Introduction
Attaining a bachelor's degree significantly enhances overall well-being by leading to higher income, better health behaviors, reduced dependence on public assistance, and greater political engagement (Baum, Ma, and Payea, 2013) It also facilitates a smoother transition into the workforce, as individuals with a degree possess the specific skills and personal attributes that employers value (Haaga, 2004) Moreover, education fosters economic and social mobility, particularly for disadvantaged students, enabling them to improve their earnings and social standing Data from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2012) reveals that 67% of high school graduates were employed in 2010, compared to 85% of bachelor's degree holders As Amarasinghe notes, education is a crucial determinant of human capital, yielding not only economic returns but also enhanced employment rates, earnings, health, well-being, and parenting skills.
West Virginia is part of a region that has not historically valued higher education
In the early 19th century, secondary private academies primarily served the privileged elite, leaving rural Appalachian communities facing significant barriers to higher education Access was limited, costs were prohibitive, and education was often undervalued, with educational attainment beyond the eighth grade viewed as exceptional rather than standard until around World War II.
Until the early twentieth century, families and churches were the main educational institutions, with rural school attendance rising only later (Shaw, DeYoung, & Rademacher, 2005) As a result, few residents of West Virginia pursued higher education, and many who earned college degrees sought job opportunities in nearby states like Pennsylvania and Ohio, which boasted stronger and more diversified economies.
The slow advancement of higher education in West Virginia has led to significant long-term economic challenges As the late 20th century saw a shift towards cleaner, high-tech industries in national and global markets, the need for a more educated workforce became evident To remain competitive and improve its political and economic status, West Virginia must boost its graduation rates, with projections indicating that by 2018, half of the state's workforce will need a postsecondary degree.
President Obama's 2020 College Completion Goal highlights the critical role of higher education, aiming for an additional 10 million graduates from community colleges and universities by 2020, alongside initiatives to ensure that every American has the opportunity to complete at least one year of higher education or advanced training in their lifetime.
President Obama emphasized the importance of job creation, highlighting that by 2016, nearly 40% of new jobs would necessitate advanced education or training, as stated in his 2009 speech to the Hispanic Chamber of Commerce on Education.
Beyond the realm of job creation, Obama focused upon the relationship between informed and educated Americans and their ability to help solve persistent problems this nation faces West
Virginia will inevitably improve its own economic condition by striving to adhere to Obama’s Completion Goal by placing more emphasis on influencing residents to pursue postsecondary education
Educational attainment, as defined by the NCES, indicates the highest level of education achieved, ranging from less than high school to a bachelor's degree or higher To earn a bachelor's degree, students must first obtain a high school diploma or its equivalent The United States Census Bureau tracks the percentage of individuals aged 25 and older who are high school graduates or have attained higher education at both county and state levels Notably, there is a strong correlation between high school attainment and the percentage of individuals aged 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or higher Currently, West Virginia holds the lowest percentage of residents with four-year degrees in the nation, at just 17.9%.
This study examines bachelor’s degree attainment rates across two geographic levels: the 50 states and 55 counties in West Virginia It analyzes how various independent factors, including dropout rates, poverty levels, parental educational backgrounds, and the low socio-economic status (SES) of high schools, influence the rates of bachelor’s degree completion.
West Virginia faces significant challenges with low four-year degree attainment, largely due to high dropout rates among residents aged 16 to 24, who are not enrolled in school and lack a high school credential Retention rates, which indicate the percentage of first-time college freshmen who return for their second year, further highlight the issue The economic consequences of dropping out are profound; college graduates earn substantially more, with dropouts making only sixty-seven cents for every dollar earned by graduates This not only affects individual earnings but also results in lost tax revenue for the state In 2010, approximately 7% of 16 to 24-year-olds nationwide were similarly disengaged from education, underscoring a broader trend that impacts both personal and state economic health.
This thesis examines three key factors contributing to West Virginia's low percentage of residents with four-year degrees, drawing on national trend data from the NCES One significant determinant is the local, county, and state poverty rates, which influence students' pursuit and attainment of higher education By analyzing household income and the number of residents per household against the Census Bureau's poverty threshold, the impact of poverty on academic performance and educational persistence becomes evident Additionally, research indicates that higher obesity levels, which are often linked to poverty, correlate negatively with the percentage of the population holding college degrees.
Parental or guardian educational attainment significantly influences children's foundational learning abilities long before they graduate from postsecondary institutions Research indicates that college-educated mothers are more likely to spend quality time with their children, enhancing their cognitive skills (Baum, Ma, & Payea, 2013) Additionally, the involvement of highly educated mothers in early childhood education programs correlates positively with the frequency of daily reading to their children by family members Conversely, fewer children from families below the poverty line experience regular reading sessions.
