final choices regarding job offers.
Individuals tend to compare themselves to people similar to themselves with regard to sex, age, culture, education and status (Louw & Edwards, 1997) ⇒
Super's theory, primarily focused on occupational choice, can also be applied to organizational choice, as selecting an organization may reflect an individual's self-concept The interplay between a person's self-perception and their view of the organization can significantly influence their decision-making process regarding organizational affiliation (Tom, 1971).
Vroom’s expectancy theory (1964) is a key framework in understanding organizational choice, emphasizing that the selection of an organization is influenced by the motivational force derived from three main components: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence Expectancy refers to the likelihood of receiving a job offer, instrumentality reflects the perceived outcomes provided by the organization, and valence indicates the attractiveness of those outcomes to individuals According to Osborn (1990), Vroom defines motivational force as a multiplicative function of expectancy and the sum of the products of instrumentalities and valences, represented by the formula MF = E[ù = (I x 3 V)] This model is characterized as compensatory in nature, highlighting the interplay between these elements in shaping organizational choices.
Osborn (1990) challenges the accuracy of decision-making models based on expectancy theory when individuals face job choices He aligns with other researchers who suggest that, in real organizational settings, individuals often employ non-compensatory strategies to streamline their decision-making His findings indicate that individuals do not rely solely on compensatory strategies during the unprogrammed decision-making process.
The unprogrammed decision-making process has been studied by Soelberg
In 1967, a study by Osborn examined the organizational preferences of master's and doctoral students, revealing that they possess a clear vision of their ideal workplaces This non-compensatory model indicates that job seekers undergo a two-phase decision-making process Initially, they assess various options based on key factors, eliminating those that fail to meet their minimum requirements Once they identify a suitable job, it becomes their 'implicit choice.' In the subsequent phase, they seek to validate this choice, often adjusting their perceptions or even distorting information if necessary.
Researchers have found this model to be of more value than the compensatory models, and overall, the use of non-compensatory models has been supported by research (Hill, 1974; Osborn, 1990).
Theories of position selection in organisations
Behling, Labovitz, and Gainer (1968) describe the 'position selection process' as the method individuals use to choose their workplace They present three theories that explore the factors influencing these decisions: the objective factor theory, the subjective factor theory, and the critical contact theory.
The objective factor theory posits that graduates select jobs by assessing and ranking measurable attributes of job offers, such as salary, work type, and development opportunities While personal rankings may vary, identifying common patterns can enhance recruitment strategies, thereby significantly improving an organization's effectiveness in attracting talent.