Racism undermines self-worth, making it difficult to feel adequate despite achievements It is essential to challenge and dismantle feelings of inferiority by affirming one's identity and value The goal is to demonstrate that all individuals are fundamentally human, and that the significance lies in the quality of work rather than skin color.
Alvin Ailey, a pivotal choreographer of the 1960s and 1970s during the civil rights movement, significantly shaped modern and African American dance His enduring influence is evident in the works of contemporary choreographers both in the United States and internationally Growing up in segregated Texas in the 1930s and later moving to Los Angeles in the 1940s, Ailey cultivated a deep interest in his African heritage, which informed his innovative choreography.
Alvin Ailey significantly influenced American culture through his contributions to modern dance, inspired by African American heritage and social issues of the 1960s After honing his skills under Lester Horton and collaborating with pioneers like Martha Graham, Ailey founded the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater (AAADT) in 1958, aiming to unite black and white dancers in a shared artistic vision He believed in the importance of art for art's sake, emphasizing that race and color should not dictate artistic collaboration Ailey's work served as a form of protest against racial inequality, reflecting the evolving social dynamics of America during his time, and promoting a vision of equality through dance.
Alvin Ailey rose to prominence during a pivotal era when ethnicity gained increasing importance in the United States, a nation recognized for its fundamental ethnic diversity From around 1954 to 1992, the country witnessed a significant struggle for racial equality and justice Throughout this period, African Americans consistently resisted the inequalities they faced, engaging in both organized and unorganized efforts to advocate for their rights.
3) Through the years, black protest was presented in different forms and with different amounts of force.
In the 1960s, Stokely Carmichael popularized the slogan "Black Power," which resonated with a diverse range of civil rights advocates, including integrationists, segregationists, and both violent and nonviolent proponents This powerful term emerged from the deep-seated anger within the African American community, reflecting a collective demand for empowerment and social justice.
The American community's social and political landscape was marked by significant segregation, leading to the emergence of Black Power as a pivotal form of protest for African Americans This movement aimed to instill pride in black identity and emphasized the importance of self-determination In the 1960s, the ideals of Black Power began to intertwine with the Black Arts Movement, as both sought to achieve similar goals through artistic expression The arts emerged as a powerful and visible means of protest, complementing the more overt demonstrations of the time This connection to cultural movements like the Harlem Renaissance underscored the role of art in advocating for African American rights and identity.
20 th century In the 1960s and 1970s, the Black Arts Movement evolved from this.
The Black Arts Movement aimed to address the cultural and spiritual needs of the African American community, marking a shift towards focusing on their own experiences rather than appealing to a white audience This movement was closely tied to African American nationalism and Black Power, with figures like Larry Neal advocating for the radical reformation of Western cultural art African American artists sought to combat negative stereotypes in mainstream America while celebrating their unique heritage, encouraging pride in African roots rather than striving for assimilation Some artists called for a complete rejection of white culture and art, promoting a vision of “de-Americanization” as articulated by Addison Gayle, while others favored a blend of both black and white influences in the arts, supporting the idea of cultural assimilation.
410) These artists thought artists should be judged for the quality of their work only and that people should look beyond race in art.
African American Dance as Black Protest
Dance emerged as a vital form of African American art during the Black Arts Movement, intricately linked to the civil rights and Black Power movements This connection fostered a response from dance artists, choreographers, and critics, who actively protested against racial discrimination through their work.
After World War II, public sentiment shifted against the use of blackface in modern dance, leading to increased criticism of its performers The introduction of integrated seating in theaters made dance more accessible to a diverse audience, transcending class and racial barriers (Manning xvi) In response, African American dancers sought to challenge racial stereotypes through their performances, drawing on their experiences with segregation to convey a powerful social and universal message in their choreography (Perpener 179).
Dancers emphasized showcasing their African heritage on stage to preserve their cultural roots, enhancing the social significance of dance Foulkes notes that African American dancers sought a more inclusive understanding of art and culture, aiming for public and critical recognition that transcended traditional definitions.
