Writing in a second language
Writing in a second language is considered a very difficult process (Klimova, 2014)
This is due to the fact that the development of this skill involves different phases
(drafting, revising, editing and proofreading a text) before accomplishing a final version
In the writing process, teachers must emphasize various elements of a text, including the organization of ideas, vocabulary, coherence and cohesion, grammatical structures, and punctuation (Abas & Aziz, 2016; Harmer, 2004; Hayes & Flowers, 1987).
Some of these aspects require more revision than others and this will depend on each learner’s skills
The revision process is crucial for effective error correction, as it relies heavily on the provision of feedback However, it's essential to consider both the type of feedback provided on learners' writing and the modality in which it is delivered.
Regarding the types of feedback strategies, the feedback can be positive and negative
(also called corrective feedback) In the case of written corrective feedback, according
Research on the most effective feedback remains inconclusive, as no single type of feedback has been identified as superior The impact of feedback is influenced by various factors, including the depth of understanding, individual learning preferences, and the nature of the task (Lipnevich & Panavero, 2021).
Technological advancements have enabled various modes of feedback, notably audio and audio/video formats, each with its own set of advantages and disadvantages This study focuses on screencast feedback, which integrates both audio and visual elements, and has increasingly emerged as a popular alternative to traditional written corrective feedback (Pachuashvili, 2021, p 68).
Screencast feedback
Screencasting, as defined by Carr & Ly (2009), is a technique for recording computer actions, including mouse movements and clicks, in video format This video can be shared via email, web links, or cloud uploads In educational contexts, screencasts serve various purposes, such as conveying information, storytelling, concept introduction, and providing feedback The ideal duration of a screencast typically ranges from a few minutes to 15 or 20 minutes, depending on the audience; however, shorter screencasts are generally more effective, as longer ones may become tedious and counterproductive (Harper et al 2015, p.13).
Benefits of using screencast feedback on writing
Screencast feedback effectively enhances learning by integrating visual and auditory elements, as highlighted by Mayer & Moreno (2003) Utilizing techniques such as underlining, coloring, bolding, and boxing during feedback sessions helps clarify messages, addressing the confusion often caused by vague comments Furthermore, this method fosters an interactive dialogue between teachers and students, promoting deeper comprehension and engagement (Cranny).
Screencasts provide learners with certain level of flexibility in receiving feedback
Screencast feedback offers learners the flexibility to watch instructional videos repeatedly, utilizing pause and rewind functions to enhance their understanding (Cranny, 2016; Lee, 2017) This approach significantly benefits writing performance, enabling students to take notes and directly apply feedback to their written work, thereby improving the quality of EFL writing The ability to individualize learning through these features enhances communication and comprehension Additionally, the accessibility of screencast videos on computers and mobile devices allows learners to practice writing skills anytime and anywhere with an internet connection, making it an effective tool for both in-class and distance learning environments.
Additionally, the use of screencast could bring about some affective benefits as well
Screencast feedback offers a clear and structured perspective on writing improvements, preventing learners from feeling overwhelmed by the chaotic colored markings often found in traditional written corrective feedback.
Colored scribbles often symbolize failure for students, leading to feelings of inadequacy regarding their writing abilities, particularly in crafting effective paragraphs or essays.
Therefore, experienced teachers know that writing lots of comments on student assignments might not be very useful and counter-productive on some occasions
Screencast feedback allows learners to receive comments without seeing the audio feedback, which helps prevent discouragement When students provide feedback to each other and share it on platforms like YouTube, they engage with the language more authentically, enhancing their motivation While screencast feedback can reduce the time spent on written comments, it may not be a true time-saver, as teachers must invest time in uploading and sharing the videos Additionally, some studies have indicated that participants faced technology-related issues, such as difficulties with uploading and downloading screencasts (Ali, 2016).
Furthermore, current research suggests that SCF increases the social presence of the teacher (Harper et al., 2015) This is true of audio feedback as well (Ice, Reagan,
Audiovisual feedback enhances the connection between teachers and students, potentially improving the quality of student writing (Chang et al., 2017) Participants in Ducate & Arnold's (2012) study reported that teachers appeared more caring when they utilized this type of feedback, highlighting its positive impact on the student-teacher relationship.
SCF (cited in Elola & Oskoz, 2016) Moreover, while screencast help increase social presence, they decrease possible pressure caused by face-to-face conferences (Lee,
In various studies, learners who received audio feedback (AF) indicated that their teachers showed genuine care and valued their contributions, similar to the effects observed with supportive communication feedback (SCF) Such feelings are essential for building rapport between educators and students.
2014; Ice et al., 2007; Sipple, 2007) In a more recent study, Ali (2016) worked with
63 mixed-level students to compare WF and SCF and obtained findings in favour of the latter The participants thought that SCF was “personal, specific, supportive, multimodal, constructive, and engaging” (p 131).
Research suggests that SCF could guide learners better in drafting their essays
Screencast feedback enhances communication quality by fostering rapport, making it an engaging and motivating tool for students, particularly in providing formative feedback for L2 learners Unlike traditional written feedback, screencasts allow teachers to deliver detailed and comprehensible audio feedback complemented by visual support This approach enables educators to address both macro and micro-level issues effectively, ensuring a more thorough understanding of student needs.
As to students’ perception of screencast feedback, a number of studies show that there is a positive perception (Ali, 2016; Moore & Filling, 2012; Morris & Chikwa, 2014;
Research indicates that students feel a closer connection to their teachers when using audio and visual tools, as highlighted by Harper et al (2015) These tools also make feedback appear more personal and supportive Gormely & McDermott (2011) found that screencast feedback is perceived as more engaging and motivating by students Additionally, studies by West & Turner (2016) and Whitehurst (2014) revealed a preference for screencast feedback due to its clarity and ease of understanding Merry and Orsmond (2008) further emphasized that audio and visual feedback is viewed as more meaningful, enhancing students' comprehension of their teachers' comments.
Research questions
The research investigates screencast feedback, focusing on two research questions.
Providing answers to these questions will be of assistance for teachers, students and researchers to reflect on screencast feedback and to consider using it in their classroom practices.
Research design
Diagnosis
In the initial phase of this action research, a significant issue was identified during the diagnostic stage, highlighting the challenges of writing in a second language This complex skill requires the integration of various competencies, including idea organization, vocabulary diversity, coherence, cohesion, and grammatical accuracy, as noted by Anderson and others.
Cuesta, 2019; Del Pilar, Castelló Badía & Badía Gargante, 2016)
Developing essay writing skills in English can be particularly challenging, especially in non-English-speaking environments For IELTS candidates, the added pressure of a time limit can heighten anxiety levels, which often negatively impacts their writing performance.
1 What is the effect of screencast feedback on the English performance of pre-service teachers in the essay writing component of IELTS?
2 What are the pre-service teachers’ perceptions of screencast feedback?
Planning Reflection & evaluation effect on their performance This is the case of pre-service teachers of English from two universities in the south of Chile
According to the national standards for EFL teacher education pre-service teachers of English have to show their English proficiency through an international exam like
Pre-service teachers in their fourth or fifth year of preparation for the IELTS must dedicate significant time to mastering the four language skills However, challenges such as large class sizes hinder teacher educators from delivering quality and frequent feedback, making the preparation process more difficult As a result, pre-service teachers often achieve unsatisfactory scores on the IELTS, particularly in the writing component, which tends to be their weakest area.
The previous discussion emphasizes the pressing necessity for improved strategies to enhance IELTS essay writing skills among Chilean pre-service English teachers.
Planning
After the identification of the research problem, an action plan was defined and it consisted of a series of strategies used when providing screencast feedback
The action plan is explained in detail below, in the procedure section (Screencast feedback protocol, Section 3.4).
Implementation
The 24-week intervention involved participants writing four argumentative essays Following a pre-writing phase that included essay examples, layout discussions, and brainstorming, each student created a draft in Microsoft Word Subsequently, participants submitted their drafts to the teacher, who provided feedback using the Screencast-O-Matic application.
Participants revised feedback from screencast sessions and applied it to a new writing piece, aiming to assess their ability to process, retain, and utilize the feedback Current research in writing emphasizes not only feedback strategies but also the concept of 'feedforward,' defined as the readiness to act on received information to improve subsequent texts (Álvarez & Difabio de Anglat, 2018, p 10).
In this way, participants’ writing performance can be observed in a new learning context.
Figure 2: Writing process for the IELTS essay writing component
(the process is repeated) IELTS essay writing component
Following each essay writing assignment, participants received weekly screencast feedback (refer to Figure 3) Instead of rewriting their texts, they were encouraged to utilize their newly acquired writing skills and knowledge in subsequent tasks.
Figure 3: Implementation of the screencast feedback methodology
Reflection and evaluation
After the provision of each screencast feedback, there was a period of analysis, reflection and evaluation in order to observe the learners’ progress
During this period, it was observed that learners made different types of decisions
Many individuals learned from their past errors, particularly in regard to essay formatting, which was a common mistake that they avoided repeating.
Some participants who received initial screencast feedback improved in writing task 2, but many struggled to retain and apply the feedback, leading to repeated mistakes in writing task 3 This issue was particularly evident with grammatical errors, which appeared to be the most challenging for them to internalize In such cases, feedback was reinforced to aid their understanding and retention.
