BUYING THE VOTE BUYING THE VOTE A History of Campaign Finance Reform Robert E. Mutch 1 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford New York Auckland  Cape Town  Dar es Salaam  Hong Kong  Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 © Oxford University Press 2014 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mutch, Robert E Buying the vote : a history of campaign finance reform / Robert E Mutch pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978–0–19–934000–2 (hardback)—ISBN 978–0–19–934001–9 ()— ISBN 978–0–19–934002–6 ()  1.  Campaign funds—United States—History 2.  Campaign funds—Law and legislation—United States—History.  I.  Title JK1991.M87 2014 324.7'80973—dc23 2013050417 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper To old friends CONTENTS Acknowledgments ix List of Abbreviations xi Introduction 1 From Plutocrats to Populists: 1884–1900 12 The 1904 Election and the First Scandals: 1904–1907 27 The Beginning of Reform: 1905–1907 45 The Triumph of Reform: 1908–1911 62 Big Business Money Remains Dominant: 1912–1928 77 Organized Labor Becomes Active: 1932–1948 97 The Revival of Reform: 1952–1972 115 From Buckley to Austin: 1976–1990 139 From Reform to Reaction: Since 1996 162 Conclusion 186 v i i i â•… •â•… Contents Appendix: Theodore Roosevelt’s 1904 Campaign Contributors 201 Notes 217 References 315 Index 347 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This book has been several years in the making I  began writing it only when I realized that I had unintentionally been researching it off and on ever since finishing Campaigns, Congress, and Courts in 1988 Writing that book was only the beginning of my interest in the history of campaign finance practices and laws, and only the beginning of my research into that history Almost twenty years later, I saw that the journal articles, book chapters, and conference papers that came out of that research amounted to a rough outline for this book I discussed my research with many people over the years They did not all agree with me, and a few emphatically disagreed, but they all helped make this a better book than it otherwise would have been: Paula Baker, Ted Burrows, Rick Hasen, Allison Hayward, Ray La Raja, Dan Lowenstein, Dave Magleby, Maeva Marcus, Dick Pious, Adam Winkler, and two anonymous reviewers for Oxford University Press I also benefited from discussions at panels where I presented earlier versions of some of the chapters in this book or was a discussant: annual meetings of the Social Science History Association (1997), the American Political Science Association (2003), and the American Society of Legal Historians (2005), the Money in Politics conference at the University of California, Berkeley (2000), and the Columbia University Seminar on Law and Politics (October 2005) Any errors that remain are entirely my responsibility And many thanks to my editor at Oxford, Nancy Toff, who was enthusiastic about the book from the start This book required a fair amount of primary research, and here I must thank South Trimble, William Tyler Page, and their successors as Clerks of the U.S House of Representatives, for preserving disclosure reports rather than destroying them, as the law permitted them to Thanks to them, reports from 1912 to 1968 are on file in the National Archives in Washington, D.C Thanks also to the Overacker-Heard Archive at Berkeley’s Institute of Governmental Studies Library, for providing access to Louise Overacker’s files on presidential campaign donors Dollar values increased by a couple of orders of magnitude over the years covered in this book, and I used MeasuringWorth.com to track the changes   •  Index