Teaching english as a foreign languag facebook com LinguaLIB

Background: milestones of ELT history in Germany and

Foreign language education (FLE) and English language

(ELE) as academic disciplines in Germany

Conclusion: reasons for studying ELT/ELE history

English Language Teaching and English Language Education—History and Methods

1.1 | Background: milestones of ELT history in Germany and Europe since ca 1800

The article explores the contrast between monastery tradition and marketplace tradition in the context of English language learning and teaching It highlights the central stages of this process, emphasizing the recurring patterns that have developed over time A key aspect of these patterns is the necessity for effective communication in daily and professional interactions, particularly with merchants, traders, and travelers This motivation for language acquisition and the corresponding teaching methods are commonly referred to as the "marketplace tradition," as noted by McArthur.

In 1998, it was suggested that language learning is complementary to the "monastery tradition," where the main motivation lies within the academic realm In this tradition, languages serve as essential gateways, granting access to knowledge and educational institutions.

Historically, language teaching and learning have oscillated between two orientations, with both teachers and learners seeking a balance between them This tension has been evident throughout centuries of European language education, particularly in the 200-year history of English language teaching in Germany, which took significant time to establish English as the primary foreign language in both society and education.

In the 18th century, the English language began to gain significant popularity, particularly in the German-speaking regions, where it was initially taught only sporadically in schools and universities This growing interest was fueled by a desire to access influential works in politics, science, philosophy, theology, art, and English literature, many of which required reading in their original English due to a lack of translations Consequently, acquiring reading skills in English became essential, often achieved through self-directed study at home or in schools Textbooks from this era typically featured grammar sections modeled after Latin grammar books, including discussions, dialogues, dictionaries, and key vocabulary lists, with rules and examples presented in German.

In the 19th century, the number of self-taught adult learners of English increased significantly, leading to the establishment of English as a formal school subject in state secondary schools for boys and later for girls This shift necessitated the adaptation of teaching content, materials, and methods to effectively engage the young audience While the primary goal remained language proficiency, the specific objectives varied between boys' and girls' schools, reflecting the need for tailored educational approaches.

In the 19th century, a notable competition arose between the emerging real institutions, which emphasized natural sciences and modern foreign language practice, and traditional grammar schools that prioritized classical languages and a humanistic education rooted in a monastery tradition.

The most contemporary foreign language instruction is observed in secondary schools for girls, where the principles of communicative foreign language teaching and the use of English as a working language were effectively implemented This approach emphasizes using English for communication across various subjects beyond language classes, sparking debates about educational goals and methodologies.

English language teaching as illustrated in the following quotation:

Valuing perfect English or institutional French is superficial; true understanding of a language goes beyond mere vocabulary Instead of trivial conversations, educated individuals should delve into the essence of languages, exploring the cultural and historical contexts that shape them A comprehensive language education should originate from grammar schools, emphasizing the importance of grasping the ideas and nuances of different nations rather than focusing solely on language mechanics.

Towards the late 19th century, a significant shift occurred among modern language teachers in Europe, leading to the emergence of the modern language reform movement This movement, influenced by Wilhelm Viòtor's work in 1882, challenged traditional language teaching methods and aimed to innovate language education practices.

Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehren! (›Language teaching must re- verse!‹), originally published under the pseudonym Quousque Tandem.

Reformers advocated for the teaching of modern languages as living languages, prioritizing spoken communication over explicit grammar instruction They emphasized that instruction should occur primarily in the target language, with minimal reliance on translation between the foreign language and the learners' native tongue.

The 20th century saw a significant expansion in English language teaching, driven by reformers whose ideas, while not entirely dominant, profoundly shaped the discourse on foreign language education throughout Europe in the ensuing decades.

During the early 20th century, a significant focus in foreign language education was the importance of integrating cultural knowledge and understanding into teaching practices.

Discussions and controversies about goals and methods of English language teaching

English Language Teaching and English Language Education—History and Methods

The Kulturkundebewegung, which emerged in the early 20th century, prioritized the teaching of German language, literature, and culture over foreign languages, as outlined in the 1924 Richert’sche Richtlinien This emphasis aimed to promote the perceived superiority of the German nation-state, aligning with Nazi ideology that sought to instill a sense of cultural dominance The Nazis also strategically elevated English as the primary foreign language in schools, primarily for political reasons, establishing it as the first language taught in grammar schools before French in 1937-38 Despite these efforts and extensive discussions among Nazi education experts, the actual impact on language teaching during the regime was reportedly limited.

After 1945, many aspects of education reverted to pre-1933 methods, primarily due to a shortage of paper for producing modern textbooks This led to a significant shift in language education, as there was a growing demand for foreign language instruction, particularly English, to be available to all students, not just those in grammar schools The 1964 Hamburger Abkommen in the Federal Republic of Germany was a pivotal moment, establishing English as the mandatory first foreign language across all types of secondary schools, including lower secondary institutions.

This article provides an overview of significant milestones in the history of English Language Teaching (ELT) up to the mid-1960s, followed by an exploration of the concept of 'method' in the evolution of teaching practices.

1.2 | Methods as an anchor of language teaching across the centuries

The German EFL classroom as part of the European education

In 2014, the European Commission released a comparative analysis of language education and training across 30 European countries, highlighting key insights into foreign language learning in Europe.