Some participants exhibited no improvement in their writing performance, suggesting they may not have fully engaged with the screencast feedback It's possible these students only viewed the video a single time.
Depending on the results, the screencast feedback given to the next piece of writing was always reinforced or modified.
Participants
The participants were fourth and fifth year pre-service teachers of English from two
Chilean universities, who were completing their language development courses to reach a C1 (7.0–8.0 IELTS band score) English level, according to the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and meet one of the standards of the
The Chilean Ministry of Education conducted an intervention involving 30 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher candidates, comprising 70% female and 26.7% male participants These candidates were enrolled in two universities with five-year curriculum plans designed to cultivate advanced English proficiency and effective pedagogical skills Specifically, 66.7% of the participants were from university 1, while 33.3% were from university 2.
Table 1: Participants´ distribution according to gender and university
Procedure
Screencast feedback is structured around the writing process phases: planning, editing, and revising It includes both positive and corrective comments to enhance student learning Following Whitehurst's (2014) recommendations, the feedback approach was tailored to accommodate diverse learning preferences among students The specific steps for delivering effective screencast feedback are detailed in Appendix 3.
1 The teacher explained the task and provided guidelines.
2 Each participant wrote his/her essay in a Microsoft Word document.
3 Participants turned in their assignment.
The teacher utilized Screen O’matic to revise the text and deliver screencast feedback This process adhered to a specific protocol that incorporated various recommendations.
Whitehurst (2014) for screencast feedback (see Figure 4 below)
During the video recording, the teacher provided feedback with the camera on, allowing participants to observe facial expressions The feedback included both corrective and positive elements, utilizing various strategies to engage participants and draw attention to errors Additionally, links to websites for further practice were highlighted, enhancing the learning experience.
Figure 4: Teacher´s strategies to promote error correction, taken from Whitehurst (2014)
As portrayed in Figure 4, the teacher followed specific steps, adapted from Whitehurst
(2014) to orient participants towards error correction, including:
Greeting (the teacher called students by name).
The teacher provided global comments on strong and weak points.
The teacher provided corrective and positive feedback.
The teacher also highlighted ideas, underlined words and inserted links for further practice
The teacher ended the video talking to the student and inviting him/her to make the corresponding corrections.
The teacher sent the video for students’ correction.
Students watched the video as many times as they considered it as convenient.
Students wrote a new essay and the process was repeated.
Data collection techniques
IELTS essay writing tasks
Participants were required to compose argumentative essays that included an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion, as outlined in Appendix 2 Following each essay task, they received screencast feedback to enhance their writing skills The first and fourth essays served as the pre-intervention and post-intervention tests, respectively The essay topics were carefully chosen from previous IELTS exam papers to ensure relevance and challenge.
Learning a foreign language should begin as soon as children start school, as early exposure enhances cognitive development and linguistic skills Research indicates that young learners can easily grasp new sounds and structures, leading to greater fluency and pronunciation Additionally, acquiring a second language at a young age fosters cultural awareness and empathy, preparing children for a globalized world For instance, children who learn languages early often demonstrate improved problem-solving abilities and creativity Moreover, early language education can provide a significant advantage in future academic and career opportunities Therefore, I strongly agree that introducing foreign languages in early education is essential for holistic development and lifelong benefits.
Reference to websites that could help
A few global comments on strong points and weak points
Education should be universally accessible, regardless of economic background, advocating for free education at all levels, from primary to tertiary This approach promotes equality, empowering individuals to pursue learning without financial barriers By eliminating tuition costs, we can enhance social mobility and create a more informed society Ensuring that everyone has access to quality education not only benefits individuals but also strengthens communities and drives economic growth Therefore, I strongly support the notion that education should be a right for all.
The debate over whether children should receive daily homework is contentious, with some arguing that it is essential for academic success, while others believe it can be detrimental Proponents of daily homework assert that regular assignments reinforce learning, help develop discipline, and prepare students for future challenges They argue that consistent practice is crucial for mastery of subjects and can enhance time management skills Conversely, opponents contend that excessive homework can lead to stress, burnout, and a lack of interest in learning They emphasize the importance of free time for children to engage in play, family activities, and other interests that contribute to their overall development In my opinion, a balanced approach is necessary; homework should be assigned thoughtfully, ensuring it reinforces learning without overwhelming students Ultimately, the goal should be to foster a love for learning while equipping children with the skills they need for success.
The debate surrounding the role of education in preparing children for the modern world raises the question of whether schools should eliminate art and music from the curriculum to prioritize subjects like information technology While some argue that focusing solely on practical skills is essential for future success, others believe that a well-rounded education, including the arts, fosters creativity and critical thinking Balancing traditional subjects with creative disciplines can enhance problem-solving abilities and innovation, which are crucial in today's rapidly evolving job market Therefore, rather than cutting art and music, schools should integrate these subjects with technology to equip students with a diverse skill set that prepares them for various challenges in the modern world.
IELTS writing component rubric
The IELTS writing rubric was employed to assess each one of the essay tasks It had four different criteria: Task response, Coherence and cohesion, Lexical resources and
Multi-modal feedback survey
This instrument designed by Vincelette & Bostic (2013), explored pre-service teachers’ perceptions of screencast feedback, and consisted of 19 Likert scale items These items were organised into the following four dimensions
Attending and engagement: it measured participants’ attentiveness and engagement (3 items).
Incorporation of revision: it explored participants’ ability to incorporate the revisions suggested (5 items).
Feedback quality/quantity: it examined participants’ perceptions of the feedback quality and quantity (6 items).
Preference: it looked into participants’ preferences for using this type of feedback as opposed to the more traditional written comments given by instructors (5 items).
Additionally, the survey (see Appendix 3) included the following qualitative item:
How did you use the screencast feedback provided to improve your next argumentative essay?
Researchers’ notes
Informal descriptions of observed or unexpected events were collected along the intervention by the two researchers to constantly reflect on what was being done
Research notes were documented in a Word file and referenced throughout the study These notes captured participants' reactions and decision-making processes, which were later utilized in subsequent writings following the delivery of screencast feedback.
These notes were also very effective to contextualise and give sense to some of the findings.
Data analysis techniques
Data analysis in action research must align with the research questions, employing both qualitative and quantitative methods for a comprehensive inquiry It is crucial to select appropriate methods to ensure reliable data collection Typically, descriptive statistics are adequate for analyzing action research data, but inferential statistics may be necessary for comparing groups or examining relationships between variables.
While typical inferential statistics are not commonly employed in action research, their use is permissible if they effectively address the research questions.
Action research enables the collection of diverse data through various techniques, emphasizing the importance of gathering multiple measures on a variable of interest This approach allows researchers to triangulate data, integrating different sources to enhance the quality and accuracy of their findings.
Inferential statistics enhance data analysis by offering insights into group changes over time, particularly in assessing the impact of interventions on writing improvement (Mertler, 2009).
For research question one, descriptive (means and standard deviations) and inferential
The study employs ANOVA statistics alongside qualitative extracts from participants' essays to address the research question It utilizes both descriptive and inferential statistics, including means, standard deviations, correlations, and t-tests, while also incorporating thematic analysis This qualitative analysis was recursive and dynamic, intensifying as the study progressed After transcribing the qualitative data from the question regarding the use of screencast feedback for improving argumentative essays, specific analytical steps were implemented.
1 Data was coded using numbers and phrases to assign an attribute
Open coding was used for short segments of data.
2 The short segments and codes that seemed to go together were grouped
3 Then recurring regularities or patterns were sought to continue the process of data sorting They became the themes, which captured the patterns
The themes were derived from a blend of participants' direct phrases and relevant literature The construction of these themes adhered to key principles outlined by Merriam & Tisdell (2016) and Flick (2018), ensuring they were responsive to the research question, exhaustive, mutually exclusive, sensitizing, and conceptually congruent.
4 Using the constant comparative method, the list of themes was revised and combined again into fewer more comprehensive themes and subthemes, which offered rich detail.
After refining the list of themes and subthemes, a frequency count was conducted for each subtheme, and relevant data extracts were utilized to illustrate them effectively The resulting themes, subthemes, frequency counts, and corresponding data extracts were systematically organized into tables for clarity and ease of reference.
6 To visualise word frequencies in participants’ responses, the web application
TagCrowd was used It allowed the creation of word clouds which helped to summarise and communicate ideas in a single glance.
To ensure consistent and reliable results, investigator triangulation was utilized, involving two researchers who independently analyzed the data and compared their findings The researchers conducted at least four online sessions to discuss their analyses until they reached a point of saturation, where no new information emerged.
This section presents the findings of the intervention that examined the effect of screencast feedback on a group of 30 pre-service teachers’ performance through four
IELTS essay writing tasks are evaluated based on four key criteria outlined in the band descriptors: Task Response, which measures how well the essay addresses the prompt; Coherence and Cohesion, assessing the logical flow and connection of ideas; Lexical Resource, which evaluates the range and appropriateness of vocabulary used; and Grammatical Range and Accuracy, focusing on the variety and correctness of grammatical structures.