Ellender, Senator Allan (D-La.), 106, 263n5 Enron Corporation, 170–171, 301n28 Epstein, Edwin M., 289n51 equality rationale before Buckley, 2, 5, 11, 51, 127, 130, 132, 143, 283, 184–185, 186, 192, 198, 263n33 in Buckley, 143, 144, 148–150, 160, 191 disguised as anticorruption, 157, 158, 182, 192, 292n64 Equitable Life Assurance Society, 33, 34–36, 38, 39, 40, 277n58 Erie Railroad, 13, 37 Ex Parte Yarbrough (1884), 94, 258n63 Exxon-Mobil, 248n7 express advocacy See under independent expenditures Fall, Albert B., 93 fat frying, 220n14 FEC v Beaumont (2002), 264n46 FEC v Colorado Republican Federal Campaign Committee (2001), 302n33 FEC v Massachusetts Citizens for Life (1986), 156–157, 158–160, 182, 292n65 FEC v National Right to Work Committee (1982), 155, 158, 290n54 FEC v Wisconsin Right to Life (2007), 175, 176, 181, 303n42, 304n45, 305n49 Federal Corrupt Practices Act of 1925, 93, 105, 121, 130, 132–133, 135, 140, 145, 146, 258n60, 276n52, 284n21 Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971, 121, 130, 132–133 Federal Election Campaign Act Amendments of 1974, 129, 139–140, 142–147, 149–150, 155, 163, 171, 172, 177, 185, 187, 189, 192, 284n24, 293n1 Feingold, Senator Russell (D-Wisc.), 55, 175, 294n4, 304n45 First National Bank of Boston, 151, 153, 266n57, 290n53 First National Bank of Boston v Bellotti (1978), 5, 10, 150–153, 155, 157, 159, 176–177, 181–182, 188, 189, 190, 197–198, 266n57, 285n25, 287nn36–38, 288nn40–44, 290n53, 307n58, 313n26 First National City Bank, 29, 135 First National Bank of New York, 62, 123 Fiss, Owen M., 282n5, 288n38 floaters, 16, 221n16 Foraker, Senator Joseph B (R-Ohio), 48 Forbes  400, 166, 297n14 Forbes, Steve, 298n18 Ford, Henry, 83, 91, 251n21 Ford, President Gerald, 140, 149, 171 Fortune, 128, 134, 195, 218n8 Fourteenth Amendment, 53, 58, 151 Fifteenth Amendment, 53, 58 Frankfurter, Justice Felix, 54–55, 112–113, 264n44, 265n54 Freedom’s Watch, 304n43, 305n53 Freund, Paul A., 287n34 Frick, Henry Clay, 39, 136, 214, 222n24, 225n9, 277n58 Gaines, Rep Joseph H (R-W.V.), 53–54, 74 Galambos, Louis, 19, 313n25 Gardner, John W., 132, 280n75 Garfield, President James, 13–14, 15, 219n7 General Accounting Office See Government Accountability Office Index  •  General Electric Company, 135 General Motors Company, 90, 98, 110, 123, 140 Gerard, James W III, 24, 80, 84, 85, 90, 123, 125, 251n19, 272n28 gift tax, 259n8, 277n58 Gillette, 151, 290n53 Gillette, Senator Guy M (D-Iowa), 106, 262n32, 263n33 Ginsburg, Justice Ruth Bader, 161, 176 Godkin, E L., 17 Gold Democrats, 23, 31, 33, 296n11 Gold, Laurence, 121, 138, 280n75 Goldman Sachs Group Inc., 165 Goldwater, Senator Barry (R-Ariz.), 126, 272n26, 281n4 Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company, 134, 278n61 Gora, Joel, 143, 286n33 Gore Committee, 116–119, 129, 268n6, 275n45 Gore, Vice President Al Jr., 167, 169 Gore, Senator Al Sr (D-Tenn.), 116, 128–129 Gould, Jay, 13–14, 30, 31, 162, 219n5, 220n10 Gould, George J., 136, 205, 277n58 Government Accountability Office, 129, 130–131, 137, 269n9, 275n45 Graber, Mark, 282n5 Grace, William R., 14 Grant, President Ulysses S., 45, 46, 83, 232n3, 249n12 Great Northern Railway, 14, 18, 22, 23 Green, Senator Theodore Francis (D-R.I.), 268n4 Green, William, 87, 101, Grosjean v American Press Co (1936), 112, 180, 265n53 Grosvenor, Rep Charles H (R-Ohio), 53 Guffey, James M., 24, 31, 49, 65, 136, 224n45 353 Guido, Kenneth, 140, 274n42 Gulf Oil Corporation, 134 Hacker, Andrew, 186 Halleck, Rep Charles A (R-Ind.), 110 Hanna, Marcus Alonzo, 16, 21–23, 24, 68, 202, 223n34, 224n38 Hansen, Rep Oral (R-Idaho), 122, 270n19 hard money, 162–163, 293n1 Harding, President Warren G., 83, 84, 93, 240n1 Harriman, E H., 