2.1 The German EFL classroom as part of the European education system

First encounters with foreign languages—EFL in the primary

EFL at secondary level I—preparing learners for private and

Conclusion

Over the past decade, many countries have made significant strides in enhancing institutionalised foreign language education, notably by reducing the minimum age for learning both first and second foreign languages Specific strategies and action plans have been implemented to improve the quality and accessibility of foreign language instruction within public education systems As a result, 65% of students in these countries are now learning two foreign languages, with approximately 42% reaching an independent user level (B1) in their first foreign language, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages.

In today's global landscape, proficiency in at least one foreign language, particularly English, is essential for both personal and professional success in Europe and beyond Individuals lacking English communication skills face significant disadvantages in the competitive job market, as English is the primary language of technology, trade, and research Despite a larger number of native speakers of Chinese and Spanish, English remains the world's most widely accepted lingua franca, facilitating communication among millions from diverse linguistic backgrounds As a result, strong English skills are considered a valuable asset in the global economy According to Eurostat 2016, over 90% of students learn English as their first foreign language, with German, French, and Spanish being the most commonly studied second languages.

The significance of English in education leads to mandates requiring students to engage in a minimum number of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes during compulsory schooling In Europe, the average age for starting foreign language learning is approximately 7.7 years, with most German students beginning their foreign language education in the third year of elementary school, around age 8 Typically, German learners start with English, followed by French, indicating that Germany's foreign language education programs align closely with those of other European countries.

In German secondary schools, students are required to study two foreign languages, with English being one of them This requirement begins in year 5, except in Berlin and Brandenburg where it starts in year 6 Students must study English for a minimum of five years in the Hauptschule or six years in the Realschule and Gymnasium, which are part of the tri-partite German school system.

In 1964, English was mandated as a compulsory subject across all school types, with the primary objective of enabling students to effectively understand, speak, read, and write in the language Additionally, the curriculum aimed to impart cultural knowledge about the English-speaking world, particularly focusing on Britain.

The teaching methods of the time were heavily influenced by structural linguists and behaviorist psychologists, emphasizing language learning as habit formation and viewing language as a rule-based system of symbols This perspective led to a focus on linguistic correctness over meaningful communication in the classroom Consequently, language practice primarily revolved around vocabulary and grammatical rule learning, with an emphasis on pattern drills, imitation, pronunciation activities, and extensive error correction As a result, while students could read and write texts or recite sentences they had memorized, they struggled to engage in spontaneous conversations.

In the late 1970s, the effectiveness of structure-based approaches to language education came under scrutiny, as educators and linguists recognized that language proficiency encompasses more than just the ability to construct grammatically correct sentences This shift in understanding marked the beginning of the communicative turn in language teaching.

In 2006, the focus of language learning shifted towards developing the knowledge and skills necessary for using grammar and language effectively in various communicative contexts This included the ability to make requests, give advice, suggest ideas, and express wishes and needs The key to successful communication lies in achieving communicative competence.

The communicative turn in language education introduced innovative approaches to language classrooms, moving away from traditional methods like grammar-translation and the audiolingual method Instead, the communicative approach is grounded in nativist and interactionist theories of language acquisition, emphasizing active learner engagement in meaningful communication The primary objective of this approach is to foster communicative competence, which encompasses various aspects of language knowledge as outlined by Richards (2006).

Institutionalised Foreign Language Learning—Teaching English at Different Levels

■ knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions

Understanding how to adapt our language based on the context and audience is essential for effective communication This includes recognizing when to employ formal versus informal speech and discerning the appropriate language for written compared to spoken formats Mastering these variations enhances clarity and engagement in our interactions.

■ knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts (for example, narratives, reports, interviews, conversations)

■ knowing how to maintain communication despite having limita- tions in one’s language knowledge (for example, through using dif- ferent kinds of communication strategies)

The promotion of communicative competence remains a key objective in foreign language classrooms in Germany Over the past two decades, the concept has evolved significantly due to changes in language use and discourse practices Today, oral discourse extends beyond traditional face-to-face interactions and phone conversations, while reading and writing increasingly rely on digital tools rather than just paper and pen.

Recent educational standards in Germany emphasize the importance of developing text and media competencies, particularly for advanced learners, highlighting their role as a key educational objective (KMK 2012b).

Intercultural competence is essential in EFL pedagogy, highlighting the crucial link between communication and culture Researchers emphasize the importance of understanding one's own and others' cultures, as well as the ability to apply this cultural knowledge in both virtual and real-world interactions As a result, fostering inter- and transcultural competences has emerged as a key objective in EFL classrooms, alongside the development of communicative skills.

Recent advancements in our understanding of language acquisition have shifted from the isolated practice of skills common in the 1990s to a more integrated approach that emphasizes learning in complex communicative contexts Current theories, as highlighted by Lightbown and Spada (2013), advocate for the application of various skills and knowledge simultaneously This evolution has led to the rising popularity of holistic and action-oriented methods, such as task-based language teaching, which prioritize learner engagement over traditional teacher-centered and product-oriented strategies (Willis & Willis, 2007).

Key points emphasize centered and process-oriented activities, which provide significant opportunities for autonomous and individualized learning These innovative language learning approaches not only enhance methodological competencies but also empower learners to acquire languages independently over time.

Between experiential knowledge and formal academic education: English language teachers’ mind-sets

English language teachers’ mind-sets

Characteristics of the good English language teacher

Professional development and models of language teacher

Conclusion

This article explores the essential qualities of effective English language teachers and the means through which these attributes can be developed It examines various models of teacher education and professionalism while addressing the current and future challenges faced by English language educators in increasingly diverse classroom settings within a globalized context.