The terms "high" and "low" often reflect racial biases, which suggests that a more inclusive definition could expand the traditionally narrow classifications of race, gender, sexuality, and class in dance and other artistic expressions.
The Black Arts Movement significantly increased the visibility of African Americans in modern dance during the 1960s and 1970s, a period when this dance style gained popularity and embraced African American performers This era sparked academic discussions regarding the extent to which modern dance is characterized as distinctly African American, with scholars asserting that modern dance embodies elements of African American cultural expression.
African American modern dance is often viewed as a subgenre of mainstream modern dance, blending elements of Euro-American and African American cultures According to Susan Manning, this dance form highlights the significant contributions of African Americans, who also made their mark in other styles like ballet A notable example is Arthur Mitchell, the first Black ballet dancer with the New York City Ballet, who established a successful African American classical ballet school in Harlem Nevertheless, it was in modern dance that African Americans gained the most visibility and recognition during this period.
African American dance emerged as a vital art form that expressed black protest during the Black Arts Movement Over time, it gained widespread acceptance among diverse audiences, transcending racial and cultural barriers, and ultimately influencing mainstream dance styles.
This thesis explores the definition and evolution of African American dance, detailing its roots and distinctive styles in the first chapter It also examines the integration of African Americans into mainstream dance forms like ballet and modern dance The second chapter connects African American dance to the Black Arts Movement, highlighting developments in the 1960s and 1970s, key choreographers, and dance companies, while analyzing the presence of protest themes in their work The final chapter assesses the reactions to African American dance during this period, including critiques from mainstream America and the African American community, as well as responses from other dancers and companies It also investigates the extent to which African American dance influenced mainstream styles The thesis concludes by summarizing the impact of African American dance and suggesting avenues for future research.
WHAT IS AFRICAN AMERICAN DANCE? 11
Black people should have recognition for themselves and their backgrounds and their relationships with other people in the world and thus lose some of their alienation.
- Katherine Dunham, forerunner of African American modern dance
Dance is a powerful art form that evokes a wide range of emotions, from laughter to tears It stimulates thought and reflection, embodying the true essence of artistic expression.
- Donald McKayle, African American choreographer
This chapter explores the concept and history of African American dance, highlighting its African roots and its evolution in America It examines the significance of African American dance, detailing how it transformed into distinct styles influenced by traditional African dance Additionally, the chapter discusses key African American dance styles and their pioneers, providing insight into the cultural impact and development of this vibrant art form.
American dance Furthermore, this chapter will touch upon the African American participation in mainstream dance, such as ballet and modern dance
The African American dance tradition has its roots in the seventeenth century, emerging as enslaved Africans arrived in America To cope with the harsh realities of slavery, these individuals sought to express themselves through various art forms, which served as a vital connection to their African heritage Music, song, and dance played significant roles in this cultural expression, allowing enslaved people to reclaim a sense of power and control in their lives This rich tradition included the transmission of folk tales, poetry, sculpting, and music, all of which contributed to the vibrant tapestry of African American culture.
African American dance evolved from the rhythm of percussion instruments, particularly drums, but due to restrictions on instrument use among slaves in America, they creatively adapted by using their bodies to create rhythm (Emery 2) Unlike in Europe, where dance and music were often viewed separately, African Americans integrated the two, employing various dances and rhythms for occasions like weddings and holidays (Malone 10) Additionally, dance played a significant role in voodoo rituals for those who practiced the faith Although initially prohibited by many slave owners, dancing eventually became encouraged, as those who could dance were perceived as healthier and more valuable for labor and entertainment on plantations.
In the nineteenth century, African
American dance gained popularity as white performers adopted African American dance styles in blackface minstrel shows, leading to the establishment of segregated minstrel circuits for black and white performers In these black minstrel circuits, only African American artists showcased their talents, highlighting the cultural significance and influence of their dance styles.