29, 36, 41–42, 67, 74, 136, 206, 213, 231n52, 277n58 Harriman fund, 41–43, 59, 60, 69, 76, 187, 206, 213, 225n6, 230n47, 231n51 Harrison, President Benjamin, 221 Harvard University, 17, 31, 45, 47, 74, 195, 196, 247n6 Hasen, Richard L., 177, 292n64 Hatch Act, 104–105, 139, 144, 145, 187, 259n8, 281n1 Hatch, Senator Carl A (D-N.M.), 128 Hayes, President Rutherford B., 13, 45 Hays, Rep Wayne (D-Ohio), 131, 132, 277n53 Hays, Will H., 83–84, 252n24, 257n59 Hayward, Allison, 20, 283n14 Heard, Alexander, 116, 118, 119–120, 124–125, 259n8, 268n4 Hearst, William Randolph, 24, 25, 42, 48, 49, 65, 66, 76, 78, 224n45, 243n20 Hellman, Deborah, 312n17 Hennessy, Bernard, 127 Hennings, Senator Thomas C (D-Mo.), 111, 116, 129, 263n32, 268n4, 269n8 Hewitt, Abram S., 14 Hill, James J., 14, 18, 22–23, 31 Hilles, Charles D., 87   •  Index Hillman, Sidney, 102, 103, 104, 263n36 Hitchcock, Frank, 70–71, 243n26 Hofstadter, Richard, 217n1 Holmes, Justice Oliver Wendell, Jr., 91 Hoover, President Herbert C., 99, 100, 106, 262n32 Hubbell, Rep Jay A (R-Mich.), 27, 225n1 Hughes, Charles Evans and 1905 insurance investigation, 36–40, 43, 47, 228n32, 233n10 and 1916 presidential campaign, 6, 80 as gubernatorial candidate and governor, 47–48, 60, 74, 228n36, 243n20 and Supreme Court, 91–92, 93, 102, 189, 257n56 Humphrey, Vice President Hubert, 126, 137 Huntington, Collis P., 13–14, 219n7 Hurst, James Willard, 309n74 Hutcheson, William “Big Bill,” 85 Hyde, Henry, 34 Hyde, James Hazen, 35–36, 39, 203, 213, 229n41 independent expenditures by corporations, 87, 88, 95, 106, 263n36 express advocacy, 88, 147–148, 163–164, 263n36, 301n33 issue advocacy, 8, 87, 88, 146–147, 163–164, 171, 173, 175, 301n33 by labor unions, 263n36 limits on, 1, 2, 7, 11, 75, 91, 104–105, 106, 130, 131, 139, 142, 143, 145, 147–148, 168, 181, 186–187 as “pure speech,” 145, 148, 149, 284n24 sham issue ads, 164, 171, 301n33 Ingalls, Melville, 18, 23, 31 insurance investigation, 4, 33, 35–40, 43–44, 45, 47, 48, 50, 52, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 69, 114, 171, 187, 232n55, 296n11 International Association of Machinists, 137, 270n12 International Brotherhood of Teamsters, 137, 269n10 International Harvester, 80, 209 International Ladies Garment Workers Union, 102 International Pressmen and Assistants' Union, 102 Internet, 119, 168–169, 299n23, 300n24 Interstate Commerce Commission, 41, 212 issue advocacy See under independent expenditures Jamieson, William D., 89, 255n44 Jennings, W Pat, 130 Jessup, John K., 195–197, 313n24 Jewell, Marshall, 13–14 Johnson, Lyndon B as U.S president, 120, 125–126, 128, 189 as U.S senator, 118, 268n8, 273n31, 303n41 Jones, Benjamin F., 219 Jones, Chester, 128 Jones, Jesse H., 85, 90 Kagan, Justice Elena, 304n47 Karlan, Pamela S., 313n27 Kayden, Xandra, 163, 294n3 Kazin, Michael, 48 Keizer, Rep Joseph K (R-Ohio), 49 Keller, Morton, 36, 43 Kellogg, Frank, 69, 213 Kennedy, Justice Anthony, 158, 159–160, 172, 175, 176–177, 180–185, 308n68, 309n75 Kennedy, President John F., 125, 128, 129, 189 Index  •  Kennedy, Senator Edward M (D-Mass.), 150, 274n42 Kennedy, Senator Robert F (D-N.Y.), 128 Kerry, Senator John (D-Mass.), 168–169 Kilgore, Senator Harley M (D-W.V.), 111 King, Susan B., 138, 280n75 Kingdon, John W., 235n15 Kmart, 109 Knights of Labor, 71, 221n18, 243n28, 244n29 Knowland, Senator William F (R-Calif.), 118, 268–269 Knox, Philander C., 79 Koch Brothers, 304n43, 306n54 Kountze Bros., 29, 205 Kristol, Irving, 154–155, 196–197 Kuhn, Loeb, 29, 123, 229n44 La Follette, Robert M Sr., 46, 60, 85–86, 87, 88, 102 La Raja, Raymond J., 126, 173, 188 labor See organized labor Labor-Management Relations Act See Taft-Hartley Act Labor’s League for Political