The Findings section has been organised into two parts according to the two research questions In the first research question, four one-way ANOVA (Field, 1998, 2009;
In a study by Howell (2006) and Rosenthal et al (2000), measurements were conducted to identify statistically significant differences in the means of assessment criteria across four essay writing tasks Post-hoc tests were utilized to pinpoint specific tasks where these statistical differences occurred Furthermore, qualitative analysis was enhanced by comparing extracts from participants' essays for each criterion, providing a comprehensive understanding of the results.
RQ1: What is the effect of screencast feedback on the English performance of pre-service teachers in the essay writing component of IELTS?
Assessment criterion 01: Task response
A one-way within-subjects analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to examine the variation in Task response criterion scores across four essay writing tasks The results revealed a significant effect of the differences observed among the tasks.
[F (3.87) = 4.332 p=0.007], as shown in Table 2 Therefore, since the effect of factor
1 was significant, the difference of the means in the essay writing tasks was also statistically significant.
Table 2: Tests of within-subjects effects for Task response criterion
Source Type III Sum of Squares
Lower-bound 155.300 29.000 5.355 a Computer using alpha = 05
A post-hoc test with Bonferroni adjustment was conducted to pinpoint the specific essay writing tasks that exhibited significant differences in participants' Task response scores, as detailed in Table 3.
Table 3: Descriptive statistics and Bonferroni post hoc test for Task response criterion
Mean Std Deviation N Bonferroni sig.*
* The mean difference is significant at the 05 level.
In particular, the post-hoc test results revealed that pre-service teachers’ Task response scores were significantly different between:
essay writing task 1 and 4 (Task response criterion mean score in writing task 1= 5.13;
Task response criterion mean score in writing task 4= 6.27; p=0.043)
essay writing task 2 and 4 (Task response criterion mean score in writing task 2= 5.27;
Task response criterion mean score in writing task 4= 6.27; p=0.014)
essay writing task 3 and 4 (Task response criterion mean score in writing task 3= 5.47;
Task response criterion mean score in writing task 4= 6.27; p=0.031).
The notable variations in participant scores align with the estimated marginal means, reflecting the average Task response criterion across four distinct essay writing tasks, as demonstrated in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Estimated marginal means of Task response criterion
The estimated marginal means revealed that pre-service teachers' Task response scores showed a consistent increase across the four writing tasks, culminating in their highest average during the final task.
The consistent rise in pre-service teachers' Task response criterion scores reflects their qualitative writing improvements Table 4 illustrates the participants' development in articulating their positions and tackling the initial and final essay writing assignments.
Table 4: Participants´ essay extracts for the Task response criterion
Participants Essay writing task 01 Essay writing task 04
Participant 2 As a foreign language, English has turned into one of the most important tools in this globalized world Parents are more and more interested in their children learn another language given the several advantages it has for their development For that reason, learning English as a foreign language at an early age, especially as soon as children start school, is seen as an advantage in terms of ease for acquiring new sounds, sociability, and better prospects for the child in future
Without music and art, human lives would lack vibrancy and joy, leading to a monotonous existence In Chile, these disciplines are integral to the national curriculum due to their significant academic and socio-emotional benefits for students Thus, it is essential to ensure that art and music remain a permanent part of the Chilean educational framework.
Participant 18 Learning a second language should be learned as earlier as possible when we are children Even if over the year it has been argued that there is no connection with the time we learn, there are several reasons that can help to believe the contrary First, if we learn a second language when we are young, our way of thinking can be expanded, also as we have more time to learn we can become more confident and knowledgeable about it when we are older and last the learning process is faster at early stages of our lives which can give us a more flexible understanding of the language
In conclusion, excluding art and music from the Chilean curriculum would negatively impact students by hindering their overall performance and limiting their creative expression These subjects are essential for fostering diverse intelligences beyond just linguistic and analytical skills Therefore, it is crucial to continue incorporating art and music into the curriculum to support holistic student development.
Participant 10 I agree with this statement for several reasons
To enhance our personal development, it is crucial not to delay our goals, as procrastination can make achieving them more challenging over time Taking action sooner rather than later is essential for success.
The removal of certain subjects from the curriculum to promote the learning of other subjects that are considered more relevant has always been under discussion
Students should be exposed to a diverse range of subjects to experience the benefits of learning multiple disciplines Therefore, I oppose the removal of subjects like music or arts in favor of others Every subject should be valued equally, as each contributes significantly to society and enriches the overall educational experience.
Without music or acting, for instance, there would be no musicians or artists who could deliver entertainment content to their audiences
Participant 9 Have you ever wondered when it is the appropriate time to learn a foreign language?
It is well-known that the brain's capacity to learn something new declines with age
Therefore, there are two critical reasons why a foreign language should be learned as soon as children start school.
Education is essential for both individual and national development While some argue that removing art and music from the curriculum would allow students to concentrate on more critical subjects, I strongly oppose this notion Art and music contribute significantly to a well-rounded education, playing a crucial role in students' overall success, much like nutrition is essential for the human body.
Throughout various writing tasks, pre-service teachers enhanced their ability to articulate their points and opinions clearly, effectively supporting them This qualitative improvement is further evidenced by the rise in participants' Task response scores from a quantitative perspective.
Assessment criterion 02: Coherence and cohesion
A one-way within-subjects ANOVA revealed a significant effect of coherence and cohesion scores in essay writing tasks, with results indicating a statistical significance [F (3; 87) = 6.646; p = 0.000] Consequently, the difference in participants' coherence and cohesion scores across these tasks was also statistically significant.
Table 5: Tests of within-subjects Effects for Coherence and cohesion criterion
Source Type III Sum of Squares
The post-hoc test utilizing the Bonferroni adjustment demonstrated significant differences in Coherence and Cohesion scores across specific essay writing tasks, as shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Descriptive statistics of the Bonferroni post hoc test for the Coherence and cohesion criterion
Mean Std Deviation N Bonferroni sig.
Thus, significant differences were observed between:
essay writing task 1 and 4 (Coherence and cohesion criterion mean score in writing task 1= 5.13; Coherence and cohesion criterion mean score in writing task 4= 6.47; p=0.011)
essay writing task 2 and 4 (Coherence and cohesion criterion mean score in writing task 2= 5.27; Coherence and cohesion criterion mean score in writing task 4= 6.47; p=0.001)
essay writing tasks 3 and 4 (Coherence and cohesion criterion mean score in writing task 3= 5.53; Coherence and cohesion criterion mean score in writing task 4= 6.47; p=0.012).
These significant differences agreed with the calculation of the estimated marginal means of the Coherence and cohesion criterion displayed in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Estimated marginal means of Coherence and cohesion criterion
The estimated marginal means reveal insights into the coherence and cohesion scores across various essay writing tasks, showing a notable progression, particularly in the fourth task where participants achieved their highest averages Additionally, the significant differences in pre-service teachers' scores can be examined qualitatively by comparing excerpts from their first and last essays, focusing on coherence and cohesion Table 7 illustrates examples of the enhancements in the participants' essays regarding these elements.
Table 7: Pre-service teachers´ writing comparison regarding coherence and cohesion
Participants Essay writing task 01 Essay writing task 04
Participant 4 Secondly, it is crucial to receive a lot of input in order to acquire a second language (Krashen, 1982) Currently in our country the hours per week destinated to studying an L2 are not enough to provide students with the necessary input In the same way, not every family is prepared or willing to do it on their own Considering this, there should be adjustments made in the first place so students can really learn, otherwise, the acquisition process would not be as effective as it should.
Similarly, children need to be exposed to a variety of disciplines to develop properly
Limiting children's study areas restricts their self-perception and worldview, as the exclusion of art and music can hinder their analytical abilities, social skills, and emotional intelligence Furthermore, such restrictions prevent schools from reflecting the true diversity of the world Ultimately, the arts are essential and enrich our lives in various ways.
Participant 19 Firstly, as we are surrounded by languages of the world since our very beginnings, the earlier we start, the earlier we will be able to interact effectively with a new language
Besides, children's plasticity towards learning new things makes the task easier
When children start school, their brains are in a language development process that is still fresh and in progress, facilitating, in that way, their learning of a foreign language.
Preparing students for the modern world requires a balanced focus on art, music, and information technology These subjects not only enrich our knowledge but also foster essential skills crucial for personal development Creativity, originality, problem-solving, organization, resourcefulness, and analytical thinking are among the vital competencies that contribute to a well-rounded education.
Participant 20 Taking into consideration that children’s characteristics are curiosity, creativity, willingness to discover new things, and more, it is possible to say that the first stage in human life is the most accurate to learn a foreign language The most suitable place to develop those skills is the school for the youngest students
Arts and music play a vital role in enhancing students' memory and creativity Engaging in activities like singing, dancing, and painting may appear straightforward, but they significantly contribute to cognitive development and imaginative expression.
Participant 6 To sum up, I have discussed two essential reasons that support that a foreign language can be learned at any time, not necessarily at a young age The first one demonstrates the clarification of the myth that there is not an ‘’ideal time’’ to learn a new language, and the latter indicates the necessity of meta-awareness when learning such language
Art and music are essential components of a balanced curriculum, significantly influencing students' development These subjects enhance cognitive and motor skills while also helping to reduce stress levels, contributing to overall academic progress.