In West Virginia, a significant number of first-generation college students face challenges in completing their education, primarily due to their parents' lack of higher education Research indicates that these students experience higher dropout rates compared to their peers with more educationally experienced families.
Low socio-economic status (SES) refers to high schools situated in high poverty areas, serving a predominantly low-income student population These low SES schools significantly affect educational attainment, college enrollment, and postsecondary success Often lacking advanced coursework opportunities for college credit and insufficient access to guidance counselors, these schools hinder students' academic progress Research indicates that increased interaction with guidance counselors enhances high school graduation rates, college aspirations, and financial aid awareness (NCES, 2012) A school's SES is typically assessed by the percentage of students eligible for the National School Lunch Program's free or reduced-price lunch (FRPL) (NCES, 2012).
West Virginia's low percentage of residents with a four-year college degree is significant for several reasons As the global market expands and becomes more interconnected, individuals lacking formal education and skills are at a higher risk of unemployment, especially during economic downturns This highlights the importance of higher education in ensuring job security and adaptability in a changing economy.
2005) There is a direct correlation between a state’s level of post-secondary education and the health of that state’s economy
West Virginia faces significant challenges in attracting corporate investments, as neighboring states outperform it by leveraging a more skilled workforce The state is experiencing a continuous loss of skilled workers, which discourages both domestic and foreign companies from investing locally, ultimately hindering economic growth States with a higher percentage of college graduates tend to foster robust economies and attract Foreign Direct Investments (FDIs), which are crucial for financial stability and societal well-being Unfortunately, West Virginia's low rate of four-year college graduates diminishes its appeal as a destination for FDIs, limiting its economic prospects.
Review of the Literature
This thesis examines the attainment of higher education, focusing on four key areas: the Appalachia region, the Coal Mining Industry, factors influencing bachelor’s degree attainment, and postsecondary education West Virginia, the only state entirely within the Appalachian region as identified by the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC), exemplifies both the rich “mountain culture” and the challenges of poverty prevalent in Appalachia The state's deep ties to the coal mining industry have contributed to economic struggles, resulting in higher poverty rates and lower educational achievement Additionally, school-level socioeconomic status and parental education significantly affect bachelor’s degree attainment While various studies have highlighted the local and state economic advantages of postsecondary education, West Virginia must address the pressing issue of rural “brain drain,” where students leave for better job opportunities elsewhere.
Figure 2.1 Regional Map of Appalachia
Source: http://www.arc.gov/images/appregion/Appalachian_Region_Map.pdf_map1.jpg
The Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC) reports that 42% of the population in the region is rural, significantly higher than the national average of 20% The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) categorizes most counties in West Virginia as rural, with 26 rural counties, 8 micropolitan counties (with populations between 10,000 and 50,000), and 21 metropolitan counties (with populations over 50,000) Additionally, during the 2005-06 school year, 49% of public schools in West Virginia were rural, compared to just 19% nationwide.
In "Uneven Ground" (2008), Eller examines the Appalachian region's struggles from the 1940s to today, highlighting its lag in educational attainment, infrastructure, and economic development compared to the rest of the United States He identifies several factors contributing to West Virginia's limited economic growth, including a tradition of individualism and weak law enforcement in early company towns, the influence of outside industrial capital post-Civil War, the failure of subsistence farming, and the resulting widespread poverty These issues, combined with external political influences and a pervasive sense of helplessness, have perpetuated the region's challenges.
In West Virginia, 16 percent of adults aged 18 and older live in poverty, highlighting a significant socioeconomic challenge (Hess, Hegewisch, & Williams, 2013) Research indicates that poverty severely impacts educational attainment in the Appalachian region (Abramsky, 2013; Ziliak, 2012; Dorsey, 2011) The persistent nature of poverty in Central Appalachia creates a poverty trap, which is characterized by its resistance to self-correction and its reinforcement by local institutions and cultural factors (Ziliak, 2012).
Poverty remains a significant issue in the region, driven by inconsistent labor market conditions, insufficient economic diversification, and the concentration of wealth among major natural resource companies Additionally, low levels of public political engagement hinder efforts to address these challenges Research has also highlighted changing family dynamics in Appalachia, particularly the increasing prevalence of female-headed households, as a contributing factor to poverty (Lichter and Cimbulak, 2010).
Myers (2011) explores two prevalent theories regarding the roots of poverty in Appalachia: the culture of poverty and internal colonialism The culture of poverty theory adopts a "blame the victim" perspective, perpetuating negative stereotypes about Appalachian individuals Positive traits such as independence, self-reliance, and strong kinship ties are often misrepresented by the national media as signs of backwardness and laziness These damaging stereotypes can be internalized by Appalachian youth, potentially hindering their educational success (Chenoweth and Galliher, 2004) A study focusing on residents from the westernmost counties of North Carolina further investigates their self-identification in relation to these stereotypes.