Education, 107 Labor’s Non-Partisan League, 102–103 Lampl, Peggy, 280 Landis, Rep Gerald W (R-Ind.), 110, 265n54 Lay, Kenneth, 170, 301n28 Lazard Frères, 29, 205 League of Women Voters, 138, 140, 191, 280n73 Leventhal, Judge Harold, 147, 285 Levi, Attorney General Edward, 140 Levinson, Sanford, 190 Lewis, Alfred Henry, 31 Lewis Food Company, 266n57 Lewis, John L., 86, 101–104, 106, 261n21, 262n25, 265n54 355 Lewis, Peter, 125, 174 Lewisohn, Adolph, 203, 204 Libertarian party, 140, 281 Liberty Loan bonds, 83, 257n2 life insurance companies, 22, 23, 28, 29, 33–40, 43, 49, 52–53, 93, 228n30, 232n1, 236n21, 292n62, 296n11 Lochner v New York (1905), 286n34 Lodge, Senator Henry Cabot Jr (R-Mass.), 128 Logan, Senator John A (R-Ill.), 14 Lonergan Committee, 102, 268n3 Long, Senator Edward V (D-Mo.), 120 Long, Senator Russell (D-La.), 128–129, 274n42 Los Angeles Times, 52, 73, 97 Lowenstein, Daniel Hays, 157, 193, 292nn63–65, 311n16 Loewe v Lawler, 208 U.S 274 (1908), 72, 244n30 Mack, Norman E., 65, 72, 242n9 Magna Carta, 86, 196, 197 Malbin, Michael, 299 Manhattan Club, 32–33 Mann, Rep James R (R-Ill.), 237n27, 245n38 Mansfield, Senator Mike (D-Mont.), 128, 268n4 Marcus, Maeva, 307n59 Marshall, Justice Thurgood, 147, 153, 156, 158–159, 160, 281n3 matching funds, 274n40, 297n17, 298n18 Matthews, Justice Stanley, 13 Mayhew, David R., 57, 235n15 McCain-Feingold Act See Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act McCain, Senator John (R-Ariz.), 55, 168–169, 174, 294n4, 299n20, 302n37 McCall, John A., 23, 38, 39, 40   •  Index McCall, Rep Samuel W (R-Mass.), 73, 238n38 McCarthy, Senator Eugene (D-Minn.), 140, 281n2 McConnell v Federal Election Commission (2003), 171, 172, 175, 176 McConnell, Grant, 184 McConnell, Senator Mitch (R-Ky.), 171, 179 McCormick, Cyrus H Jr., 80, 85, 249n12 McCormick, Richard L., 217n1, 232n1 McCurdy, Richard A., 38–39, 40 McGovern Million Member Club, 127 McGovern, Senator George (D-S.Dak.), 126, 136–137, 277n58, 279n65, 280n69 MCI Worldcom, 165 McKinley, President William, 10, 20, 21–22, 23, 38, 114 McReynolds, Justice James Clark, 91 Meany, George, 136 Media Fund, 173 Mellen, Charles, 62, 206, 277n58 Mellon family, 7, 100, 101, 123 Mencken, H L., 85 Merriam, Charles, 115, 274n39 Merrill, Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith Inc., 135, 165 Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 165, 296n11 Meyer, Cord, 31 Michigan Chamber of Commerce, 157–158, 160 millionaire’s amendment, 176 Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Company, 134 minority protection rationale, 109, 110–111, 182 Mississippi Republican party, 140 Mitchell, Alexander, 14 Mitchell, Attorney General John, 130 Mobil, 248n7 “money trust,” 28, 29, 81 Moody, John, 29 Morgan, J P Jr., 123 Morgan, J P Sr., 22, 25–26, 62, 85, 133, 162 Morgan, J P & Company, 28, 29, 37, 38, 42, 67, 81, 194, 211, 213, 225n5, 229n44 Morgenthau, Henry, Sr., 80, 82–83, 85, 90, 123, 251n21, 252n26 Morton, Levi P., 13, 15, 25–26, 220n14 Motorola, 165 Mott, Stewart, 140, 281n2, 285n24 MoveOn.org Voter Fund, 174 Mugwumps, 12, 17 Mutual Life Insurance Company, 33, 38, 39, 40, 229n40 NAACP v Alabama (1956), 307n56 NAACP v Button (1963), 180 Nast, Thomas, 13 Nation, The, 17, 42, 52, 91 National Association of Manufacturers, 71, 121, 154 National City Bank, 29, 80, 225n5 National Civic Federation, 47, 234n11 National Committee for an Effective Congress, 276n52 National Committee for Impeachment, 146 National Committee for Impeachment v United States (1972), 146 National Conservative Political Action Committee, 285n24, 305n51 National Cyanamid, 100 National Labor Committee to Elect McGovern-Shriver, 137 National Legal Center for the Public