The significant differences in coherence and cohesion scores among pre-service teachers indicate an improvement in their ability to articulate cohesive ideas, appropriately utilize discourse markers, and logically sequence information.
Assessment criterion 03: Lexical resource
A one-way within-subjects ANOVA was conducted to assess the variation in Lexical resource scores (factor 1) across four essay writing tasks The analysis revealed a significant effect of the Lexical resource scores across the different tasks, with results indicating [F (3; 87) = 8.648; p = 0.000], as shown in Table 8 Consequently, participants demonstrated notable differences in their Lexical resource performance across the essay writing tasks.
Lexical resource scores were statistically significant.
Table 8: Tests of within-subjects effects for the Lexical resource criterion
Source Type III Sum of Squares
The post-hoc test results, utilizing the Bonferroni adjustment, revealed statistically significant differences in the pre-service teachers' scores for the Lexical Resource criterion in specific essay writing tasks, as detailed in Table 9.
Table 9: Descriptive Statistics and Bonferroni post hoc test for the Lexical resource criterion
Mean Std Deviation N Bonferroni sig.
Similar to the first two assessment criteria analysis, significant differences were observed between:
essay writing tasks 1 and 4 (Lexical resource criterion mean score in writing task 1= 5.03; Lexical resource criterion mean score in writing task 4= 6.33; p=0.003)
essay writing task 2 and 4 (Lexical resource criterion mean score in writing task 2= 5.03; Lexical resource criterion mean score in writing task 4= 6.33; p=0.000)
essay writing task 3 and 4 (Lexical resource criterion mean score in writing task 3= 5.50; Lexical resource criterion mean score in writing task 4= 6.33; p=0.028).
In addition, estimated marginal means were calculated to analyse the changes of the
Lexicon resource scores across the four essay writing tasks, as presented in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Estimated marginal means of the Lexical resource criterion
The Lexical resource scores remained unchanged between the first and second essay writing tasks, as illustrated in Figure 7 However, there was a notable increase in mean scores during the third and fourth tasks Qualitatively, participants improved their use of lexical resources, reflecting the significant differences in their scores across the various writing tasks A comparison of writing extracts from tasks 01 and 04 is presented in Table 10.
Table 10: Pre-service teachers´ writing comparison regarding Lexical resource
Participants Essay writing task 01 Essay writing task 04
Participant 17 Therefore, I strongly believe that a foreign language should be learned at primary school due to positive benefits and the benefits for children’s future.
To begin with, most students are unmotivated trying to face subjects such as math and science They are overburdened with academic tasks, assignments, and pressure.
Participant 3 An example can be seen with children in preschool, where they are taught a second language without the pressure of scholar achievement…; hence, using this cerebral condition to ease learning makes a lot of sense
Preparing children for the future extends beyond technical skills and knowledge; it encompasses essential competencies such as effective communication, goal setting, group management, teamwork, and problem-solving, all of which are vital in any professional setting.
Participant 12 Therefore, the use of motherese in babies when acquiring a mother and a foreign language makes the process easier and helpful…To conclude, the acquisition of a language is not easy, especially when we are talking about the acquisition of a foreign language
Teaching information technology and science in schools enhances critical thinking and problem-solving skills, essential in our increasingly tech-dependent society Schools play a crucial role in preparing students to envision the future through scientific inquiry Moreover, the integration of science and information technology encourages students to analyze societal problems and anticipate future events, driving innovation in the development of new tools and equipment.
Participant 11 Secondly, bilingual children will have the opportunity of communicating with different cultures As children will know another language, they will have access to different resources They can see information from other perspectives, speak to people from around the world, and meet new cultures
I saw that children from the practicum were already watching videos from English YouTubers, and they loved them
Offering a diverse range of subjects allows students to achieve a balanced study schedule, enhancing their overall well-being The pressures of excessive homework and limited personal time during school years can be overwhelming Engaging in artistic subjects like music and art offers students valuable opportunities for self-expression and emotional release.
Furthermore, dealing with too much stress affects their performance To cut subjects that help them regulate emotions would not improve their performance in others that are considered more significant
In conclusion, pre-service teachers demonstrated improved lexical resource utilization in their fourth essay writing task, showcasing their ability to construct more sophisticated structures with a diverse vocabulary This enhancement is further validated by significant differences observed in the statistical analysis.
Assessment criterion 04: Grammatical range and accuracy
In terms of Grammatical range and accuracy scores (factor 1), a one-way within subjects ANOVA was used to explore the variation of the participants´ means
Results suggested that Grammatical range and accuracy scores presented a significant effect in the essay writing tasks [F (3; 87) =8.845; p=0.000], as illustrated in Table 11
As a result, the difference of the means in the essay writing tasks was considered statistically significant.
Table 11: Tests of within-subjects Effects for the Grammatical range and accuracy criterion
Source Type III Sum of Squares
The post-hoc test utilizing the Bonferroni adjustment identified specific essay writing tasks where significant differences in Grammatical range and accuracy scores were observed, as shown in Table 12.
Table 12: Descriptive statistics and Bonferroni post hoc test for the Grammatical range and accuracy criterion
Mean Std Deviation N Bonferroni sig.
Following the pattern observed in the other three assessment criteria, significant differences were identified between:
essay writing task 1 and 4 (Grammatical range and accuracy criterion mean score in writing task 1= 4.77; Grammatical range and accuracy criterion mean score in writing task 4= 6.00; p=0.004)
essay writing task 2 and 4 (Grammatical range and accuracy criterion mean score in writing task 2= 4.80; Grammatical range and accuracy criterion mean score in writing task 4= 6.00; p=0.001)
essay writing tasks 3 and 4 (Grammatical range and accuracy criterion mean score in writing task 3= 5.10; Grammatical range and accuracy criterion mean score in writing task 4= 6.00; p=0.005).
Additionally, to analyse the changes of the Grammatical range and accuracy scores throughout the different essay writing tasks, estimated marginal values were calculated, as displayed in Figure 8
Figure 8: Estimated marginal means of grammatical range and accuracy criterion
The analysis of estimated marginal mean values revealed a slight increase in scores from the first to the second writing tasks, followed by a consistent rise during the third and fourth tasks This trend aligns with the other evaluation criteria, including Task Response, Coherence and Cohesion, and Lexical Resource, where participants' mean scores either stabilized or showed minor improvements initially, ultimately reaching their highest values in the final essay writing task.
A comparison of participants' scores reveals a significant correlation between their essay writing performance and their grammatical accuracy As pre-service teachers improved their scores in the fourth writing task, they also demonstrated enhanced abilities to construct complex and precise grammatical structures Table 13 illustrates the progression in grammatical range and accuracy through samples of the participants' initial and final essays.
Table 13: Pre-service teachers´ writing comparison regarding grammatical range and accuracy
Participants Essay writing task 01 Essay writing task 04
Participant 1 …thus, they can acquire or learn a language with ease at an early age…
Second, it opens an infinite doors.
Some argue that schools should focus solely on teaching practical subjects like information technology, advocating for the removal of less utilitarian subjects such as art and music.
Participant 8 Learn a foreign language at an early age is significantly beneficial…Nowadays, globalization helps us to know different cultures around the world and knowing a foreign language might provide a better communication
Education is essential for children's development, equipping them for the challenges of the modern world Engaging in arts and music provides students with valuable coping mechanisms to manage the academic pressures of other subjects.
Participant 7 There may be many answers, but the truth is that the youngest, the best Brain plasticity is more active in the early years
The ability of the brain to reorganized information and create new neural pathways is known as neuroplasticity.
Have you ever considered the importance of having different subjects at school?
Schools play a crucial role in preparing children for life by fostering various skills through diverse subjects However, in recent years, important topics like arts and history have been neglected in the curriculum.
Participant 5 Nowadays, learning and mastering a second language is an ability valued by many, especially when applying for a job or a scholarship abroad For this reason, it is fundamental that children start from a young the process of learning a second language In Chile students start having the English course in the first grade, right after they graduate from kindergarten, hence, they have better chances of learning English as they are exposed from a young age to the language Therefore, learning a foreign language, as the case of English, should start as soon as children start their educational path
Students should have the autonomy to choose whether to include art and music in their curriculum, as these subjects directly impact their educational experience The ability to make such choices is essential for many students, offering them a sense of agency Unlike more structured subjects like biology or chemistry, art and music provide a more flexible approach to evaluation, allowing students to engage creatively and take a break from rigid assessment methods.
In conclusion, pre-service teachers demonstrated significant improvement in their essay writing skills, especially in task 4 Quantitatively, their mean scores across the IELTS writing criteria showed notable statistical differences, reflecting their progress from the initial tasks to the final one Qualitatively, this improvement is evident in the analysis of their essay extracts, where participants effectively addressed the tasks, presented logical and well-structured ideas, utilized a diverse vocabulary, and constructed complex grammatical structures.
RQ2: What are pre-service teachers’ perceptions of screencast feedback?
Attending and engagement
The study assessed participants' attentiveness to screencast feedback, revealing a strong consensus on its effectiveness in aiding the revision process, with a high mean score of 3.90 and a low standard deviation of 0.305 This indicates that participants had similar perceptions of screencasts, reflecting minimal variation in their responses.