During the era of minstrel shows, African Americans primarily performed for their own communities, while white performers dominated the white minstrel circuits, often portraying African Americans in blackface The financial disparities between these circuits were significant, with white minstrel shows generating much higher revenues, leaving African American performers in the black minstrel circuit with minimal earnings Despite these challenges, black minstrel and vaudeville circuits offered African Americans vital opportunities to showcase their talents and dance to the public According to Brenda Gottschild, the survival and evolution of African American dance during this time were largely supported by the African American community.
After the Civil War, African American dance transitioned into theaters, as the church had previously prohibited dance among African Americans This led to the establishment of segregated dance halls where they could freely express themselves through movement.
After World War I, many African Americans relocated from the South to the North, seeking better opportunities, particularly in Harlem, New York In the early 20th century, they showcased their dances in local theaters, which played a crucial role in the cultural landscape By the early 1920s, numerous little theaters emerged in Harlem, relying on community support for their survival These venues became essential for providing valuable training opportunities for African American dancers, fostering artistic growth and expression.
The civil rights activist W.E.B Du Bois was of the opinion that these little theaters presented African American theater as it was meant to be According to him, African
American dance had to be “about us, […] by us, […] for us and […] near us” (Perpener
In the early 20th century, African Americans were often portrayed in mainstream theaters through three primary stereotypes: the comic, the dandy, and the exotic primitive, particularly in black vaudeville and nightclub performances Both black and white performers in blackface perpetuated these images during the 1920s and 1930s However, growing criticism from the black community led to a rejection of these stereotypes, prompting African American dancers to seek a new identity This shift coincided with a surge in black pride expressed through various art forms, culminating in the vibrant cultural movement known as the Harlem Renaissance.
During the Harlem Renaissance, dance was often undervalued compared to literature and other art forms, as many artists and audiences initially held a low regard for it Participants in the movement largely rejected minstrel shows aimed at white audiences, condemning the stereotypes perpetuated on stage Over time, however, perceptions of dance evolved, leading to a greater appreciation for its artistic significance within the cultural landscape of the Harlem Renaissance.
Broadway musicals and African American concert dance have elevated the visibility and acclaim of African American dancers, allowing them to emerge as influential role models within their community.
Typical African American Dance Styles
African American dance styles began in the seventeenth century, originating from enslaved individuals who created unique movements under restrictive conditions Initially, dancing was often prohibited, leading to the development of the shuffle, characterized by minimal foot movement and upper body motion Enslaved people also brought traditional dances from their homelands, such as the cakewalk—a couple's dance named after the cake prizes awarded during contests held by white plantation owners By the late 1700s, white communities began to adopt and imitate these African American dance forms, which influenced new variations of the waltz This cultural exchange led to a fusion of African rhythms and movements with European dances, including the English Square Dance.
In New Orleans, African American dancers adapted French and Spanish influences into their dance styles due to restrictions on dancing, which were only permitted on Sundays during festivals for a white audience This adaptation led to the creation of unique dances like the Congo Square Dance and the Bamboula By blending European dance techniques with African movements, these dancers developed distinctive styles that reflected their cultural heritage.
After the Civil War, segregated dance halls in the South showcased new African American dances like the Black Bottom, Charleston, and Big Apple As African Americans migrated North, vibrant dance styles such as the Lindy Hop and Jitterbug emerged in Harlem nightclubs, blending traditional and contemporary influences Lynne Emery highlights the significance of the Charleston and the early black musicals in this cultural evolution.
Shuffle Along and Running Wild marked the beginning of the Harlem Renaissance, the
“literary awakening of the African American” (223) Both musical comedies led to many reactions from different perspectives and people
Shuffle Along captivated both white and black audiences by showcasing the artistic talents of African Americans Langston Hughes, a prominent figure of the Harlem Renaissance, described it as “a honey of a show,” highlighting its swift, bright, and humorous nature, along with its memorable danceable and singable tunes.