Interest, 290n53 National Non-Partisan Political Campaign Committee, 85 Index  •  National Publicity Bill Organization, 47, 50, 55, 58, 59–60, 61, 73–74, 75, 76, 77, 131, 233n9, 237n32, 238n35, 239n43, 244n29 Neighbor to Neighbor, 126 Nelson, Candice J., 295n9 Neuberger, Senator Richard (D-Ore.), 128 Neuberger, Senator Maurine Brown (D-Ore.), 274n40 New Deal, 97, 99, 104, 118, 189, 272n28, 281n4 New Hampshire, 45–46, 48, 49, 168, 192 New York Central Railroad, 18, 39, 42–43 New York City, 7, 12–13, 14–15, 16, 17–18, 22, 28, 30, 31, 32–33, 35–36, 37, 55, 63, 64, 67, 70, 72, 80, 82, 87, 93, 98, 103, 123, 125, 220n10, 241n6, 298n18 New York Civil Liberties Union, 140, 146, 293n70 New York Life Insurance Company, 23–24, 28, 33, 37–38, 40, 48, 67, 68, 277nn58–59 New York State, 4, 12, 17, 19–20, 27, 34–35, 39–40, 41, 42, 46–47, 48, 60, 65, 67, 70, 72, 74, 84, 90, 103, 192, 233n10 New York Times, 12, 13, 14, 38, 41, 43, 46, 51, 53, 50, 66, 72, 73, 79, 100, 138, 145–146, 240n2, 245n34, 248n6, 277n53, 312n22 New York Tribune, 13, 15, 19, 46, 51–53, 54, 62, 72, 73, 219n7 New York University, 154 New York World, 13, 19, 27–28, 29, 30, 35, 41, 43, 59, 72, 219n5, 225n8 New Yorker Staats-Zeitung, 64, 65 Newberry v United States (1921), 91–93, 139, 256n51, 257n56 Newberry, Truman H., 91–92, 187 357 Nixon, President Richard Milhous, 9, 121, 127, 129, 130, 132–133, 135, 136, 137, 139, 140, 146, 153, 189, 275n46, 278n61, 279nn65–66, 310n7 Norquist, Grover, 174 Norton-Taylor, Duncan, 134, 278n60 O’Connor, Justice Sandra Day, 156, 158, 171, 175, 285n27, 292n65, 300n26 Obama, President Barack, 168, 169, 174, 179, 299n20 Odell, Governor Benjamin B (R-N.Y.), 41–42 Office of Federal Elections, 131, 137, 146, 269n9 Olson, Theodore B., 304n48 organized labor, 23, 34, 47, 97, 100–104, 106, 114, 116, 118–122, 125, 136–138, 174, 178, 183, 187, 196, 222n24, 243n28, 280nn68–69 contributions from, 7–8, 86–87, 103, 157, 167, 173, 261n21, 265n50, 297n16 definitions of, 107, 111–112, 184, 264n50 expenditures by, 71–72, 85–86, 107, 109–111, 145, 261n21 and First Amendment rights, 111–113 political committees, 85–86, 102– 103, 107, 121–122, 155–156, 167, 270n12, 271n20, 289n49, 291n55, 293n70 Outlook, The, 52, 55 Overacker, Louise, 91, 100, 103, 105, 111, 115, 116, 118, 232n55, 241n4, 250n15, 258n66, 259n7, 265n50, 268n4, 274n39, 293n1, 300n24 Pacific Gas & Electric v Public Utilities Commission (1986), 290   •  Index PACs See political action committees Page, William Tyler, 9, 257n57 Parker, Alton B., 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 39, 51, 62, 114, 244n31 Parker, Carey, 150, 274n42 Peabody, George F., 30, 247n4 Pearson, Senator James (R-Kans.), 129, 275n45 Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, 113, 218n6 Pennsylvania, 15, 24, 47, 78, 87–88, 104 Pennsylvania Democratic party, 24, 104 Pennsylvania Republican party, 78, 248, 272n26 Pennsylvania Railroad, 18, 87–88, 254n40 Pennypacker, Governor Samuel, 47 Penrose, Senator Boies (R-Pa.), 78–79, 247nn5–6 Pepper, Senator Claude (D-Fla.), 111 Perkins, Frances, 256n49 Perkins, George Walbridge, 23–24, 28, 33, 37–38, 40, 43, 46, 48, 51, 67–71, 95, 194–197, 214, 215, 243n26, 313n23 Pew family, 7, 97, 100 Phelps, Dodge & Co., 14, 80 Philadelphia, 15, 28, 32, 64, 67, 68, 100 Philadelphia Inquirer, 73 Philip Morris Companies Inc., 167 Phillips Petroleum Company, 134, 277n59 Pildes, Richard H., 189, 190, 302n33 Pincus, Walter, 275n46 Pioneers, 298n18 Pious, Richard M., 301n31 Pipefitters v United States (1972), 120–121, 122, 139, 158, 160, 181, 270n20, 284n24, 289n49, 293n70 Pittsburgh, 24, 43, 49, 64, 65, 123, 241n6 Platt, Senator Thomas Collier (R-N.Y.), 39–40, 42, 192, 207, 229n44, 248n6 Plotke, David, 