Research indicates that lower-educated individuals may be more likely to distance themselves from the Appalachian region compared to their more educated counterparts (Cooper, Knotts, & Livingston, 2010) This trend may stem from the ability of educated individuals to challenge stereotypes and acknowledge the significant contributions of Appalachians to American history The prevailing view of Appalachian culture as traditional and fatalistic suggests that true improvement in the region's quality of life and economy requires a cultural shift Labeling Appalachians as submissive and resistant to change presents an inaccurate portrayal of the region and its inhabitants (Myers, 2011).
The internal colony theory claims Appalachia is disconnected from the national economy West Virginia is located within a sparsely populated peripheral region in comparison to
The peripheral region, such as Appalachia, is often exploited for its natural resources at minimal cost, functioning similarly to a colony that provides raw materials to benefit core markets (Burns, 2007) This exploitation leads to the marginalization of both the region's resources and its people, as national and corporate interests prioritize profit over local well-being (Scott, 2010).
Marginalization occurs when powerful entities, such as businesses and corporations, exploit economically disadvantaged groups, like Appalachian residents, for their land and labor The lasting impact of absentee ownership has led to a significant outflow of money from the region, hindering economic diversification Furthermore, corporate land ownership obstructs the entry of alternative industries, as noted by Bell and York (2010) However, this perspective overlooks the complexities of a capitalist market by concentrating solely on absentee ownership, as highlighted by Myers.
West Virginia's economy remains heavily reliant on the coal mining industry, which plays a crucial role by providing essential jobs and contributing approximately 11% ($7.2 billion) to the state's gross product Each ton of coal mined generates a 5% severance tax based on its gross value, with most of this revenue directed to the State Revenue Fund This funding supports public education, state infrastructure, and local government revenue-sharing, highlighting the state's complex relationship with its resource-dependent economy.
Many coal extraction jobs do not necessitate a four-year degree, with positions often occupied by out-of-state workers The decline of mining and manufacturing employment in Appalachia has resulted in increased reliance on government assistance and lower college attendance rates compared to national averages.
The decline in mining employment in West Virginia is closely linked to the state's decreasing labor force participation rate and population, particularly in the southern coalfields Between 1950 and 2000, only seven counties experienced population growth due to in-migration, primarily in service-oriented areas near Washington D.C The majority of the population loss, particularly during the coal bust of the 1950s, was most severe in southern counties like McDowell, Logan, and Kanawha, as well as in northern counties such as Ohio and Hancock.
In 1940, miner employment peaked at 130,457, but by 2012, the workforce had dwindled to 22,096, comprising 16,641 underground miners and 5,455 surface miners (MHS&T, 2014) Between 1971 and 2003, surface mining jobs surged while underground mining positions plummeted by approximately 24 percent (Dorsey, 2011) Additionally, O’Leary and Boettner (2011) reported that only about 4 percent of public service sector jobs in the natural resources and mining industry were available in 2011 This study aims to spatially analyze coal production and employment across counties to identify clusters with high coal industry employment and examine its negative impacts on poverty, dropout rates, high school graduation, and bachelor’s degree attainment.
The decline in coal mining jobs is attributed to various factors, including mechanization, dwindling coal seams, competition from Wyoming mines, the rise of the natural gas sector, and government regulations The industry also experiences significant fluctuations in employment due to boom and bust cycles, notably seen in the 1970s and 1980s with the impact of OPEC and gas prices However, the main contributor to the decrease in coal mining employment is mountain top removal (MTR) practices.
Mountaintop removal (MTR) mining, which involves removing the tops of mountains to access coal seams more easily, has gained popularity since the 1970s energy crisis due to its lower operating costs compared to traditional underground mining However, this method has led to reduced employment opportunities in the region, highlighting the "treadmill of production" model that prioritizes profit over ecological concerns and local job retention (Bell and York, 2010) Additionally, organizations like Friends of Coal actively promote a pro-coal ideology among youth through various marketing strategies, including flyers, billboards, and community events.
Methodology
Explanatory Variables
Between 2008 and 2012, the states with the lowest percentage of residents aged 25 and older holding a bachelor's degree or higher included West Virginia (17.9%), Arkansas (19.8%), Louisiana, Indiana (23%), Alabama (22.3%), Nevada (22.2%), Oklahoma (23.2%), and Tennessee (23.5%) Kentucky also reported a low attainment rate of 21%.
Mississippi (20%) and Louisiana (21.4%) continue to rank among the states with the lowest educational attainment and highest poverty levels Arkansas has now joined this group, reflecting a significant percentage of its population living below the poverty line Additionally, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and West Virginia are categorized within the second highest range of poverty percentages, ranging from 15.7% to 18.1%.