(Emery 223) Claude McKay, also an important literary writer of the Harlem
BLACK PROTEST IN DANCE 27
Dance transcends cultural boundaries, emphasizing universal elements that unite us as artists While we may draw inspiration from African, Caribbean, or Latin American cultures, the essence of dance lies in the execution of movement—whether it's a jump or a turn Ultimately, our identity as black artists should not overshadow our artistry; respect must be granted based on our skills and creativity first and foremost.
- Arthur Mitchell, founder of the Dance Theatre of Harlem
This chapter explores the evolution of African American dance during the Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s, particularly in the context of black protest It will examine the structure and organization of theater and dance during this transformative period, tracing its roots back to the Harlem Renaissance Additionally, it will highlight the key differences between African American dance prior to this era and its development during the 1960s and 1970s, focusing on influential choreographers and their dance companies that played a pivotal role in shaping the art form.
This chapter explores the themes and subjects present in African American choreography during this period, focusing on the visibility of black protest within the dance It examines how African American dance served as a medium for expressing resistance and social commentary, highlighting the ways in which these performances reflected the struggles and aspirations of the community.
Development of Black Protest in Dance
In the 1930s, African Americans began to protest against prevalent stereotypes, giving rise to a cultural movement known as the Harlem Renaissance This era was marked by a surge of Black pride among artists across various disciplines, including painting, literature, and music, who sought innovative ways to express their identity As noted by Perpener, the Harlem Renaissance emerged during a time when American society was attempting to break free from the constraints of post-Victorian morality and embrace the freedoms of the modern world African American artists aimed to find their place within contemporary society through their creative expressions.
During a time when American society was simultaneously rejecting African Americans, their art vividly reflected this paradox through various forms, including painting, music, dance, and literature African American artists grappled with the desire to belong in America while striving to preserve their rich African heritage This artistic expression sought to explore the complexities of identity and belonging within the broader American culture.
Dancers of the Harlem Renaissance challenged stereotypes and injustices while proudly expressing their black identity on stage Unlike poetry and literature, their art was often undervalued by intellectuals and upper-class African Americans, who believed it reinforced negative stereotypes However, performers of popular art forms like minstrelsy and vaudeville resonated more deeply with the broader African American community, many of whom lacked the education and privileges of their more elite counterparts These artists provided a more authentic representation of the African American experience during the Harlem Renaissance.
In black vaudeville, minstrel shows, night clubs, and cabaret performances, dance served as a vital source of distraction and hope for lower-class African Americans (Perpener 17) Despite facing disdain from intellectuals, dancers in vaudeville believed they played a crucial role in uplifting the "real" African American community This sentiment extended to black concert dance and Broadway musicals, where the significance of their contributions was deeply felt.
American artists during the Harlem Renaissance earned greater respect from intellectuals due to their display of black pride on stage, distinguishing themselves from the stereotypes often found in vaudeville and minstrelsy.
John Perpener highlights that African American concert dancers during the Harlem Renaissance served as a "symbol of the times," embodying the themes found in the era's poetry, literature, and visual arts These dancers illustrated the deep connection between American and African cultures Katherine Dunham contended that they aimed to establish a more "dignified art," challenging the views of more intellectual artists of the period She asserted that dancers shared the same artistic aspirations as their literary counterparts, striving to dismantle existing stereotypes and present themselves as "serious artists."
Emerging from the Harlem Renaissance, the Black Arts Movement of the 1960s shared significant similarities with its predecessor, as both sought to innovate artistic expression and celebrate African heritage Artists from both movements utilized their work to confront social and political injustices faced by African Americans, challenging contemporary American societal norms Notably, some performers aimed to bridge the gap between "popular" and "high" art, advocating for a broader understanding of artistic value Scholar Larry Neal described this vibrant movement as a “cultural revolution,” essential for the African American community to find meaning and identity in their lives.