Table 16: Descriptive statistics of pre-service teachers´ attending and engagement construct
1 Compared to more traditional feedback, I think that I paid more attention to my instructor’s comments with screencast.
2 Compared to more traditional feedback, I think that screencast helped me better understand how to go about revising my writing.
3 Compared to more traditional feedback, I think that screencast made me a better writer.
Scale of agreement: 1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3) agree 4) strongly agree
The findings indicated that participants had a lower mean score and higher standard deviation regarding the effectiveness of screencast feedback in improving their writing skills compared to traditional feedback This suggests that pre-service teachers only slightly recognized the value of screencast feedback for enhancing their writing proficiency, leading to greater variability in their responses (0.736).
Incorporation of revision
Participants emphasized the significance of screencast feedback in addressing issues related to language mechanics and usage, as evidenced by the highest mean score and low standard deviation in their responses This indicates a strong consensus among pre-service teachers regarding the value of incorporating suggested revisions into their learning process.
Table 17: Descriptive statistics of pre-service teachers´ incorporation of revision construct
5 I gained a better understanding of how to organise my writing due to the feedback received through screencast.
6 I was able to create better arguments due to the feedback received through screencast.
7 I was able to elaborate better due to the feedback received through screencast.
8 I gained a better understanding of my issues with mechanics and usage due to the feedback received through screencast.
9 I gained a better understanding of how to structure my essays due to the feedback received through screencast.
Scale of agreement: 1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3) agree 4) strongly agree
In contrast, statement 6 presented the lowest mean score (3.40) and it involved the perception of improvement in argumentation thanks to screencast feedback
The statement demonstrated a low standard deviation of 0.498, indicating that participants generally agreed with this perception, albeit with moderate strength Additionally, while the responses from pre-service teachers varied, the degree of variation was minimal.
Feedback quality and quantity
The study examined pre-service teachers' perceptions of the quality and quantity of screencast feedback received through videos Participants reported that screencast feedback significantly enhanced their understanding of writing feedback, highlighting its effectiveness in improving their learning experience.
The participants indicated that both the need for improvement and the areas requiring clarification received the highest mean scores with minimal variation, suggesting a consensus in their responses.
Table 18: Descriptive statistics of pre-service teachers´ feedback quality and quantity construct
10 When compared to other writing activities, I think I received more feedback on my writing in this activity due to screencast.
11 When compared to other writing activities, I think that I better understood the feedback on my writing due to screencast.
12 When compared to other writing activities, the comments I received helped me understand what I needed to do to improve my writing due to screencast.
13 When compared to other writing activities, I received feedback that helped me understand how to revise my papers beyond just issues with mechanics and usage.
14 When compared to other writing activities, I believe the feedback on screencast helped me become a better writer.
15 When compared to other writing activities, I believe the feedback on screencast helped me write better papers.
Scale of agreement: 1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3) agree 4) strongly agree
On the contrary, regarding quantity, pre-service teachers agreed the least on receiving more feedback through screencast than in comparison with other writing activities
(statement 10) This perceived view presented the lowest mean score and the highest level of standard deviation, which reflected that the participants´ answers tended to differ a bit more.
Preference
Participants showed a strong preference for screencast feedback over traditional written comments from instructors, particularly for addressing structural issues in their essays As indicated in Table 19, pre-service teachers expressed high agreement with this preference, reflected by a mean score of 3.77 and a low standard deviation, suggesting consistent opinions among the respondents.
Table 19: Descriptive statistics of pre-service teachers´ preference construct
16 I would prefer to receive feedback on screencast, as opposed to traditional written comments, to help me deal with mechanics and usage issues.
17 I would prefer to receive feedback on screencast, as opposed to traditional written comments, to help me deal with organisational issues (sequence, description, cause and effect, compare and contrast, and problem and solution).
18 I would prefer to receive feedback on screencast, as opposed to traditional written comments, to help me deal with issues pertaining to elaboration.
19 I would prefer to receive feedback on screencast, as opposed to traditional written comments, to help me deal with structural issues (introduction, body and conclusion).
20 I would recommend that other writing instructors use screencast, as opposed to traditional written comments in their classes.
Scale of agreement: 1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3) agree 4) strongly agree
On the contrary, regarding assistance in language mechanics and usage, pre-service teachers´ preference for screencast feedback over traditional written comments
Statement 16 recorded the lowest mean score of 3.53, accompanied by the highest standard deviation of 0.681 within this construct This indicates that while participants showed a general agreement on this preference, their responses varied significantly.
Descriptive statistics reveal that pre-service teachers exhibit a strong consensus across four constructs, with particularly high agreement in attendance and engagement (mean score of 3.72) and preference (mean score of 3.69), as highlighted in Table 20.
Table 20: Descriptive statistics of pre-service teachers´ constructs
N Minimum Maximum Mean Standard deviation
Scale of agreement: 1) strongly disagree 2) disagree 3) agree 4) strongly agree
The participants demonstrated a strong understanding of how to revise their writing, reflected in a high mean score of 3.90 for this aspect of engagement Additionally, they showed increased attentiveness to instructors' comments delivered through screencasts, achieving a mean score of 3.80.
Pre-service teachers showed a strong preference for screencast feedback over traditional written comments, particularly for addressing essay layout issues, as indicated by a mean score of 3.77 in the preference construct.
The feedback quality and quantity construct received the lowest mean score of 3.50, indicating a need for improvement Additionally, within the attending and engagement construct, participants reported a mean score of 3.33 regarding their perception of becoming better writers through screencast feedback compared to traditional methods.
All four constructs had mean scores exceeding 3.5, and every statement's mean score was above 3, indicating that pre-service teachers held positive perceptions of the screencast feedback provided.
Correlations of constructs according to participants´ gender and
Through the statistical analysis of the different constructs, it was possible to identify positive and significant correlations among them as depicted in Table 21
Table 21: Correlations of pre-service teachers´ constructs
Feedback quality and quantity Pearson
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The study revealed three key correlations: a strong relationship between the incorporation of revision and the quality and quantity of feedback (0.726), a notable connection between revision practices and student attendance and engagement (0.592), and a significant link between student preferences and the quality and quantity of feedback received.
The integration of feedback from screencast videos was positively linked to the quality and quantity of essay content among pre-service teachers This significant incorporation of revision correlated with increased engagement and active participation in the writing process Additionally, the participants preferred screencast feedback over traditional comments, likely due to the enhanced quality and quantity of information provided through the videos.
Furthermore, slight descriptive differences in the means of the constructs were observed, based on the participants´ gender and higher education institution
Nevertheless, none of them was statistically significant, as illustrated in Table 22 and Table 23
Table 22: Descriptive statistics of pre-service teachers according to gender
Constructs Frequency Mean SD Frequency Mean SD T-test sig.
*Non-binary gender was not considered because it was only one case (Attending/engagement mean= 3.75; incorporation of revision mean= 3.00; Feedback quality/quantity mean= 3.50; Preference mean= 3.40)
In a study examining gender differences among pre-service teachers, female participants reported the highest mean score of 3.72 in the preference construct, whereas male participants showed a slightly lower mean score of 3.70 in the incorporation of revision construct.
Table 23: Descriptive statistics of pre-service teachers according to higher education institution
Constructs Frequency Mean SD Frequency Mean SD T-test sig.
Considering the participants´ academic background, participants who studied at
University 1 presented their highest mean score (3.73) in the preference construct, whereas participants from University 2 obtained their highest mean score (3.68) in the feedback quality and quantity construct.
Correlations between survey constructs and IELTS assessment criteria
The different constructs described earlier were analysed in relation to the four IELTS writing task assessment criteria, and the following correlations at 0.05 levels were found:
incorporation of revision and Task response 3: (rs = 434, p=0.05)
incorporation of revision and Coherence and cohesion 3: (rs = 369, p=0.05)
incorporation of revision and Lexical resource 3: (rs = 362, p=0.05)
incorporation of revision and Coherence and cohesion 4: (rs = 425, p=0.05).
The four identified correlations were all positive and significant, suggesting that pre-service teachers' emphasis on integrating screencast revisions into their essays positively influenced their responses to writing tasks This focus may have contributed to their improvement in developing coherent and cohesive ideas, expanding their vocabulary, and constructing more accurate and complex grammatical structures.
The most significant correlation identified was between the integration of the revision construct and the task response criterion, particularly evident in the third essay writing task, as illustrated in the correlation matrix in Table 24.
Table 24: Correlation between constructs and Task response scores
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
The strong correlation observed in essay writing task 3 suggests that pre-service teachers began to enhance their essay writing skills after completing the initial two tasks By effectively integrating the screencast feedback into their essays, they demonstrated increased responsiveness and improvement in their performance on the third writing task.
Thematic analysis
The following section examines pre-service teachers´ self-perceived qualitative views of screencast feedback on essay writing Participants responded to the following question:
How did you use the screencast feedback provided to improve your next argumentative essay?
The participants' responses were analyzed thematically, revealing two key themes: the study strategies employed by participants utilizing screencast feedback and the advantages of screencast feedback.