The states with the highest percentage of population with a bachelor’s degree were
Colorado (36.7%), Connecticut (36.2%), Maryland (36.3%), Massachusetts (39%), New
Hampshire (33.4%), New Jersey (35.4%), New York (32.8%), Rhode Island (30.8%), Vermont (34.2%), and Virginia (34.7%) exhibit varying poverty rates, with most states falling within the lowest range of 8.4-11.2% Colorado, Rhode Island, and Vermont are categorized in the second lowest range of 11.3-13.8%, while New York is positioned in the middle range of 13.9-15.6% A correlation analysis revealed a strong negative correlation (r = -0.72) between the percentage of the population with a bachelor's degree and poverty rates, indicating that as the percentage of bachelor's degree holders increases, poverty rates tend to decrease.
The GeoDa analysis using the univariate Moran’s I approach of bachelor’s degree attainment resulted in the most significant (0.01) states being Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi,
Analysis
Between 2008 and 2012, West Virginia had the lowest percentage of its population aged 25 or older with a bachelor's degree or higher at 17.9% Other states with low attainment rates included Arkansas (19.8%), Louisiana, Alabama (22.3%), Nevada (22.2%), Indiana (23%), Oklahoma (23.2%), and Tennessee (23.5%).
Mississippi (20%) and Louisiana (21.4%) continue to rank among the states with the lowest educational attainment and highest poverty levels Arkansas has now joined this group, reflecting a significant percentage of its population living below the poverty line Additionally, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and West Virginia are categorized in the second highest poverty range, with rates between 15.7% and 18.1%.
The states with the highest percentage of population with a bachelor’s degree were
Colorado (36.7%), Connecticut (36.2%), Maryland (36.3%), Massachusetts (39%), New
Hampshire (33.4%), New Jersey (35.4%), New York (32.8%), Rhode Island (30.8%), Vermont (34.2%), and Virginia (34.7%) are among the states with the lowest poverty rates, which range from 8.4% to 11.2% Meanwhile, Colorado, Rhode Island, and Vermont have slightly higher poverty rates, falling within the 11.3% to 13.8% range New York's poverty rate is in the middle range at 13.9% to 15.6% A correlation analysis reveals a significant negative relationship between the percentage of the population with bachelor's degrees and poverty rates, with a correlation coefficient of r = -0.72 This indicates that as the percentage of individuals holding bachelor's degrees increases, poverty rates tend to decrease, highlighting a strong inverse correlation.
The GeoDa analysis using the univariate Moran’s I approach of bachelor’s degree attainment resulted in the most significant (0.01) states being Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi,
Ohio, and Texas States with less than a 5 percent error (0.05) are Alabama, Illinois,
A univariate cluster analysis of bachelor’s degree attainment revealed that Massachusetts, New York, Rhode Island, and Vermont are high-high value states in the northeast, indicating high rates of degree completion surrounded by similar states Conversely, low-low value states, characterized by low bachelor’s degree attainment, include Arkansas, Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee, and Texas in the south Additionally, Illinois was identified as a high-low value state, highlighting a distinct educational attainment pattern.
Figure 4.1 Bachelor’s Degree Attainment Results in the United States
Figure 4.2 Univariate LISA Results for United States Bachelor’s Degree Attainment
Figure 4.3 Univariate LISA Results for United States Bachelor’s Degree Attainment
Poverty significantly affects educational attainment in this region, with a strong negative correlation between poverty and high school graduation rates (-0.78), followed by a notable correlation with bachelor’s degree attainment (-0.72) Interestingly, dropout rates do not exhibit a clear pattern, showing a weak correlation of -0.11 with bachelor’s attainment, yet they are generally lower in states where a higher percentage of the population holds a high school diploma.
The univariate analysis of individuals living below the poverty line revealed significant results in Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Texas, with a statistical significance of 0.01 States exhibiting a less than five percent error include Delaware, Georgia, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, and South Dakota The high-high cluster analysis identified a concentration of poverty in the southern states, while a low-low cluster was primarily located in the northeastern states of Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island, along with Delaware and South Dakota Additionally, Virginia was categorized as low-high, whereas New York fell into the high-low classification.
The GeoDa bivariate analysis revealed a significant cluster of high bachelor's degree attainment and low poverty rates in the Northeast, specifically in Connecticut, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Vermont, with Connecticut showing the strongest correlation (p = 0.01) Conversely, the South exhibited a cluster of low bachelor's degree attainment and high poverty rates, encompassing states such as Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and North Carolina.
Louisiana shows a notable significance in its educational and economic landscape, while Virginia stands out as the only state exhibiting high rates of both bachelor’s degree attainment and poverty In contrast, Ohio demonstrates lower rates in both categories, highlighting a different dynamic in educational achievement and economic challenges.