The Harlem Renaissance and the Black Arts Movement differ significantly in their motivations and societal context While artists of the 1920s and 1930s focused on cultural expression, those from the 1960s and 1970s were driven by a strong desire for equal rights and the dismantling of stereotypes This shift reflects the broader civil rights movement, as noted by James Smethurst, highlighting the evolving struggles of African Americans in their pursuit of justice and representation.
The Renaissance and the Black Arts Movement diverged significantly, particularly in their political implications, as art had never before been so intricately connected to political priorities Furthermore, the Black Arts Movement uniquely emphasized the necessity of African American self-determination through artistic expression This connection was largely due to the simultaneous emergence of the Black Arts Movement alongside the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Power movement.
The Black Arts Movement emerged as a powerful response to the systemic mistreatment of African Americans, advocating for equal rights and challenging societal prejudices Artists actively participated in this movement, exemplified by the establishment of the Committee for the Negro in the Arts, which aimed to address issues of desegregation and combat racism in the performing arts While the Harlem Renaissance focused on questions of identity and belonging, the Black Arts Movement intensified this inquiry, with artists demanding not only equality but also a redefinition of the Western aesthetic to include the richness of African American culture According to Larry Neal, this movement sought to elevate African American artistic expression to a position of significance within the broader cultural landscape.
Renaissance was a failure, since it failed to link art to the broader cause of equal rights and other struggles (290)
African American artists of the Black Arts Movement aimed to challenge mainstream American society and shape public perception, paralleling the goals of the Black Power Movement This era fostered a resurgence of African nationalism and black pride within the arts, highlighting the significance of African culture in the context of African American identity Nevertheless, the artists within the Black Arts Movement held differing opinions on various issues, reflecting a diversity of thought and approach.
Many artists aligned with the Black Power Movement, infusing their work with themes of African nationalism and black pride Conversely, some artists adopted a more integrationist perspective, advocating for equality between black and white individuals and supporting the nonviolent aims of the Civil Rights Movement.
African American dance emerged as a vital form of expression, initially helping slaves cope with their struggles by providing a sense of freedom and empowerment while preserving their African heritage Throughout history, this dance form has addressed social issues and challenged stereotypes, gaining prominence in theaters from the 1900s onward It evolved into a blend of African and European styles, closely linked to African American music genres like ragtime and jazz Iconic dance styles such as tap, the Charleston, and the Lindy Hop gained global recognition, despite the significant challenges posed by racism and the dominance of the white majority Overcoming these obstacles was essential for creating opportunities for African American dancers and ensuring the continued development of their art.
Chapter 2: Black Protest in Dance
Dance transcends cultural boundaries, emphasizing universal elements over specific identities While we may draw connections to African, Caribbean, or Latin American cultures, the essence of dance lies in the execution of movement—whether we perform a jump or a turn Ultimately, our identity as Black artists should not overshadow our artistry; we deserve recognition and respect for our craft above all else.
- Arthur Mitchell, founder of the Dance Theatre of Harlem
This chapter explores the evolution of African American dance during the Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s, highlighting its development in the context of black protest It will examine the structure and organization of theater and dance during this period, tracing its roots back to the Harlem Renaissance Additionally, the chapter will contrast the characteristics of African American dance before and after the 1960s and 1970s, while also recognizing key choreographers and their influential dance companies that played a crucial role in this transformative era.
This chapter explores the themes and subjects embedded in African American choreography during this period, highlighting the visibility of black protest within the dance It examines how African American dance served as a medium for expressing social and political dissent, reflecting the struggles and resilience of the community.
Development of Black Protest in Dance
In the 1930s, African Americans began to challenge stereotypes and embrace Black pride through various artistic expressions, including painting, literature, and music This cultural movement, known as the Harlem Renaissance, sought new avenues for self-expression As noted by Perpener, this era emerged during a time when American society was moving away from the constraints of post-Victorian morality and striving for the freedoms of the modern world African American artists aimed to find their place within contemporary culture.