3.1 | Between experiential knowledge and formal academic education: English language teachers’ mind-sets

Teachers possess significant experiential knowledge gained from years of institutional learning, teaching practicums, and personal experiences as parents or siblings This autobiographically acquired knowledge shapes their teaching practices and decision-making processes Unlike formal academic knowledge, experiential knowledge is subjective and may include personal beliefs and assumptions that can influence or obscure objective insights Despite its subjective nature, this experiential knowledge provides teachers with a strong sense of direction in their classroom activities According to Woods (1996), a network of beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge, referred to as BAK, underpins everything teachers do, guiding their perceptions of the curriculum and their implementation strategies, from overall unit organization to specific classroom interactions.

Experiential knowledge shares a similar structure and function with formal academic knowledge, often referred to as subjective, lay, or dormant theories Both types of knowledge utilize a systematic and hierarchical organization, categorizing elements into main categories and sub-categories For instance, language skills can be divided into higher order categories such as receptive and productive skills, with reading/listening and writing/speaking serving as their sub-categories Additionally, both subjective and academic theories establish formal relationships to structure their components effectively.

Experiential knowledge and formal academic education both play crucial roles in the teaching process, particularly in planning and justifying teaching activities For instance, it is often assumed that language use in the classroom is more authentic when it shifts away from a focus on formal structures Both teachers' experiential insights and academic theories are instrumental in predicting and interpreting classroom events, whether considered in advance or after the fact.

The unique combination of personal experiences and formal education shapes the mindset of teachers, as highlighted by Lewis (1993, 32) This distinctive characteristic of the teaching profession influences how educators perceive their roles and responsibilities.

The teacher's mindset significantly impacts classroom dynamics, shaped by a blend of explicit knowledge gained through formal education and implicit beliefs rooted in self-image, values, and biases.

It follows from Lewis (1993) that, by virtue of its autobiographical influ- ences, the teacher’s mind-set is extremelystable and difficult to change.

Implicit elements of teacher behavior often remain unexamined and can hinder professional growth, leading to stagnation in teaching practices However, by increasing awareness of these underlying factors, teachers can positively influence their behaviors and strategies This self-reflection and re-negotiation of teaching methods can foster innovation and advancement in educational approaches.

To enhance their teaching practices, educators must cultivate essential qualities including openness, flexibility, self-criticism, and a sense of adventure These traits enable teachers to reflect on their mindsets, recognize their motivations, alter ingrained routines, and ultimately improve their instructional behavior (Bach 2013, 305 f.).

A teacher's mind-set consists of their personal beliefs, assumptions, knowledge, and attitudes shaped by past experiences in education This system is organized systematically but may not always be fully conscious Teachers can reflect on and become aware of their mind-set, which directly influences their actions and interpretations of classroom events.

Individual language learning biographies significantly influence foreign language teachers, as they must navigate the transition from learner to professional educator This process is crucial for all teachers, but for those teaching languages, their personal experiences with language acquisition—whether they are bilingual or multilingual—play a vital role in shaping their teaching effectiveness and approach.

The duration of time spent in an English-speaking country and immersion in a foreign educational system significantly shape individuals' mindsets and understanding of the teaching profession The next section will explore the specific competencies necessary to become an effective teacher of English as a foreign language.

3.2 | Characteristics of the good English language teacher: reflective practice and professionalism

Good English language teachers are often characterized by their passion for the subject and dedication to their profession, showcasing qualities such as being learner-oriented, motivating, fair, flexible, hard-working, and well-structured They inspire students and create an atmosphere of mutual respect in the classroom and beyond The academic discourse has long explored the essential characteristics of effective teachers, highlighting that personal traits alone are not sufficient; it is crucial to understand how these qualities are applied in practice To teach effectively, foreign language teachers must possess both competence and the ability to implement their knowledge in the classroom setting.

Performance refers to an individual's cognitive, mental, and emotional states, as well as their ability to apply knowledge and qualifications effectively in specific situations This concept of competence encompasses a teacher's knowledge base, including content, pedagogy, curriculum, educational goals, and understanding of their learners Ultimately, performance focuses on the actual practice of teaching.

Good teaching practice:In a similar vein, a close connection between teacher professionalism and the quality of teaching has been established

Types of English language teachers

CharacteristicsofthegoodEnglishlanguageteacher:reflectivepracticeandprofessionalism by Helmke (2015, translation/adaptation BV), who has laid down ten characteristics of good teaching practice based on extensive empirical research:

Characteristics of good teaching practice

1 efficient time management and classroom leadership

3 the implementation of versatile motivation strategies

7 the promotion of active and independent learning

8 variation in methods and social constellations

Effective promotion of active and independent learning involves using appropriate language, structured details, and clear exemplification of the subject matter Key elements include concise language, correct grammar, and adequate articulation and modulation of voice Additionally, sensitivity and adaptability are crucial, requiring adjustments in difficulty and pace to cater to diverse learners' social, language, and cultural backgrounds, as well as their varying performance levels.

Helmke identifies key characteristics of effective language teaching that transcend specific subjects, highlighting the importance of general pedagogical skills Essential aspects include efficient time management and the ability to create and sustain a productive learning environment.