125, 266n59 political action committees before Buckley, 7, 107, 108, 110, 120–122, 134–135, 138, 270n12, 271n20, 289n49, 291n55, 293n1 since Buckley, 9, 135, 155–156, 157, 159–160, 162, 163, 165, 175, 181, 291nn56–57, 292n70, 295–296, 305n51 super PACs, 11, 177, 297n14, 306n55 Pollock, James K., 93, 115, 118, 247n1, 255n45, 257n58, 274n39, 275n45 populism, 6, 21, 114 Populist party, 71 President’s Club, 125–126, 127, 273n31 presidential elections 1864–76, 45, 220n4, 249n12 1880, 13–14, 219n7 1884, 12–15, 25, 219n8, 249 1888, 15–16, 21, 220n10 1892, 17–19, 21, 222n24 1896, 21–24, 38–40, 223n38, 224n39, 233n4, 239n43 1900, 24–25, 38–40, 224n44 1904, 27–33, 38–40, 41–43, 78–79, 225n9, 226n17, 231nn52–54, 241, 248–249 1908, 60–73, 240nn48–50, 241n6, 242nn9–10, 242n16, 243nn26–28, 244nn31–32, 245n34 1912, 77–78, 79–80, 88, 249n12 1916, 80–83, 88–89, 251n21 1920, 83–84, 93, 251n23, 255n44 1924, 84–89, 254nn38–39, 274n39 1928, 90–91, 93, 95, 101 1932, 97–98, 101 1936, 99–104, 259nn6–8, 260n10, 261n21, 272n28 1940, 104–105 Index  •  1944, 105–107 1948, 266n58 1952, 116, 119, 126–127 1956, 115, 116–118, 127, 273n31 1960, 119, 125 1964, 125–126, 272n26, 273n31 1968, 126, 130 1972, 126, 127, 131–134, 135–137, 269n9, 273n37, 276n52, 277n58, 279nn65–68, 280n69 1976, 293n1 1980, 162–163, 294n3, 298n18 1984, 163 1988, 163 1992, 163 1996, 163–164, 167, 297n16, 298n18 2000, 164–168, 295n9,, 297n16, 298n18, 302n35 2004, 168, 169, 172–174, 178, 298n18, 302n35, 303n39 2008, 168, 169, 174–175, 178, 297n14, 299nn19–20 2012, 168, 169, 178, 297n14 Princeton University, 80 Procter & Gamble, 83 Procter, William Cooper, 83 Progressive Corporation, 173–174 Progressive era, 43 Progressive National Committee, 103, 261n21 Progressive parties, 85–86, 266n59 Prohibition, 87, 90, 93, 98, 99, 134, 254n37 Prudential Insurance Company, 38, 39 Public Citizen Inc., 276n52 public funding, 59, 74, 115, 128–129, 138, 139, 144, 167–168, 187, 188, 239n44, 245n34, 274n39, 298n18, 299n20, 304n47 publicity See disclosure Pulitzer, Joseph, 13, 27–28, 66, 76, 219n5, 231n49, 239n44, 240n50 359 Quay, Senator Matthew (R-Pa.), 221n16, 248n6 railroad brotherhoods, 86, 243n28 Raskob, John J., 90–91, 97–98, 99, 167, 256n49 Reagan, President Ronald, 10, 148, 160, 163, 167, 188 Reed, Justice Stanley Forman, 109, 110, 264n45 Reed, Senator James A (D-Mo.), 75, 91, 246n43, 283n17 Regal Shoes, 88, 254n39 Rehnquist, Justice William H., 149, 153, 157, 158–159, 175, 271n20 Reid, Whitelaw, 13–14, 15, 19, 62, 202, 207, 214, 219n7, 222n24 Republican party campaign funds, 6–10, 12–14, 22, 23, 28–30, 38–39, 49, 67–68, 78–79, 80–82, 84, 88–89, 99–100, 103, 117, 135–136, 163–168, 219n8, 240n2, 252n24, 258n66, 272n26, 300n24, 303n39 (see also presidential elections) donor loyalty, 122–124 electoral base, 7, 69, 114, 187 factions, 7, 12, 77–78, 84, 114 fundraising, 21–23, 24, 32–33, 41–42, 66–71, 78–79, 88–89, 95, 100, 124–127, 168–169, 252n24, 272n26, 279n65, 304n43 Republican Radio League, 100 Republican Sustaining Fund, 126 Republicans for Clean Air, 302n37 Rhodes, James Ford, 22 Ridder, Herman, 64, 65, 241n7 Roberts, Chief Justice John G., 175, 176, 184, 185 Robinson, Corinne Roosevelt, 35 Robinson, Douglas, 35, 207, 208 Robinson, Rep Joseph T (D-Ark.), 53   •  Index Rockefeller family, 7, 29, 35, 37, 42, 99, 123, 136, 154, 223n34, 225n5, 249n12 Rogers, H H., 29, 78, 79, 210, 249n12 Romney, Mitt, 169 Roosevelt Agriculture Committee, 100–104 Roosevelt, Alice, 35, 259n6 Roosevelt, Edith, 259n6 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 36, 97, 100, 106, 107, 259n6, 261n21, 262n27 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano Jr., 259n6 Roosevelt, Robert B., 18 Roosevelt, Theodore, 