Table 25: Theme one: Participants´ study strategies using screencast feedback
Participants´ study strategies using screencast feedback
Re-watching screencast feedback videos
9 Before writing the next essays, I watched the screencast feedback once or twice so as to know my weaknesses in writing (Participant 8)
I used the screencast feedback as a guidance I watched it twice (Participant 13)
I watched the video recording several times, as I was writing the essay (Participant 14)
First of all, I watched it more than twice so that I would really understand what I had to improve (Participant 28)
Participants emphasized the importance of teacher feedback in improving their writing skills One participant noted that they focused on highlighted details in the feedback to address specific issues for future assignments Another participant mentioned actively monitoring feedback while writing essays to ensure they were following the teacher's advice and making progress.
I took into consideration all the details and comments provided by the professor (Participant 17)
After reviewing the screencast feedback provided by my teacher, I implemented the suggested changes to enhance my writing Taking notes during the screencast was instrumental in organizing my thoughts and improving my subsequent essays These notes served as a valuable reference, helping me retain important insights for future writing tasks.
I made notes using the feedback to internalize the correct structure and keep the tips and my essays as references for future work (Participant 20)
I checked and took notes on the organization of the essay and what each of the parts of the essay had to contain (Participant 21) Analysing weaknesses
Feedback played a crucial role in enhancing the organization of my subsequent essays, as I identified and addressed my previous weaknesses By reviewing the screencast feedback multiple times before writing my next essays, I gained valuable insights into my writing deficiencies, which helped me improve my skills.
I paid attention to the mistakes detected in the piece of writing in order to not repeat them (Participant 11)
The study strategies identified in the first theme highlighted how pre-service teachers utilized screencast feedback to enhance their essay writing Four key subthemes emerged: taking notes, re-watching feedback videos, following teacher advice, and analyzing weaknesses Notably, participants placed significant importance on re-watching the screencast feedback videos (F=9) to effectively internalize the content and improve their skills They also valued following teacher advice (F=9), believing it greatly contributed to their learning, as many reported taking notes (F=8) from the videos Additionally, analyzing their weaknesses (F=5) was crucial in avoiding common mistakes in future essays, supported by the practice of re-watching feedback and adhering to teacher guidance.
Table 26 below highlights the second theme and its subthemes.
Table 26: Theme two: Benefits of screencast feedback
The feedback from the screencast significantly enhanced my understanding of essay structure, particularly in organizing the introduction, development, and conclusion Participant 3 noted that it was instrumental in improving the overall structure, while Participant 2 found the visual format of the feedback particularly beneficial for refining future essays.
Also, I saw that I improved in the structure of the essays in general (Participant 29)
I understood better the organization of an introduction (Participant 19) Friendly, clear, and personalised feedback
6 … and with the explanation of my teacher, everything was clearer than with a written feedback (Participant 14)
It made me realize common mistakes that I made in my writing and since the feedback is more personalized I was able to correct them (Participant 18)
Screencast feedback offers a more approachable perspective compared to traditional feedback, enhancing my willingness to address and learn from my writing mistakes in essays.
Well, I felt quite comfortable having this kind of feedback; I think it is more personalized (Participant 29)
4 It made me realize common mistakes that I made on my writing and since the feedback is more personalised I was able to correct them (Participant 18)
It helped me to understand what I did wrong and how to correct it (Participant 23)
My initial experience with writing an argumentative essay revealed numerous overlooked issues, but the screencast feedback proved invaluable in highlighting these problems This feedback became a reference point for each subsequent task, enabling me to learn from my mistakes and strive to avoid repeating them By keeping these errors in mind, I was able to remember the correct structure and incorporate necessary improvements into my writing.
3 It was really useful You can access to your feedback not only once, and
I think that is an advantage (Participant 7)
…in case I forgot something, the screencast was able to be seen again (Participant 12)
I watched the video recording several times, as I was writing the essay, this way the feedback could be given at any moment during the process of writing (Participant 14)
In Table 26, pre-service teachers identified several key benefits of screencast feedback, highlighting its positive impact on essay organization and layout They noted that screencasts serve as a valuable permanent resource for reference, enhance language awareness, and provide friendly, clear, and personalized feedback Overall, participants expressed strong agreement on the advantages of using screencast feedback in their learning process.
(F=6) provided clear explanations and described it as friendly and more comfortable in comparison to traditional written feedback Likewise, another common perceived benefit was essay organisation and layout (F=6)
Pre-service teachers remarked that screencast feedback had been useful as it supported the improvement of the text layout in the following essay writing tasks
Pre-service teachers recognized that screencast feedback enhanced their language awareness by helping them identify writing errors and offering guidance for corrections This feedback played a crucial role in their writing improvement, particularly evident in their final essay Additionally, participants valued screencast feedback as a permanent reference resource, allowing them to revisit it as needed to support their ongoing development in essay writing skills.
The website https://tagcrowd.com was utilized to generate a word cloud that offers an alternative perspective on pre-service teachers' perceptions of screencast feedback, as illustrated in Figure 9.
The analysis of pre-service teachers' responses indicated that key terms such as "feedback," "essays," "writing," and "improve" were frequently mentioned This suggests that participants recognized the significant impact of screencast video feedback on enhancing their essay writing skills Furthermore, the data illustrated in Figures 10 and 11 highlights the frequency of words related to the study strategies and benefits associated with screencast feedback, emphasizing its value in the learning process.
Figure 9: Word frequency of participants´ answers to question: How did you use the screencast feedback provided to improve your next argumentative essay?
Figure 10 : Word frequency of theme one: Participants´ study strategies using screencast feedback
The visual representation of theme one depicted in Figure 10 highlighted frequent words such as writing (F), feedback (F), essays (F), watched (F) and teacher
Pre-service teachers primarily utilized screencast feedback by frequently watching the videos and adhering to the teacher's recommendations Figure 11 highlights the perceived benefits of this feedback method among participants.
Figure 11 : Word frequency of theme two: Benefits of screencast feedback
The word cloud for theme two showcased a lower frequency of terms compared to theme one However, the most frequently occurring words included "feedback," "essay," and "helped," with "helped" appearing eight times, highlighting its significance in the context of improvement.
Pre-service teachers viewed screencast feedback as a valuable resource for enhancing the structure of their essays However, the low word frequency suggests there may be differing perceptions among participants regarding its effectiveness.
RQ1: What is the effect of screencast feedback on the English performance of pre-service teachers in the essay writing component of IELTS?
the English performance of pre-service teachers in the essay writing component of IELTS?
Pre-service teachers demonstrated significant improvement in their essay writing skills after receiving successive screencast feedback through four video files This enhancement was evident across all four IELTS writing components: Task response, Coherence, and Cohesion.
Lexical resource, and Grammatical range and accuracy This improvement was statistically significant according to the four one-way ANOVA tests that were carried out
A notable improvement was observed in essay writing tasks 1, 2, and 3 compared to task 4, as participants became more efficient in their responses They developed more logical and cohesive ideas, utilized a broader range of vocabulary, and incorporated more complex grammatical structures in their writing.
Recent studies on screencast feedback and its impact on writing skills have yielded significant findings For example, Ali (2016) investigated the effects of screencast video feedback on university freshmen's writing abilities The control group received only written feedback, while the experimental group benefited from screencast feedback addressing higher order writing concerns, such as content, organization, and structure, alongside written feedback for lower order issues like accuracy The post-test results indicated a statistically significant improvement in the experimental group's mean scores, particularly in higher order writing concerns and overall writing skills, compared to the control group.
Ali's (2016) research demonstrated that participants significantly improved their writing concerns, particularly in content, organization, and structure, through screencast video feedback rather than written feedback focused on accuracy Similarly, the current study found that pre-service teachers enhanced their writing skills by utilizing screencast feedback, refining their essays in organization and layout, as well as improving coherence, cohesion, grammar, and vocabulary range.
Participants indicated that screencast feedback enhanced their understanding of essay organization and layout, while also helping them identify writing errors related to accuracy, including the correct use of specific lexical items.
Soltanpour & Valizadeh (2018) investigated the effect of individualised technology- mediated feedback (ITMF) on argumentative essay writing of Iranian EFL learners
Findings indicated that participants who received ITMF through video feedback and a follow-up classroom discussion, presented a significant difference in the overall quality
The study found that while the ITMF group demonstrated superior overall quality in argumentative essays, there was no statistically significant difference in long-term results between post-test and delayed post-test scores Both this research and the study by Soltanpour and Valizadeh (2018) highlight improvements in essay writing skills among participants who received video feedback However, unlike the previous study, this research did not incorporate CWCF or conduct delayed post-tests, which could serve as valuable additions for future investigations.
Screencast feedback proves to be highly effective in addressing writing errors among learners According to Mayer and Moreno (2003), this method uniquely engages both visual and auditory senses, enhancing the learning experience Consequently, it caters to diverse learning styles, making feedback more accessible and easier to understand As a result, students are likely to retain this feedback for an extended duration, further improving their writing skills.
Screencast feedback may engage more students than traditional written comments, which can hinder comprehension, particularly for those learning a second language Research indicates that written feedback, including correction codes, often confuses learners (Bitchener & Knoch, 2010; Lee, 2017; Seror, 2012) In contrast, students tend to better understand and retain information when provided with audio-visual stimuli, such as a teacher's voice or images Additionally, excessive written comments can overwhelm students, with Ali (2016) noting that an abundance of feedback may be counterproductive.