Language learners from a psycholinguistic point of view

non-trivial machines processing language

Language learners from a socio-cultural point of view

human beings and meaning makers

Conclusion

Language Learners—From Learning Styles to Identity

4.1 | EFL in the 21st century between learning and education

Change is the only constant, a concept attributed to Heraclitus that resonates strongly in the early 21st century Social transformations are driven by migration and evolving social identities, while globalization and digitalization have accelerated technological advancements and fundamentally reshaped the workplace Consequently, these technological changes have influenced the use of foreign languages, leading to a rise in devices like electronic translators that facilitate everyday communication across linguistic barriers.

The evolution of foreign language teaching (FLT) is significantly influenced by the shifting goals within English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms Historically, the primary objective was to achieve competence in English, often accompanied by basic intercultural skills However, this focus is becoming increasingly inadequate as English solidifies its status as the global lingua franca The uncertainty surrounding the future dominance of English raises questions about whether other languages, such as Chinese or Spanish, might take precedence by the time today's students graduate or reach their career peaks This unpredictability underscores the need for a re-evaluation of language teaching goals in an ever-changing linguistic landscape.

Learner autonomy is essential for enhancing target language competence in EFL classrooms, as it empowers students to extend their language skills for future life and career opportunities This autonomy involves organizing lifelong language learning (Benson 2011) and understanding the biographical and political significance of language (Fairclough 1999) Functional autonomy enables participation, while reflexive autonomy fosters critical thinking and emancipation, highlighting the interconnectedness of these two aspects This chapter will explore how learners can achieve autonomy in both dimensions.

Language learning is fundamentally about viewing TEFL as a process that fosters autonomy in learners Historically, learners were seen as mere imitative machines, but Selinker's 1972 paper highlighted them as intelligent processors of input who actively construct and test language hypotheses This shift marked a significant change in foreign language research, recognizing learners as important subjects in their own right It aligned with the communicative turn, which emphasized the importance of message and content over mere grammatical form.

Language acquisition is increasingly viewed as a constructive and strategic process, where learners engage rationally and require a heightened level of reflexivity This perspective recognizes that learners are not just cognitive beings; they also possess emotional needs that influence their learning experience As a result, research has begun to explore the emotional dimensions of language acquisition, focusing on factors such as anxiety, motivation, and self-efficacy In summary, language learning is understood as a multifaceted activity that involves processing input, negotiating meaning, and producing output, all while navigating complex cognitive and emotional factors.

Language education, particularly in the context of Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL), emphasizes the holistic development of learners, a concept championed by educators like Wilhelm von Humboldt Historically, the educational potential of foreign languages has been recognized, leading to reform pedagogical approaches that prioritize cultural context and the complex identities of learners This perspective acknowledges that language acquisition is deeply intertwined with a learner's biographical and cultural background This chapter will explore these two perspectives, detailing their key concepts and providing practical examples of teaching strategies and classroom activities that reflect these ideas.

4.2 | Language learners from a psycholinguistic point of view: learners as non-trivial machines processing language

Language acquisition is a cognitive process that exhibits similarities across individuals, progressing through comparable stages influenced by unique learner characteristics It involves receiving and processing input, negotiating meaning during interactions, and producing output to achieve communicative goals This constructive process allows learners to generate linguistic hypotheses, which they test through interaction Therefore, learner orientation focuses on optimizing language acquisition by considering various learner-specific variables that affect this process.

Wolff (2010a, 294 ff.) provides a concise overview of various methods for organizing and relating different features, ultimately comparing several attempts to define relevant categories and drawing insightful conclusions.

Research indicates a consensus among scholars regarding the categories of language learners, with minimal contention remaining While it is unnecessary to detail every taxonomy due to overlapping concepts, it is essential to highlight the key areas The literature suggests that learners exhibit significant differences across various domains.

■ affective state, i e their emotions in the course of acquiring a for- eign language, influenced by features such as anxiety or uncertainty tolerance

■ beliefsabout language acquisition and favourable conditions of the language classroom

■ cognitive style, such as a rather analytic or holistic way of approach- ing problems

An introductory text cannot cover all features comprehensively; therefore, this article will focus on the concept of motivation in detail This exploration will illustrate that each feature is inherently complex and can be understood in various ways Additionally, it will highlight that these features are not static but can be shaped by individual teaching methods By examining these different aspects, we can derive practical implications for effectively managing a specific classroom environment.

Motivation in the foreign language classroom is a complex phenomenon that cannot be easily defined, as highlighted by Dürnyei (2001) He emphasizes that while motivation exists, it should be understood from multiple perspectives to fully grasp its implications for teaching Dürnyei defines motivation as a facet of the human mind linked to desires and wants, contrasting it with rational thoughts and feelings Understanding this complexity is essential for educators aiming to foster effective learning environments.

Early research into motivation explores the origins of our desires, particularly in the context of foreign language learning According to self-determination theory by Deci and Ryan (1985), these motivations can arise from internal factors, such as a positive attitude towards learning foreign languages, or from external influences like rewards or the fear of punishment Gardner and Lambert's (1972) specifications further enhance our understanding of these motivational dynamics in language acquisition.

Motivation in language learning varies significantly among individuals, influenced by their personal attitudes Learners with an integrative orientation exhibit a positive attitude toward the foreign language and a desire to engage with its community of speakers Conversely, those with an instrumental orientation pursue language acquisition for practical reasons, such as enhancing their career prospects in the job market.