221n18, 232n55, 247n6 and 1904 campaign, 4, 26–30, 62, 81, 136, 202, 225n9, 231n51, 237n33, 248n6 and 1912 campaign, 7, 43, 77, 247n5 and corporate contributions, 4, 33, 38–39, 41–43, 47, 54–56, 78–79, 114, 249n9 and disclosure, 47, 58, 59, 61, 63, 69, 73, 74–75, 237n35, 239n44, 240n50 and public funding, 59, 239n44 Ruml Plan, 126–127 Rutledge, Justice Wiley Blount, 109, 111–112, 266n57 Ryan, John D., 80, 249n12 Ryan, Thomas Fortune, 18, 24, 30–32, 49, 65, 79–80, 85, 90, 125, 133, 136, 162, 224n45 S S Kresge, 109 Sage, Russell, 13 Salisbury, Robert H., 183 SBC Communications Inc., 165 Scaife, Richard Mellon, 133, 277n58 Scalia, Justice Antonin, 156, 158–159, 160, 175, 176, 179–180, 181, 182, 292n67, 305n49 scandal-reform cycles, 2, 4–5, 8, 9, 33, 62, 69, 71, 76, 115, 139, 187 1905-07 scandals, 4–5, 27, 33, 35–40, 41–44, 45, 47, 48, 50, 52, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 69, 76, 114, 171, 187, 206, 213, 225n6, 230n47, 231n51, 232n55 scandal as a contingent event, 45, 57,170–171, 217n2 Watergate, 2, 8, 115, 137–138 Schauer, Frederick, 282n5 Schiff, Jacob, 29, 36, 62, 80, 201, 205, 214 Schlozman, Kay Lehman, 142, 299n23 Schoeppel, Senator Andrew F (R-Kans.), 118 Schumpeter, Joseph, 196 Schwartz v Romnes (1974), 266n57 Scott, Senator Hugh (R-Pa.), 129–130, 150, 274n43, 280n75, 287n35 Scott, Senator Nathan (R-W.V.), 78, 79 Scott, William L., 14, 16 Seafarers International Union, 121, 122, 137, 271n20 secret ballot See Australian ballot Secretary of the Senate, 116, 131 Senate Watergate Committee, 134, 137, 164, 171 Service Employees International Union, 167 Shangri-La Entertainment LLC, 174 Sheehan, William F., 30, 32 Shefter, Martin, 228n36 Sheldon, George R., 60, 63, 66, 69–71, 78, 79, 225n7, 242n16 Sikes, Earl K., 232n55, 237n31, 274n39 Sinclair, Harry F., 93, 257n59 Skilling, Jeffrey, 170, 301n28 Sloan, Alfred P., 90, 99, 123, 256n46 small donors before 1908, 15, 25, 220n12, 300n24 in 1908, 2, 6–7, 65–71, 186 Index  •  since 1908, 10, 81–82, 86, 87, 88–89, 95, 100, 126–127, 167–170, 186, 252n24, 255nn42–45, 276n48, 299nn20–21, 302n35 and the Internet, 168–169, 299n23, 300n24 and matching funds, 128, 167, 297n17, 298n18 and tax incentives, 129, 168 Small, Albion W., 312n20 Smith-Connally Act , 107, 108, 109, 110, 145, 263n35 Smith, Alfred E., 84, 90, 93, 98, 99, 257n59 social welfare groups See tax-exempt groups soft money, 9–10, 55, 162–167, 170– 175, 177, 188, 293n1, 297n14, 301 Sorauf, Frank J., 150 Soros, George, 125, 173 Souter, Justice David, 160–161, 171, 176 SpeechNow v FEC (2010), 177, 285, 305 Speyer, James, 62, 80, 202 Standard Oil, 16, 17, 22, 24, 29, 43, 69, 78–79, 225, 231, 242, 248, 249, 277, 278 Standard Oil Co of New Jersey v United States (1911), 248n28 Stanford University, 47 Stans, Maurice, 134, 277n58 Steffens, Lincoln, 55–56, 237n32 Stern, Philip M., 280n73 Stevenson, Governor Adlai (D-Ill.), 126 Stillman, James, 29, 202, 208, 213, 225n5 Stone, W Clement, 133 Stotesbury, E T., 28, 62, 123, 205, 206, 208, 210, 212, 213, 214, 215 Strossen, Nadine, 281n2 sugar trust See American Sugar Refining Co 361 Sulzer, Rep William (D-N.Y.), 18, 222n24, 224n38 Sun Oil Company, 291n55 super PACs See political action committees Swiftboat Veterans for Truth, 174 Taft-Hartley Act, 8, 106, 108–113, 120–122, 158, 187, 267n59, 270n12, 290n54 Taft, Senator Robert A (R-Ohio), 108, 110–111, 121, 122, 184, 263n41 Taft, President William Howard, 1, 6–7, 43, 60–64, 69–73, 76, 77, 94, 119, 240n48, 246n39, 247n5 Taggart, Thomas, 30, 247n4 Tammany Hall, 12, 18, 30, 36, 64 tariff, 15, 19, 82 tax incentives See under small donors tax-exempt groups 501(c)(3) charities, 303n41 501(c)(4) social welfare groups, 174, 175, 176–179, 304n43, 