Figure 4.4 Univariate LISA Results for United States Persons Below Poverty Level
Figure 4.5 Univariate LISA Results for United States Persons Below Poverty Level
Figure 4.6 Bivariate LISA Results for United States Bachelor’s Degree Attainment and
Figure 4.7 Bivariate LISA Results for United States Bachelor’s Degree Attainment and Poverty
Between 2008 and 2012, states with the lowest percentages of high school degree holders aged 25 and older included Alabama (82.6%), California (81%), Kentucky (82.4%), Louisiana (82.2%), Mississippi (81%), and Texas (80.8%), all of which also had high poverty rates Kentucky, Mississippi, and Louisiana had poverty levels ranging from 18.2% to 22.3%, while Alabama's range was 15.7% to 18.1% Conversely, states with the highest high school graduation rates were Alaska (91.6%), Minnesota (91.9%), Montana (91.9%), New Hampshire (91.4%), Vermont (91.3%), and Wyoming (92.1%), all of which reported lower poverty rates, with Alaska, Minnesota, New Hampshire, and Wyoming falling between 8.4% and 11.2%, and Vermont between 11.3% and 13.8% A correlation analysis revealed a significant negative relationship between high school graduation rates and poverty rates (r = -0.78), indicating that higher educational attainment correlates with lower poverty levels.
High school graduation rates show a strong negative correlation with eligibility for free and reduced-price lunch (FRPL), with a correlation coefficient of r = -0.82 While West Virginia ranks lowest in bachelor’s degree attainment, other states exhibit even lower high school graduation rates This indicates that there is no consistent national trend linking high school completion rates to college degree attainment.
The states with the highest average dropout rates between the years 2006-2010 were Alaska (7.1%), Arizona (7.6%), Colorado (6.2%), Illinois (5.9%), and Louisiana (6.6%)
Louisiana has a significant percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch (FRPL), ranging from 58% to 68.4% In contrast, several other states maintain average FRPL eligibility rates Notably, Alabama, Idaho, Indiana, and New Hampshire report some of the lowest dropout rates, with percentages at 2%, 1.9%, 1.9%, and 2.3%, respectively.
New Jersey and New Hampshire have low Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) eligibility rates, ranging from 20% to 31.7%, while Alabama shows a significantly higher eligibility rate of 46.4% to 57.9% West Virginia exhibits a variable dropout rate that does not strongly correlate with other analyzed variables A correlation analysis reveals a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.36) between dropout rates and FRPL eligibility, indicating that as dropout rates increase, FRPL eligibility tends to rise as well, although the correlation is not strong.
This study aims to analyze the factors influencing bachelor's degree attainment, revealing significant correlations with high school attainment (r = 0.47), high school dropout rates (r = 0.11), and eligibility for free or reduced-price lunch (FRPL) (r = -0.63) The strongest correlation identified is between bachelor's attainment and FRPL eligibility, indicating that states with higher bachelor’s degree populations tend to have lower FRPL eligibility rates Conversely, there is almost no correlation between bachelor’s attainment and high school dropout rates Additionally, a medium effect is observed in the positive relationship between bachelor’s and high school attainment.
Figure 4.8 High School Degree Attainment Results in the United States
Figure 4.9 High School Dropout Rate Results in the United States
Figure 4.9 High School Dropout Rate Results in the United States
The analysis of retention rates among first-time college freshmen revealed significant disparities across states Alaska recorded the lowest retention rate at 63.3%, followed by Idaho (68.5%), Montana (68.4%), South Dakota (68.2%), and West Virginia (68.3%), with West Virginia having the lowest rate in the eastern United States In contrast, states with the highest retention rates included California (84%), Massachusetts (83.9%), New Jersey (82.1%), Connecticut (81.9%), and Rhode Island (81.6%) A correlation analysis indicated a medium effect size (r = 0.59) between retention rates and bachelor’s degree attainment, suggesting that as retention rates increase, so does the percentage of the population earning bachelor’s degrees It is important to note that retention rates were averaged from 2006 to 2010 due to data availability.
In the United States, there are distinct spatial clusters of regions with high populations of high school and bachelor's degree recipients, particularly evident in the Northeast, especially New England However, when examining the correlation between these factors nationwide, the relationship weakens, showing a correlation coefficient of 0.47 The Northeast also exhibits high college retention rates Conversely, the South and Southwest regions show lower levels of educational attainment, higher rates of Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) eligibility, and greater poverty levels Notably, there is a strong negative correlation of -0.63 between bachelor's degree attainment and FRPL eligibility in these areas.