In the 1990s and 2000s, the concept of motivation became more intricate, particularly with the introduction of self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (1997) Self-efficacy highlights that even if an individual is motivated to learn a foreign language, a lack of confidence in their ability to master it can hinder their motivation This concept emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between self-efficacy and actual performance in the classroom; high self-efficacy fosters persistence and intensity in learning activities, creating a positive feedback loop that enhances performance Conversely, poor performance can diminish self-efficacy, leading to decreased motivation and effort, thereby creating a negative cycle.

Anxiety plays a significant role in the foreign language classroom, impacting a learner's ability to process input and engage in interaction, which are essential for refining linguistic hypotheses This anxiety, along with factors like uncertainty tolerance, is often developed early in life and carried into the classroom However, these anxieties are not permanent; they can be learned and transformed Therefore, it is crucial for the classroom environment to not only respond to students' emotional dispositions but also to foster a positive influence on them This important aspect will be further explored in the final section of this chapter.

Why every foreign language teacher needs to know about

to know about second language acquisition

Over three decades ago, Allwright (1984) posed the critical question, "Why don’t learners learn what teachers teach?" This inquiry was expanded by Pienemann (1989), who asked, "Is language teachable?" These questions highlight a significant disconnect between foreign language instruction and the actual learning outcomes, as discussed in various literature sources.

The phenomenon of the third-person singular "s" is a common challenge faced by English teachers in EFL classrooms While learners can typically recite the rules governing its use, they often struggle to apply this structure in spontaneous speech.

The complexity of language teaching in EFL classrooms reveals a common issue in traditional instruction, where teachers often view the classroom solely as a platform for language education While this perspective holds some truth, it overlooks the intricate dynamics between teachers and learners A more learner-centered approach prompts the question: Why don’t learners absorb what teachers are trying to impart? This highlights the need to consider the classroom as a shared space that encompasses both teaching and learning processes.

5.1 Why every foreign language teacher needs to know about second language acquisition

Conclusion: a role for psycholinguistics in the EFL classroom 88

Learners must actively engage in processing the information being taught, as highlighted by Keòler and Plesser (2011, 135) This language processing can occur both implicitly and consciously, emphasizing the importance of active involvement in the learning process.

Psycholinguistics, particularly in the context of second language acquisition (SLA), plays a crucial role in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms It views language as a psychological phenomenon, as noted by Garman (1990) Since the 1990s, collaboration between psychologists and linguists has led to theories that elucidate language development (Lightbown/Spada 2006) This field emphasizes that language learning is a gradual process that occurs within the learner's mind, highlighting the importance of individual learners constructing their own psycholinguistic knowledge and language awareness.

In addition, they have to bedevelopmentally ready(cf Mansouri/Duffy

2005) in order to notice and process linguistic structures of the target language.

Psycholinguistics explores both first language acquisition, which refers to the mother tongue, and second language acquisition, involving any language learned after the first This field investigates the differences between these two types of language acquisition, with second language acquisition (SLA) focusing on the psycholinguistic factors that influence learning a new language SLA research emphasizes the gradual development of processing skills in language learning, without differentiating between natural and instructed learning environments.

According to Norman Segalowitz (2003) and others, language learners initially focus their cognitive resources on understanding key words in a message, often overlooking grammatical morphemes that do not significantly alter meaning As learners gain experience and practice, they find it easier to process previously challenging information, allowing for quicker and more automatic access This progression enables them to shift their attention to other language aspects, which also gradually become automatic (Lightbown/Spada 2006, 39).

Instructed language learning mirrors the natural acquisition process, yet many educators have traditionally viewed it as merely an external guidance method The complexity of language learning, exemplified by the challenge of mastering the "3rd-person singular s," highlights the necessity for foreign language teaching to incorporate a psycholinguistic foundation.

Interlanguage development: Foreign language teachers who know about the psycholinguistic basis of SLA and language learning will have a better understanding of this developmental path Thus, they will not only

The theoretical basis of second language learning be in a position to better classify theirlearners’ output and errors(cf.

Incorporating the fundamental psycholinguistic aspects of language acquisition into instruction can enhance language learning in the classroom Adopting a second language acquisition (SLA) approach in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) settings fosters a more learner-centered teaching environment, allowing educators to adapt their syllabi to the interlanguage development stages of their students.

This chapter emphasizes the internal factors influencing language learning while acknowledging the importance of external factors, which will be explored in later chapters It provides a brief overview of second language acquisition, particularly focusing on the cognitive processes that occur in the learner's mind during the language learning journey.

5.2 | The theoretical basis of second language learning

Lightbown and Spada (2006) emphasize that second language learners, having already acquired their mother tongue, possess a unique advantage as more experienced language learners compared to first language learners They highlight that both learner characteristics, such as metalinguistic awareness, and learning conditions, ranging from informal to formal settings, significantly impact the process of second language acquisition.

Second language learning, similar to first language acquisition, is grounded in various theoretical frameworks Understanding the contexts in which a second language is learned is essential for a comprehensive analysis Additionally, some researchers expand their focus beyond first and second languages to explore the intricacies of third language learning, as highlighted by authors such as Cenoz and Jessner (2000).

In this chapter, we will not differentiate between second and third language learning; instead, second language learning encompasses the acquisition of any language beyond the mother tongue, regardless of whether it is classified as a second, third, or additional language.