During a time when American society was simultaneously rejecting African Americans, their art vividly expressed this paradox through various forms, including painting, music, dance, and literature Artists grappled with the dual desire to integrate into American culture while preserving their rich African heritage This struggle highlighted their quest for belonging within a society that often marginalized them.
Dancers of the Harlem Renaissance challenged stereotypes and showcased their black pride, despite facing criticism from intellectuals who favored poetry and literature over dance Upper-class African Americans believed these performers perpetuated negative stereotypes (Perpener 17) However, artists in popular forms like minstrelsy and vaudeville resonated more with the broader African American community, as they represented the experiences of those who lacked the education and privileges enjoyed by Harlem Renaissance intellectuals (Perpener 13).
In black vaudeville, minstrel shows, night clubs, and cabaret performances, dance served as a vital source of distraction and hope for lower-class African Americans Despite the disdain from intellectuals towards African American dancers, those involved in vaudeville believed they were fulfilling an essential role in uplifting their communities This dynamic was also evident in black concert dance and Broadway musicals, where the contributions of African American performers played a significant part in cultural expression and representation.
During the Harlem Renaissance, American artists earned greater respect from intellectuals for their display of black pride on stage, distinguishing themselves from the stereotypes often found in vaudeville and minstrelsy.
John Perpener highlights that African American concert dancers during the Harlem Renaissance served as “a symbol of the times,” embodying the themes present in the era's poetry, literature, and visual arts (17) These dancers illustrated the connection between American and African cultures (Perpener 17) Katherine Dunham emphasized that they aimed to establish a more “dignified art” (Perpener 18), challenging the views of more intellectual artists of the movement Dunham asserted that dancers shared the same objectives as these intellectuals, striving to dismantle existing stereotypes and present themselves as “serious artists” (Perpener 18).
Emerging from the Harlem Renaissance, the Black Arts Movement of the 1960s shared significant similarities with its predecessor, as both sought to forge new artistic expressions rooted in African heritage Artists from both movements utilized their work to confront social and political injustices faced by African Americans, challenging the prevailing standards of contemporary American society Notably, some African American dancers aimed to bridge the gap between "popular" and "high" art, striving to reshape public perception Scholar Larry Neal described this 1960s movement as a "cultural revolution," essential for the African American community to find meaning and purpose in their lives.
The Harlem Renaissance and the Black Arts Movement differ significantly in their motivations and contexts While artists of the 1920s and 1930s focused on cultural expression, those of the 1960s and 1970s were driven by a heightened demand for equal rights and an urgent need to combat stereotypes faced by African Americans across the United States According to James Smethurst, this shift in focus highlights the evolving nature of African American artistic movements in response to societal challenges.
The Renaissance marked a significant departure from the Black Arts Movement, as it uniquely intertwined art with political priorities Unlike previous eras, this period saw artistic expression deeply connected to the pursuit of African American self-determination The emergence of the Black Arts Movement alongside the Civil Rights Movement and Black Power further emphasized this crucial link between art and activism.
The Black Arts Movement emerged as a powerful protest against the systemic mistreatment of African Americans, advocating for equal rights and social justice Artists actively engaged in this movement, exemplified by the formation of the Committee for the Negro in the Arts, which aimed to address issues of desegregation and combat racism within the performing arts (Dunning 88) While the Harlem Renaissance questioned African Americans' place in society, the Black Arts Movement intensified this inquiry by demanding not only equality but also a redefinition of Western aesthetics to elevate African American culture Larry Neal emphasized the importance of this cultural shift, highlighting the movement's commitment to establishing a new artistic framework that recognized and celebrated Black identity and contributions.
Renaissance was a failure, since it failed to link art to the broader cause of equal rights and other struggles (290)
The Black Arts Movement, driven by African American artists, aimed to challenge mainstream American society and shape public perception, paralleling the efforts of the Black Power Movement This artistic movement emphasized African nationalism and black pride, highlighting the significance of African culture within African American identity Despite this shared vision, the artists of the Black Arts Movement held differing opinions on various aspects of their artistic expression and cultural representation.