Figure 4.10 First-Time College Retention Rates Results in the United States
Table 4.1 Definition of Endogenous and Exogenous Variables
HS High school graduate or higher, percent of persons age 25+ from 2008 to 2012 US
Census COL Bachelor's degree or higher, percent of persons age 25+ from 2008 to 2012 US
POV Persons below poverty level, percent, from 2008 to 2012 US
Discussion
A study examining the influences of poverty, parental education, and socio-economic status on bachelor’s degree attainment in West Virginia revealed two key divides: north-south and urban-rural The findings suggest that West Virginia is primarily classified as southern-rural, characterized by a significant number of low-population counties compared to metropolitan areas.
The analysis reveals a significant north-south divide in education and economic status at both state and county levels States north of the Mason-Dixon Line, particularly in the Upper Midwest, exhibit higher levels of secondary education and bachelor’s degrees, alongside lower poverty rates and reduced eligibility for free or reduced-price lunch (FRPL) Notably, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Vermont show a strong correlation between high bachelor’s degree attainment and low poverty levels, likely reflecting a cultural emphasis on higher education This lower poverty and FRPL eligibility may contribute to better-funded schools that provide advanced placement (AP) courses and effective college counseling In West Virginia, counties in the northern and eastern panhandles, with the exception of the Charleston-Huntington area, are economically linked to populous regions in Pennsylvania and Ohio, displaying education and poverty statistics that mirror their northern state counterparts.
Southern and southwestern states exhibit lower levels of secondary and bachelor’s degree attainment, coupled with higher poverty rates and increased eligibility for free and reduced-price lunch (FRPL) Additionally, these regions experience lower college retention rates GeoDa's bivariate analysis reveals a significant correlation between low bachelor’s degree attainment and high poverty levels in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana.
Mississippi The same can be said for counties in the southern and central regions of West
Virginia that border the less populated regions of Kentucky and southwest Virginia These regions do not have diversified economies but instead are focused on natural resource extraction
The urban-rural divide significantly impacts economic factors, with densely populated states outperforming their rural southern counterparts In West Virginia, counties with higher populations benefit from proximity to major cities like Pittsburgh and Washington D.C., resulting in increased job opportunities and higher median incomes This conducive environment fosters the growth and accessibility of postsecondary institutions.
Counties with close proximity to higher education institutions typically experience higher college enrollment rates among high school seniors and first-generation students In contrast, rural counties often face challenges such as limited population, inadequate infrastructure, lower median incomes, and fewer job opportunities that necessitate postsecondary education, leading to reduced college-going rates Notably, West Virginia has a significantly higher number of rural counties compared to metropolitan ones, according to the Census Bureau's statistical areas.
There is a significant correlation between counties with high percentages of high school graduates and those with a high percentage of bachelor's degree holders, indicated by a correlation coefficient of -0.71 This positive relationship highlights the clustering of educational attainment in metropolitan statistical areas, particularly in the northern panhandles, Morgantown, Parkersburg, and the Charleston-Huntington corridor In contrast, rural southern and central counties exhibit low levels of both high school and bachelor's degree attainment, often linked to employment in resource extraction industries that may undervalue education Additionally, this correlation underscores the influence of parental education levels on the educational achievements of subsequent generations.
The correlation between secondary and postsecondary education attainment varies significantly at the state level, with a correlation coefficient of 0.47 indicating a relatively weak relationship This suggests that some states exhibit low secondary education levels alongside higher postsecondary attainment, and vice versa For instance, North Dakota has a substantial population with secondary education but a lower percentage of individuals with postsecondary degrees Furthermore, the connection between bachelor's degree attainment and college retention is moderately strong, with a correlation of 0.59, revealing that states with lower retention rates often have fewer residents holding bachelor's degrees, as exemplified by West Virginia.
Poverty is significantly more widespread in the southern and central counties compared to the more affluent northern and eastern regions, including the Charleston-Huntington metro area There is a strong link between low educational attainment and higher poverty rates, with secondary education showing nearly identical correlation coefficients at both the state (-0.78) and county (-0.74) levels However, the relationship between postsecondary education and poverty is less pronounced at the county level, with a state correlation coefficient of -0.72, while the county level shows a weaker coefficient of -0.38 This indicates that county-level poverty has a less significant impact on the population with bachelor's degrees than it does at the state level.
Cabell and Monongalia counties stand out as exceptions to the typical correlation between education attainment and poverty levels in West Virginia The presence of West Virginia University in Monongalia County and Marshall University in Cabell County contributes to their significantly high educational attainment rates However, despite these high percentages of residents holding bachelor's degrees, both counties also exhibit a notable percentage of the population living below the poverty line, highlighting a unique disparity in the relationship between education and economic status.