Numerous theories have sought to elucidate the process of second language acquisition This section provides a concise overview of the primary theoretical frameworks For a more comprehensive understanding and broader perspective, readers are encouraged to consult works by Lightbown and Spada (2006), VanPatten and Williams (2015), Larsen-Freeman (2000), and Gass and Mackey (2012).

Behaviourism: In the past, Behaviourism played an important role.

In the 1940s and 1950s, the psychological approach known as Behaviourism influenced the belief that language learning was primarily a process of habit formation According to this perspective, second language learners were expected to memorize and imitate linguistic patterns from their exposure to the language The core concept of Behaviourism emphasized the importance of imitation in acquiring language skills.

Key strategies in second language acquisition (SLA) involve focusing on input and reproducing structures and vocabulary that learners have received positive reinforcement for from their conversation partners This positive feedback plays a crucial role in enhancing the acquisition of the target language.

Behaviourists believe that imitation and practice, reinforced by positive feedback, are key factors in language acquisition A notable method derived from Behaviourism is the audiolingual approach, which emphasizes these principles in language learning.

Innatist perspective:Another theoretical approach discusses the ằin- natist perspectiveô (Lightbown/Spada 2006, 35) The underlying theory is

Chomsky's Universal Grammar (UG) is primarily recognized as a theory of first language acquisition; however, some researchers extend its application to second language learning This is because Universal Grammar addresses the logical problem, which highlights the discrepancy between the limited input children receive and their remarkable linguistic achievements.

Conclusion

6.1 | Reading, listening and viewing as interactive processes

Engaged recipients challenge the notion that reading, listening, and viewing are merely passive activities While a narrow interpretation of "receptive competences" might imply consumerism, it's essential to recognize that viewing, in particular, can evoke a more dynamic engagement.

Despite the stereotype of being a "couch potato" who passively consumes mass media, audiences are actively involved in the process of reception This engagement challenges the notion of passivity, highlighting the interactive role that readers, listeners, and viewers play in interpreting and responding to media content.

The interaction model, as defined by Hudson (2007), describes reading as an ongoing process of meaning construction from received input This concept also extends to listening and viewing, highlighting the importance of understanding meaning construction in receptive processes Recognizing this inherent aspect is crucial for developing diverse literacies that enhance foreign language learning in the classroom.

Text comprehension encompasses the understanding and processing of information from various forms of language, including spoken, written, and visual mediums This intricate process involves both physiological and psychological efforts, beginning with the recognition of sounds, words, sentences, or images, and culminating in a deeper understanding of the content.

Bottom-up processing is a crucial mechanism in the construction of meaning during reading, listening, or viewing This data-driven approach begins with the decoding of individual words, progressing to larger units such as phrases and sentences, allowing for the comprehension of more complex meanings In auditory contexts, this involves recognizing sounds, phonemes, and the prosodic features of spoken language, including intonation, speed, and volume, as well as non-verbal cues like facial expressions and gestures Additionally, in multimedia texts, meaning is constructed through visual elements such as pictures, symbols, colors, and camera angles.

Bottom-up processing tasks in the classroom utilize written, audio, or visual texts as their foundation, guiding learners to extract general, specific, or detailed information This approach aids students in decoding information by leveraging contextual cues, such as inferring the meaning of unfamiliar words from their surroundings Additionally, learners are encouraged to identify linguistic elements within the text, including connectors like "firstly" and "secondly," as well as time adverbs such as "yesterday" and "later," enhancing their comprehension skills.

Reading, listening, and viewing are interactive processes that help us sequence events and derive meaning from texts In visual mediums such as films, elements like camera angles and editing techniques play a crucial role in facilitating comprehension of audiovisual communication.

Top-down processing involves the use of inference and hypothesis building in understanding texts, audio, or visual media This cognitive approach allows individuals to draw on personal experiences, contextual references, and various types of knowledge, such as contextual, general world, and genre knowledge Consequently, the interpretation of information within a text is influenced by these cognitive patterns, enhancing comprehension and engagement with the material.

2000, 189) and specific importance is ascribed to it on the basis ofknowl- edge-driven/concept-driven construction of meaning.

When it comes to listening comprehension, we use, for example, our knowledge about the social context and about the typical flow of a con-

Illustration 6.1: Text reception as an interactive process

To effectively understand and evaluate information, it is essential to decode media knowledge, which allows us to interpret the communication between the author and the audience Our experiences enable us to discern a speaker’s mood and intentions through cues such as facial expressions, gestures, intonation, speed, and volume Similarly, when watching a film, our familiarity with various genres—like fairy tales, crime stories, romantic comedies, westerns, and horror—helps us anticipate events and integrate new information into our existing knowledge.

Try to solve this riddle

In a tragic car accident, a man loses his life while his son survives but suffers severe injuries Rushed to the hospital for emergency surgery, the boy's fate takes a surprising turn when the surgeon, upon entering the room, reveals a shocking truth: "I can’t operate on this boy! He is my son!"

The riddle illustrates the diverse ways reading can be interpreted, as readers often arrive at different conclusions due to the lack of specific information about the surgeon's identity and the absence of gender clues in the English language Relying solely on bottom-up processing proves insufficient; however, incorporating general world knowledge and cultural context allows for various interpretations, such as the surgeon being a stepfather or part of a same-sex parental structure Some readers may struggle to solve the riddle if they cannot envision these possibilities, highlighting how our assumptions can both enhance and hinder comprehension.