Screencast feedback provides learners with the flexibility to review video recordings at their own pace, allowing them to pause, rewind, and re-watch as needed This approach reduces pressure, particularly benefiting shy or anxious students, and enhances their understanding of teacher comments By focusing on challenging aspects and revisiting the content, learners can improve their comprehension of errors and learn effective strategies to address them.
Video feedback serves as an effective tool for enhancing the quality of EFL writing, as it allows learners to take notes and directly apply insights from feedback to their written work (Bakla, 2018).
Screencast feedback allows learners to dedicate more time to understanding and reflecting on the feedback they receive, which is crucial in grammar education This method is particularly beneficial as students often face challenges in grasping specific aspects of a second language.
L1 and L2 learners exhibit significant differences, necessitating additional time for processing feedback According to Seliem and Ahmed (2009), frequent feedback enhances learners' commitment to tasks, leading to increased engagement and motivation during writing activities Therefore, the duration of exposure to feedback is a crucial factor influencing writing development.
Screencast feedback has shown positive results in improving various writing performance criteria, including task response, coherence and cohesion, lexical resource, and grammatical range and accuracy This method effectively addresses both macro-level errors, such as content organization and coherence, as well as micro-level issues like grammar, punctuation, and spelling Consequently, screencast feedback may enhance the writing process for students, providing targeted support for diverse writing challenges.
Screencasts provide detailed explanations that can effectively address various writing errors Many students struggle with grammar and need clearer explanations of the rules, often supplemented by examples for better understanding.
Screencast feedback enhances the learning experience by offering detailed and comprehensible input through audio and visual support It enables educators to provide specific examples, highlight mistakes, and direct students to additional resources for further practice Unlike traditional feedback methods, the interactive elements of screencast feedback make the process more engaging and motivating for students.
RQ2: What are pre-service teachers’ perceptions of screencast feedback?
In terms of participants’ perceptions, a number of studies show that there is a positive perception towards screencast feedback (Ali, 2016; Moore & Filling, 2012; Morris &
In the current study, learners recognized screencast feedback as a valuable resource for enhancing their writing organization, elaborating on ideas and arguments, and gaining a clearer understanding of grammar-related issues.
Students reported that screencast feedback offered significant advantages over traditional writing feedback, particularly in terms of the quantity, clarity, and overall quality of their writing This format was perceived as a more effective tool for delivering comprehensive feedback, enhancing students' understanding and facilitating improvements in their writing skills These findings align with previous research (Alharbi, 2021; Ali, 2016; Merry & Orsmond, 2008), which indicates that audio and visual feedback is regarded as more impactful, as it aids students in grasping their teachers' comments more effectively.
The questionnaire results indicate that the majority of students favor screencast feedback over written comments for addressing various types of errors, including mechanics, usage, organization, elaboration of ideas, and layout This preference aligns with multiple studies suggesting that students consider audio and audiovisual feedback to be of higher quality than traditional written feedback (Alharbi, 2021).
Compared to written comments, it can be inferred that students better understand the teacher feedback on each type of error
These favourable perceptions concur and contrast with findings of similar studies on screencast feedback For instance, research on the writing of freshmen students (Ali,
A study in 2016 found that participants viewed screencast feedback positively due to its clarity, personal touch, engagement, and specificity Similarly, pre-service teachers in this research described screencast feedback as friendly, clear, and personalized Participants emphasized that this type of feedback is concise, fosters a willingness to improve writing errors, and supports oral language development while allowing for learner customization.
Bush (2020) investigated freshmen students' responses to screencast feedback in an advanced writing class, where participants completed three high-stakes essays They received written corrective feedback for the first essay and a combination of written and oral comments via screencast for the subsequent assignments The results showed that students found screencast feedback more pleasant and effective than traditional written feedback, even though teachers did not perceive it as more effective In this study, participants expressed a clear preference for screencast feedback, reflected in statistically significant mean scores for attending and engagement (3.72) and preference (3.69) While Bush’s research included written feedback for the first essay and a mix of feedback types thereafter, the current study utilized only screencast feedback across four essay tasks, potentially increasing participants' familiarity and insights into this feedback method.
By the same token, Inan-Karaual and Seker (2021) explored self-regulated learning
(SRL) writing strategies through screencast feedback on higher education learners
A semi-structured interview revealed that participants had a positive perception of screencast feedback and self-regulated learning (SRL) training Many described screencast feedback as “more intimate,” “easier,” and “clearer,” highlighting its effectiveness in enhancing the learning experience.
Current research highlights that pre-service teachers perceive screencast feedback as "friendly, clear, and personalised," which enhances individualized support, oral language skills, and clarity of explanations While the frequency of improvement in writing mistakes through this feedback was reported to be low, participants expressed a strong preference for screencast feedback videos over traditional written feedback This finding aligns with the conclusions of Inan-Karaual and Seker (2021), reinforcing the notion that visual feedback is more beneficial for learners in higher education.
Seker's (2021) research highlights the preference for face-to-face feedback as the most effective method for receiving feedback, a factor not addressed in the current study Additionally, while Inan-Karaual and Seker (2021) investigated self-regulated learning (SRL) writing strategies using screencast feedback for communication, this study positions screencast feedback as both the primary strategy under examination and a communication tool for pre-service teachers.
The technological benefits of screencast feedback have become increasingly significant in the context of distance learning during the global pandemic A study by Cunningham (2019) examined the effectiveness of screencast versus text feedback in an intermediate ESL writing course, revealing a clear preference for screencast feedback among participants This preference was attributed to its ease of use, clarity, and efficiency Additionally, learners utilizing screencast feedback engaged more consistently in the target language and required fewer clarification questions compared to those receiving text feedback Notably, the production of video feedback was also more time-efficient, reducing feedback creation time by 33%.
Cunningham's (2019) research aligns with our findings, highlighting that pre-service teachers found screencast feedback valuable for enhancing essay writing skills, perceiving it as friendly, clear, and personalized However, Cunningham's study also emphasized important technical factors for future research, including the feasibility of creating screencast versus text feedback, the use of clarification questions by participants, and the consistency of participants in using the target language.
Teachers' perspectives on feedback are essential for enhancing classroom practices Zubaidi (2021) explores how EFL lecturers view screencast feedback in L2 writing, revealing a generally positive perception among most educators While some instructors exclusively utilized screencast feedback, others preferred a mix of screencast and written feedback, with only one instance of using written feedback alone Despite the overall favorable view of screencast feedback, the opinions among EFL lecturers varied significantly.
Participants viewed screencast feedback and written feedback as complementary, although some preferred written feedback for its richer information, structured organization, and reduction of repetitive comments This study highlights the teacher-oriented feedback practices of EFL teachers while focusing on the perspectives of pre-service teachers.
EFL lecturers focused on the importance of writing content, whereas pre-service teachers noted that a key benefit of screencasts was their improved understanding of essay organization and layout Despite these differences, both studies agree on the positive perception of screencast feedback and its various advantages, highlighting a preference for this approach among both in-service and pre-service teachers.
This concluding section summarizes the key findings related to the two research questions and discusses the teaching implications derived from the results It also addresses the study's limitations and offers suggestions for future research Notably, this investigation was a small-scale action research study involving only 30 participants, utilizing both quantitative and qualitative methods to explore the research problem and enhance participants' essay writing skills Consequently, while the findings are not generalizable to other contexts, they provide valuable insights for reflecting on, planning, and conducting similar studies.
Screencast feedback has a positive impact on pre-service teachers' writing performance, significantly enhancing their essay writing skills across the four IELTS Writing components This improvement aligns with findings from similar studies that examined the effects of screencast feedback on writing It is essential for teachers to thoroughly explore and adapt feedback methods to best support their students' writing development.
Pedagogical implications
This study advocates for the increased integration of screencast feedback in classroom practices due to its positive effects on learners' writing skills and favorable participant perceptions From a teacher's standpoint, creating a screencast may be more time-efficient than providing written feedback, especially in large classes where feedback can be delivered to students in pairs or groups While familiarity with video recording technology is necessary, various digital tools can aid teachers in this process For example, Screencast-o-matic allows simultaneous screen and webcam recordings on PC, Showme is a free iPad app for recording voice and graphics, and Lensoo Create is an Android tool for whiteboard screencasting Thus, teachers can choose the appropriate tool based on their platform to effectively implement screencast feedback.
From the learner´s point of view, screencast feedback presents various benefits
Learners perceive screencast feedback as clearer, personal, engaging and specific
Screencast feedback is often viewed as more enjoyable and effective than traditional written corrective feedback (Ali, 2016; Bush, 2020) However, a notable drawback is that learners cannot immediately ask questions or engage with the teacher after watching the videos, unlike in face-to-face classroom settings To mitigate this issue, utilizing online educational platforms like Microsoft Teams can facilitate not only the sharing of screencast feedback but also real-time communication through instant messaging This allows students to pose questions and provide comments about the feedback they receive If access to such platforms is limited, teachers can still address students' feedback concerns in the next session, either individually or through group discussions.