County dropout rates exhibit significant variability and show weak correlation with students' eligibility for Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL), suggesting that school-level socio-economic status may not directly impact secondary graduation rates Between 2007 and 2011, the correlation coefficients for dropout rates and FRPL eligibility were 0.36 at the state level and 0.40 at the county level Conversely, the correlation between bachelor's degree attainment and dropout rates was nearly negligible, with coefficients of -0.11 at the state level and -0.09 at the county level This indicates that dropout rates may be influenced more by district and school-level policies rather than broader socio-economic factors Additionally, a noticeable north-south divide exists within the state, with northern regions generally experiencing lower dropout rates compared to southern areas, potentially due to the rural characteristics of southern counties and their diminished valuation of secondary education However, exceptions to this trend are found in metropolitan areas like the Charleston-Huntington corridor.
The study revealed a strong correlation between Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) eligibility and poverty levels, with a correlation coefficient of 0.89 at the state level Southern states, like West Virginia, exhibit higher poverty rates and a greater number of students eligible for FRPL, whereas New England states have fewer individuals below the poverty line and fewer schools catering to low-income students Consequently, FRPL eligibility serves as a key indicator of school-level poverty and reflects family median income levels, highlighting the broader issue of poverty within the population.
Research shows a strong negative correlation between Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) eligibility and high school graduation rates, with correlation coefficients of -0.82 at the state level and -0.87 at the county level This indicates that counties with higher secondary graduation rates tend to have lower FRPL eligibility, while those with more students eligible for FRPL often experience lower graduation rates The findings suggest that school-level poverty significantly influences graduation outcomes.
The eligibility for Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) significantly affects bachelor's degree attainment, with a strong negative correlation of -0.63 at the state level and -0.72 at the county level in West Virginia Counties with higher percentages of FRPL-eligible students show lower rates of bachelor's degree attainment among the population In contrast, the correlation between individuals living below the poverty line and bachelor's degree attainment is notably weaker at -0.38.
Counties with higher college-going rates exhibit a strong correlation with increased bachelor’s attainment, as evidenced by a correlation coefficient of r = 0.68 Metropolitan areas, in particular, show higher percentages of college-going populations, which positively impacts the local economy when students choose to remain after graduation This trend is especially pronounced in counties that host large postsecondary institutions, benefiting from both local students who stay and out-of-state students who find employment opportunities in the region.
Rural counties with high college-going rates often struggle to retain college graduates, as many students seek employment opportunities in larger job markets This trend is evident in West Virginia, which has notably low first-time college freshman retention rates compared to the Southern Appalachian region and neighboring states like Pennsylvania and Virginia Consequently, these counties experience lower levels of bachelor's degree attainment, as their graduates migrate to areas with better job prospects.
Conclusion
“How can West Virginia’s leaders create this new type of mining, one that extracts the talents and resources of its people?”
This study indicates that a multitude of factors within West Virginia and across the
Factors such as poverty rates, parental educational levels, and high school socio-economic status (SES) significantly influence an individual's ability to achieve higher education in the United States While this study highlights these key elements, it acknowledges that personal bias may affect the selection of factors for analysis, and the findings are not exhaustive Research indicates that these variables have a direct impact on educational attainment (NCES, 2012).
Analysis of correlation and spatial autocorrelation trends at both state and county levels highlights the interconnectedness of poverty rates, bachelor’s degree attainment, and FRPL eligibility Notably, poverty rates emerge as the most reliable indicator of bachelor’s degree attainment at the state level, while FRPL eligibility serves as a significant poverty indicator at the county level.
In West Virginia, poverty rates alone do not determine the percentage of the population with bachelor's degrees, as various interconnected factors influence educational attainment at the school, county, and state levels A significant negative correlation exists between eligibility for free and reduced-price lunch (FRPL) and high school graduation rates, while a strong positive correlation links high school attainment to college enrollment rates Counties that exhibit low FRPL eligibility, high high school graduation rates, and elevated college-going rates tend to have a larger percentage of residents with bachelor's degrees However, only a minority of West Virginia's 55 counties, specifically Berkeley and Jefferson in the eastern panhandle, meet these favorable educational criteria.
Rural counties experience significant disadvantages compared to wealthier metropolitan areas, primarily due to challenging topography that restricts land availability for housing, commercial development, and transportation infrastructure Approximately half of rural students reside in counties lacking institutions of higher education, which contributes to low population levels and limited tax revenue In West Virginia, the tax burden is notably high, with families earning less than $14,000 paying 9.7% of their income in state and local taxes, while those earning $298,000 or more pay only 6.5% This disparity is exacerbated by a lack of economic diversification and the historical dominance of a mono-industry economy, which restricts employment opportunities in rural regions.
Rural counties face significant challenges due to the decline of natural resource extraction jobs, exacerbated by increased mechanization and the volatility of coal production Dr James Ziliak highlights the economic instability in Central Appalachia, noting that incomes are often unpredictable, leading to uncertainty in long-term planning for families who struggle to meet daily needs This raises concerns about how these families can prioritize higher education amidst their immediate survival challenges LISA bivariate autocorrelation results reveal two notable clusters of counties in rural coal-producing areas, characterized by low bachelor’s degree attainment and high poverty rates In contrast, fewer counties with low poverty rates are found in the eastern panhandle region, benefiting from their proximity to the Washington D.C metro area.