The development of mental models is crucial in cognitive psychology, highlighting how individuals create complex representations during reading, listening, or viewing films As recipients engage with texts or visuals, they often fill in gaps and incorporate implicit information, relying on cognitive schemata to enhance their understanding.

Knowledge about institutions like schools and family structures, along with mental frameworks known as scripts that guide behavior in everyday situations (such as dining, attending concerts, or visiting doctors), are crucial for understanding context However, these schemata and scripts, shaped by cultural backgrounds, can sometimes hinder comprehension when personal interpretations are imposed on the text without adequate consideration.

Reading, listening and viewing as interactive processes quate consideration of its cultural and/or historical context (cf Hermes

Mental models are intricate cognitive frameworks that integrate textual information with the recipient's culturally influenced schemes and scripts, creating patterns This synthesis leads to the development of a coherent mental concept that enhances understanding.

Top-down processing tasks help learners utilize their prior knowledge to enhance text comprehension Engaging in action-oriented activities, like interpreting character relationships in a play or continuing a story, encourages students to connect personal experiences with the text's content These creative tasks not only promote hypothesis generation but also assist in bridging knowledge gaps, as learners are not required to create entirely new content For further insights on working with literary texts and films, refer to Chapter 10 in this volume.

Speaking: the nature of spoken discourse and how to teach it 109

and how to teach it

The enhancement of oral communicative competence is a primary focus in English language education, with fluency in speaking being a key objective for many learners Fluent conversations appear to flow effortlessly, a phenomenon that results from a variety of interconnected cognitive processes.

Talking is one of our dearest occupations We spend hours a day conversing, telling stories, teaching, quarrelling [ ] and, of course, speaking to ourselves.

Speaking is moreover one of our most complex cognitive, linguistic, and motor skill (Levelt 1989, XIII)

Achieving fluency and accuracy in speaking a foreign language is a complex process that extends beyond merely learning grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation Effective communication requires more than just foundational knowledge; it involves practice and integration of these elements to develop true fluency.

7.1 Speaking: the nature of spoken discourse and how to teach it

Foreign language mediation: new skills for English language

Conclusion

guage, plenty of practice, meaningful repetition and some level of autom- atisation are crucial.

Speaking is a competence that demands knowledge of language and dis- course, a sound mastery of the sub-skills of speaking and also a good command ofcommunication strategies.

Successful English speakers possess an extensive knowledge base regarding spoken discourse, often without realizing it Their expertise encompasses grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, discourse, and genre Additionally, they have developed intercultural awareness and gained insights into the sociocultural nuances of both local and international English-speaking cultures.

Effective communication across diverse cultural backgrounds requires not only an understanding of discourse but also sociocultural knowledge Language and non-verbal behaviors are intricately connected to the cultural context in which they occur Sociocultural norms for specific interactions can vary significantly between different social and cultural groups; for example, a handshake may be considered offensive in cultures with strict rules regarding physical contact Consequently, second language (L2) users must recognize their own culturally influenced communication styles as well as those of others to foster respectful interactions.

Understanding the nature of spoken discourse is essential for effective communication Discourse refers to the use of language within specific contexts and encompasses units of speech that extend beyond individual sentences It focuses on how sentences and larger language structures are interconnected to create coherent and cohesive speech.

Coherenceandcohesionare the two qualities of a text that create a sense of unity and purpose.

Coherence in writing pertains to the logical structure and unity of a text, ensuring that ideas flow smoothly and meaning is clear In a coherent dialogue, one speaker's question is naturally followed by the next speaker's relevant response On the other hand, cohesion involves the use of linguistic tools, such as conjunctions, reference words, and substitutions, to connect sentences and paragraphs effectively Additionally, lexical devices like collocations and lexical groups enhance the overall cohesion of the text.

Effective communication goes beyond crafting individual sentences; it requires speakers to link their utterances to create coherent texts Additionally, understanding how to take turns in conversations and discussions, facilitated by the use of discourse markers, is essential for meaningful interactions.

Speaking: the nature of spoken discourse and how to teach it

Discourse markers are essential words and phrases that serve as signposts in both spoken and written communication They help initiate conversation turns and indicate connections to prior statements, as illustrated in the following conversation extract.

James:Oh, let’s just say, I am not crazy about traditional British food.

Pete:Well, but just think about

Fluent speech is the primary objective for many foreign language learners, but achieving fluency involves more than just producing words Effective spoken interaction requires active engagement and responsiveness to the conversation partner.

Fluent speakers generate speech at a rate of two to three words per second, with one idea following another They often plan their next statement while still articulating their current thought, making real-time decoding and processing of information a demanding task.

(1989, 8 ff.) divides the underlying processes of speech production into three interrelated components: conceptualisation, formulation and artic- ulation.

Once a message has been processed in the speech comprehension system, the speaker interprets the parsed speech and conceives of what

Illustration 7.1: Blueprint of speech production Boxes represent process- ing components; circles represent knowledge stores

CONCEPTUALISER communicative intention inferred intention message generation discourse processing monitoring proverbal message parsed speech

LEXICON lemmas forms grammatical encoding phonological encoding phonetic plan

The process of overt speech production involves several stages, starting with the conceptualizer where situational knowledge is integrated into a preverbal message, as described by Levelt (1989) This message is then transformed into a phonetic plan during the formulator stage through grammatical and phonological encoding, utilizing knowledge from the mental lexicon Foreign language speakers may particularly focus on this phonetic plan, often rehearsing their utterances internally to prepare for verbal expression The articulation of speech occurs through the use of speech organs such as the lips, teeth, and palate, while speakers continuously self-monitor their output This self-monitoring allows them to identify and correct any errors in meaning or structure by rephrasing or repeating their statements.