Teachers can enhance their feedback strategies by integrating various modes such as audio, written corrective, and screencast feedback, tailored to their class's specific needs For short oral reports, audio feedback is effective for formative assessment, while written corrective feedback is suitable for reading comprehension tasks Additionally, screencast feedback is ideal for more complex assignments like projects, formal presentations, and academic writing, allowing for a comprehensive approach to student learning.
Limitations and further research
Our study faced challenges in 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly with the provision of screencast feedback Internet connectivity issues significantly impacted the upload, reception, and download of video files.
Participants in rural areas with limited internet access faced significant challenges, leading to a decrease in overall participation in the research Many pre-service teachers were unable to continue due to connectivity issues, lockdown restrictions, and the need to take on part-time jobs to support their families Additionally, some participants contracted COVID-19 during the study, further impacting their availability and ability to engage in the research.
Fortunately, these shortcomings were eventually overcome, and this study was completed However, many aspects of screencast feedback remain to be explored
Teachers can enhance the ELT field by exploring the impact of screencast feedback on various forms of written discourse beyond argumentative texts, including descriptive, narrative, and persuasive writing Furthermore, research on screencast feedback could encompass a wider range of written materials, such as tales, short stories, resumes, and reviews.
Screencast feedback can be analyzed for its effects on various language skills, such as speaking, reading, and listening Additionally, it plays a significant role in enhancing students' communicative competence during integrated skill tasks, whether these tasks are created by teachers for general communication or are advanced tasks used in international examinations for pre-service English teachers.
Finally, screencast feedback is a powerful tool in the teacher´s arsenal, one that can make an important difference in how learners perceive and understand feedback
Such understanding is vital to facilitate and support learners´ language skill development and to ignite and foster their engagement in learning a foreign language.
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Sample essays
You should spend about 40 minutes on this task
Write an argumentative essay about the following topic:
T he role of education is to prepare children for the modern world
Schools should cut art and music out of the curriculum so that children can focus on useful subjects such as information technology To what extent do you agree?
School’s curriculum: What is relevant?
Education plays a crucial role in society, sparking ongoing debate within the educational community regarding the importance of artistic subjects While some argue for their removal from the curriculum, others strongly advocate for their inclusion Schools must prioritize subjects that cater to students' needs, interests, and overall well-being.
A diverse range of subjects allows students to achieve a balanced study schedule, enhancing their overall well-being During their school years, students often experience significant pressure due to heavy homework loads and limited personal time.
Artistic subjects like music and the arts offer students essential opportunities for self-expression and emotional liberation Excessive stress negatively impacts their overall performance, and eliminating these creative outlets can lead to increased pressure and demotivation Consequently, it is vital for children and adolescents to have the time to explore diverse interests, as this exploration fosters learning and emotional regulation.
Society must recognize the significance of artistic subjects, as they play a crucial role in culture, entertainment, and overall well-being Contrary to the belief that arts and music do not contribute to society, the pandemic highlighted their vital impact on mental health and happiness As jobs in these fields become increasingly essential, students should be encouraged to engage with the arts, understand their importance, and explore them as a means of self-discovery.
In conclusion, schools must prioritize the needs, interests, and well-being of students by offering a diverse curriculum that promotes balance and enhances overall mental health Recognizing the significance of artistic subjects is crucial, as they play a vital role in supporting students' mental well-being Ultimately, education should equip students with the tools to explore and appreciate a wide range of disciplines, fulfilling its true purpose.
You should spend about 40 minutes on this task
Write an argumentative essay about the following topic:
Education plays a crucial role in equipping children for success in the modern world While some argue that schools should prioritize core subjects like information technology over arts and music, it's essential to recognize the value of a well-rounded curriculum Balancing practical skills with creative subjects fosters critical thinking and innovation, preparing students for diverse challenges Therefore, rather than eliminating art and music, integrating them into the educational framework can enhance overall learning and development.
Some people believe that the role of education is to serve as a life laboratory
A laboratory is not only a place for students to learn essential skills for their future careers but also a vital space for socialization, reflection, and self-expression Therefore, I strongly oppose the notion of schools eliminating art and music from the curriculum in favor of solely focusing on work-related subjects.
Increasing the number of hours dedicated to teaching technical subjects solely for economic reasons can lead to student frustration While I support education in new technologies, it becomes problematic when the focus is solely on preparing highly competent workers In today's competitive world, this emphasis may intensify feelings of inadequacy and frustration among individuals who struggle to acquire the necessary knowledge.
Focusing solely on specific skills or subjects due to their economic potential can result in a limited understanding of the world By prioritizing certain disciplines while neglecting others with less monetary promise, students gain fragmented knowledge with significant boundaries This trend, largely influenced by positivist ideas, is unlikely to change unless schools adopt interdisciplinary approaches in their curricula, even if these do not perfectly align with industry demands.
In conclusion, schools should avoid eliminating subjects from the curriculum in favor of industry or business-related classes, as this could contribute to mental health challenges among students already facing intense competition Additionally, prioritizing utilitarian education undermines the importance of subjects like art and music, which are essential for a well-rounded education.
Multimodal feedback survey
• My first argumentative essay had many problems that I overlooked, but screentcast feedback was specially effective in helping me to be aware of these problems First,
The teacher effectively utilized visual elements, such as color coding, to pinpoint and categorize mistakes in my work Additionally, the repeated oral feedback provided by the teacher was instrumental in enhancing my understanding, allowing me to grasp concepts I initially missed This approach significantly contributed to the improvement of my second argumentative essay.
• I listened carefully to every advice the teacher gave me to improve my writing
For example I tend to use "we" or some informal words and thanks to the teacher
Screencast feedback is highly beneficial, as it provides clearer guidance than written instructions, allowing for a more effective understanding of what needs to be done.
• The experience was very organic, even though it was through a screen
The professional provided well-prepared information, differing from a spontaneous meeting or call I created a list of "DOs and DON'Ts" to guide my actions during the tasks, along with the supporting materials he provided.
The screencast feedback significantly improved the structure of my essay, despite some remaining content errors Visualizing my work in the video proved beneficial for my other essays as well Additionally, the inclusion of recommendations and links to other informative pages within the video enhanced my understanding and provided valuable resources.
• Actually, I went back to it in the processing of every next task that I was assigned
Reflecting on my mistakes has been instrumental in enhancing my learning process By keeping these errors at the forefront of my mind, I aim to avoid repeating them in the future This approach allows me to remember the necessary structure and incorporate essential elements into my learning journey.
• I used the screencast feedback as a guidance I watched it twice The first time was to pay attention to general ideas and notice how was my performance on average
The second time was to pay attention to details and take into consideration my points of improvements.
Before starting my next essays, I reviewed the screencast feedback multiple times to identify my writing weaknesses While composing the essays, I continually referenced the feedback to ensure I was on the right track and to implement the teacher's advice effectively.
Watching screencast feedback helped me identify my writing mistakes I took notes on my errors and then turned to YouTube for tips on improving my writing, focusing on structure and vocabulary After reviewing the screencast again to ensure I hadn’t missed anything, I began writing with the instructional video open, making necessary corrections along the way.
• I wrote down my mistakes and tried not to make them again.
While writing my essay, I repeatedly watched the video recording to receive real-time feedback, which proved to be more insightful than written comments The clarity provided by my teacher's explanations enhanced my understanding throughout the writing process.
• I've been able to rewatch the screencast feedback from previous essays focusing on what could have been improved as well as what was right.
Utilizing feedback significantly enhanced my essay organization and structure in subsequent writings By identifying previous weaknesses, I was able to refine the development of key components, including the introduction, body, and conclusion Additionally, the feedback guided me in improving my vocabulary and the use of specific terminology throughout my essays.
• I tried to include as much as I could but what i tried the most was the supporting ideas, at least two examples for each idea that has to be developed
Taking notes on the screencast feedback significantly enhanced my essay writing by helping me improve both the structure and grammatical accuracy of my work I focused on the specific details highlighted in the feedback, incorporating my teacher's comments and suggestions to address and overcome these issues in future essays.
• I considered the cmments of my teacher and in other piece of writing I tried not to make the same mistakes.
• It made me realized common mistakes that i Made on My writting and since the feedback is more personalized i was able to correct them.
I focused on the identified mistakes in my writing to avoid repeating them in the future, while also reviewing the provided materials to incorporate their concepts into my upcoming projects.
• I watched the video twice or more and I took notes, then I would study and write according to the notes and the screencast feedback.
The initial feedback I received emphasized the importance of essay structure While reviewing the screencast feedback, I took notes to aid my memory Subsequently, I applied the recommended essay structure to my subsequent writings.
I watched the video multiple times to thoroughly understand the necessary improvements for my writing Each time I needed to verify that my work adhered to the required structure, I revisited the video to ensure I avoided repeating past mistakes.
• I checked and took notes on the organization of the essay and what each of the parts of the essay had to contain.
• I notice my mistakes and I was able how to solve them, in case I forgot something, the screen cast was able to be seen again.
• I made notes using the feedback to internalise the correct structure and keep the tips and my essays as references for future work.
• It helped me to understand what I did wrong and how to corrected Many times wrtten feedback is confusing, however, this opportunity give me a better notion of my mistakes.