This study challenges the belief that the highest coal production and employment of miners are concentrated in the rural southern regions of West Virginia Instead, it reveals a significant shift in coal production from traditional southern counties to northern areas Between 2008 and 2012, northern West Virginia saw an increase of 1,083 direct coal mining jobs, rising from 5,337 to 6,460, while the southern coalfields experienced only a modest increase of 86 jobs, from 15,550 to 15,626 (Boettner).
As coal seams in southern West Virginia face depletion and extraction costs rise, major electric producer Southern Company has announced plans to cease burning Central Appalachian coal by 2016.
2013) A faster rate of productivity loss has resulted in an uncompetitive market for Central Appalachian coal compared to coal produced in northern West Virginia
Not all metropolitan counties exhibit low poverty levels; for instance, Monongalia County and Cabell County, despite having a high percentage of bachelor's degree holders, rank within the second highest poverty range of 19.5-22.9% Notably, these counties are home to West Virginia University and Marshall University, the two largest four-year postsecondary institutions in the state.
Monongalia; Marshall University in Cabell, respectively) The reality is students either are unemployed or work low-wage, part-time jobs that result in lower per capita income levels In
2010, about 71% of college-going 16-24 year-olds were employed, about 19% of which worked over 35 hours per week and 31% worked 20-34 hours per week (NCES, 2012) After analyzing
According to Gumprecht (2008), in 305 designated college towns across the United States, nearly 25% of residents lived below the federal poverty line in 2000, which is double the national average and higher than economically challenged areas like Appalachia This suggests that the presence of large student populations significantly impacts poverty statistics However, it's important to recognize that these poverty figures can be misleading, as many students receive financial support from their families.
Dropout rates at the state and county levels show inconclusive correlations and exhibit more spatial variability than other analyzed variables Unlike Free and Reduced Price Lunch (FRPL) eligibility, which directly correlates with high school and bachelor's degree attainment, dropout rates do not align well with these educational outcomes Additionally, dropout rates show little correlation with poverty levels or FRPL eligibility This finding contrasts with national data from the Department of Education, which indicates that individuals aged 18 to 24 who dropped out of school faced a poverty rate of 30.8%, compared to just 13.5% for those with at least a bachelor's degree (NCES, 2011).
High graduation rates are often expected to correlate with low dropout rates; however, discrepancies in dropout statistics may arise from the methods used by the NCES to gather data through the Common Core of Data (CCD) State-level counts can be affected by overreporting or underreporting, which may result from changes in policies or shifts in population dynamics.
Dropout rates at the county level are influenced by the reporting practices of school districts, with six key factors contributing to data variation: the accounting period for calculating dropout rates, the duration for classifying an unexplained absence as a dropout, inaccuracies in data reporting, the grade levels included in dropout calculations, the age classification of dropouts, and the inclusion of students in alternative educational settings Additionally, there is debate over whether students with disabilities should impact dropout statistics The criteria for defining dropouts and the reporting methods vary across districts, counties, and states.
This study offers diverse opportunities for expansion across various disciplines, yet it overlooks the relationship between teen pregnancy and factors such as educational outcomes, poverty rates, parental education, and school socio-economic status Notably, single mothers faced a poverty rate of 44% in 2010 (NCES, 2012), highlighting the significant socio-economic challenges they encounter Research from the Institute for Women’s Policy Research further emphasizes the need to explore these critical connections.
Status of Women and Girl’s in West Virginia, West Virginia’s teen pregnancy rate has a profound impact on “educational and economic prospects” (Hess, Hegewisch, & Williams, p
60) Whether high rates of teen pregnancy are unique to West Virginia or the entire Appalachian region would be subject to further inquiry
The demographic landscape of West Virginia, characterized by an aging population and a smaller minority demographic, significantly impacts bachelor’s degree attainment rates With the state experiencing the fastest-growing median age in the nation, it ranks as the second oldest state, largely due to the increasing number of aging baby boomers In contrast, the minority population, primarily concentrated in urban areas like Charleston and southern coal mining counties, remains relatively small Many Black residents in these regions are descendants of coal miners who migrated for work during the late 19th and early 20th centuries To better understand the relationship between these demographics and educational attainment, further research is essential.
The relationship between coal mining employment and educational attainment in West Virginia presents an opportunity for broader research across the Appalachian region, offering valuable comparisons to national trends As mechanization progresses, mountaintop removal (MTR) has emerged as the primary extraction method, necessitating postsecondary education for many MTR jobs due to the complexity of surface extraction However, two significant challenges arise: the scarcity of available jobs and the tendency for positions to be filled by non-local workers.