305n53, 306n54 501(c)(5) labor groups, 174, 178 501(c)(6) business groups, 174–75, 178, 306n54 527 political groups, 173–175, 177, 178, 302n36, 303n40, 306n54 Teapot Dome, 93, 170, 257n59 Thomas, Justice Clarence, 56–57, 160–161, 175, 176, 238n36 Thompson, Senator Fred (R-Tenn.), 164 Tillman Act, 8, 50–51, 53–57, 67, 70, 76, 87–88, 94, 106, 110–111, 113–114, 134, 145, 151, 156–158, 182, 184, 186–187, 197, 235n13, 237nn31–32, 238n36, 245n38, 261n21, 289n49, 290n54, 314n27 Tillman, Senator Benjamin R (D-S.C.), 48, 234n12, 238n36 Timken Roller Bearing Company, 109   •  Index Torres-Spelliscy, Ciara, 309n73 Tribe, Laurence H., 150, 287n34 Tribune See New York Tribune Truman, President Harry F., 107, 108, 187, 195, 262n32, 264n42 Twentieth Century Fund, 129, 138, 276n52 UAW See American Automobile Workers U.S Steel Corporation, 123, 278n61 UMW See United Mine Workers Union Carbide Corporation, 278n61 Union League, 32, 68, 69, 207, 208, 210–215 Union Oil Company, 135 Union Pacific Railroad, 12, 13, 41, 219n7 United Automobile Workers, 113, 136–137 United Food and Commercial Workers, 167 United Mine Workers, 86, 101–104, 106, 261n21, 262n25, 265n54 United States Brewers’ Association, 87 United States v CIO (1948), 5, 8, 109–112, 113, 139, 155, 158, 182, 264nn64–65, 265, 266n54, 290n54, 292n67 United States v Lewis Food Co (1964, 1966), 266n57 United States v O’Brien (1968), 285n28 United States v United Auto Workers (1957), 112–113, 308n68 United States v United States Brewers’ Association (1916), 254n36 U.S Chamber of Commerce, 121, 129, 153, 154, 175, 178, 271n20, 289n48, 307n56 Van Hollen, Rep Chris (D-Md.), 178 Vanderbilt, William H III, 275n45 Vanderbilt family, 18, 43, 123–124 Verba, Sidney E., 142, 299n23 Verizon Communications Inc., 165 Villard, Henry, 18 Villard, Oswald Garrison, 225n9 Vogel, Martin, 123 voluntary associations, 156–157, 180, 182, 183–184, 298n18 Wanamaker, John, 15–16, 220n14 War Labor Disputes Act See Smith-Connally Act Warburg, Felix, 123, 207 Warren, Chief Justice Earl, 113, 310n7 Watergate, 2, 8, 9, 50, 51, 115, 134, 137–138, 142, 163, 164, 171, 187, 188, 192, 254n37, 277n59, 280n73 Watterson, Henry, 65 Weir, Levi C., 31, 206, 208, 226n14, 227n20 Wellman, Walter, 63 Western Union, 13 Westinghouse Electric Company, 257n57, 278n61 Wertheimer, Fred, 132, 138, 276n52, 280n75 Weyl, Walter, 89 Wharton, Edith, 233n7 Wheeler, Senator Burton K (D-Mont.), 85–86 White, Chief Justice Edward Douglass, 92 White, Justice Byron R., 147, 152, 153, 157, 158, 159, 271n20, 285n25, 287n34, 290n54, 313n26 Whitney, William C., 14, 16, 17–18, 21, 30, 31, 249n12 Whitney family, 35 William Barnes v Theodore Roosevelt (1917), 231n51, 237n35, 248n8 Willkie, Wendell, 104, 265n54 Wills, Garry, 233n7 Wilmer, Cutler & Pickering, 140 Index  •  Wilson, President Woodrow, 7, 20, 80– 83, 84, 85, 90, 97, 98, 123, 249n12 Winkler, Adam, 152, 292n67 Winter, Ralph K., Jr., 140–143, 148, 183, 282n4, 282n11, 283n12, 292n67 working class, 24, 71, 111, 267n59 Works Progress Administration, 104 World See New York World Yale Law School, 17, 128, 140, 363 ... ILGWU LAT MCFL NCF NCPAC NPBO NRWC Association Against the Prohibition Amendment Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America American Federationist American Federation of Labor Bipartisan Campaign Reform. .. replace a corrupt Republican machine in Buffalo, and as governor he earned the enmity of the state Democratic machine and Tammany Hall A reputation as a reformer was an enviable one to have at a. .. have made any regulation of that money unconstitutional This was the argument they used to challenge the FECA before the Supreme Court in what became the landmark case in campaign finance law,