Alemmais a word or phrase as it is entered in a dictionary For exam- ple, the lemmagoconsists ofgowithgoes,going,wentandgone.

Formsare meaningful units of speech like sentences, phrases, mor- phemes etc.

Parsingis a process whereby the syntactic and semantic relations be- tween linguistic elements are analysed in order to derive the meaning of an utterance.

Foreign language speakers often face communication challenges stemming from cognitive demands or limited language resources To overcome difficulties in expression, learners can utilize various conversation strategies that help convey their messages, buy time for processing, or maintain the flow of conversation Common strategies include paraphrasing, asking for clarification, using gestures, and employing fillers to enhance communication effectiveness.

Paraphrasing involves rephrasing statements while retaining their original meaning For instance, instead of saying "She is generous with her time," one might express it as "She is willing to give away her time freely." This technique allows speakers to convey their thoughts using varied vocabulary.

■ Code switching:Speakers use more than one language within a single conversational turn or interaction, e g.All the Bratwürstel were eaten.

■ Use of all-purpose words:Speakers use words likething,stuff,make, do.

■ Word-coinage:Speakers turn a word of another language into an Eng- lish-sounding word Somebody not being able to retrieve the word

›map‹ might try to useKarteinstead, saying,Can I have a look at your Karte?

■ Non-verbal/paralinguistic communication:Speakers might use ges- tures and facial expressions to get their meaning across.

■ Asking for help and clarification:Speakers ask directly for clarifica- tion and help.

■ Avoidance:When faced with too great a challenge to express a certain idea, speakers simplify their intended message to a less complex state- ment.

Speaking: the nature of spoken discourse and how to teach it

7.1.2 | Spoken discourse: linguistic features, genres and pronunciation

Understanding the linguistic features of spoken language, including its genres and pronunciation, is essential for effective teaching and learning of speaking skills Unlike written English, spoken language allows for real-time negotiation of meaning between speakers and listeners, enabling clarification and rephrasing The spontaneity of spoken interactions means that speakers often have little time to plan their responses while simultaneously listening to and observing their conversation partner's reactions Additionally, the transient nature of spoken language makes it distinct from written communication.

The rise of new communication technologies has blurred the lines between written and spoken discourse While social media platforms like instant messaging and networking sites primarily utilize written communication, they also incorporate unique characteristics of oral interaction, creating a hybrid form of communication.

Speaking serves two primary purposes: interactional and transactional Interactional speaking emphasizes social engagement and relationship-building through activities like small talk and joke-telling In contrast, transactional speaking focuses on the exchange of information, such as delivering a speech or placing an order at a restaurant.

Meaning in interactions is not merely passed between individuals; it is actively negotiated, a process essential for effective communication and language development To facilitate this negotiation in a communicative classroom, teachers implement engaging activities such as jigsaw tasks, communicative crosswords, and opinion gap exercises, promoting clearer understanding among students.

Lexico-grammar

In English, there is significant interaction between grammar and lexis, as each word possesses its own grammatical characteristics and relationships with other words This means that every word carries essential grammatical information, including categories like word class, tense, and person For instance, the adjective "good" has comparative forms such as "better" and "best" and is frequently used in various combinations, including phrases like "fairly good," "good-natured," and "good luck."

Recurring patterns:When we look at the examples with good, it is obvious that we also find specific recurring syntactic patterns such as

■ ằto be + good + at + nounô (e g.to be good at maths/sports),

■ ằto be + good + V-ingô (e g.to be good at skiing, keeping appoint- ments,making friends),

Conclusion

■ ằin + a + good + nounô (e g.in a good mood/state/way/condition, etc.).

Proficient speakers use a vast array of such language patterns (cf Willis

2003, 40) and it is obvious that language learners must recognise and gradually become familiar with these patterns as well.

Hence, it has become clear that ằevery word in a language is involved in a complex and unique network of patterns and relationshipsô (Swan

2005, 35) In particular, we may distinguish between lexical patterns

Collocations and grammatical patterns, known as colligations, describe how words can be associated with one another These concepts highlight the probability of lexical items co-occurring with other words or specific grammatical categories, emphasizing the importance of understanding word relationships in language use.

Collocationsrefer to the habitual co-occurrence of words, i e the ways words are combined to form multi-word units (cf McCarthy et al 2010,

Words often have specific associations with certain collocates, influencing how we use them in language For instance, we commonly refer to "fast food" rather than "quick food," while "quick lunch" is acceptable, but "fast lunch" is not Additionally, we can say "satisfy hunger" but not "quench hunger," highlighting the unique pairings that exist in our vocabulary These collocational relationships suggest that certain words are more naturally linked in our minds, prompting specific combinations when we communicate.

Colligations, derived from the Latin term meaning "to tie together," operate at a syntactic level by illustrating how words create specific grammatical patterns with one another Essentially, colligations involve the connection of words to particular grammatical structures.

Colligation patterns in English include various structures, such as the use of verbs followed by -ing forms, exemplified by "I started watching," and verbs followed by infinitives, as in "I began to watch." Additionally, verbs of perception can be combined with adjectives, for instance, "it sounds great" or "it looks good." Another common structure is the phrase "a + noun + of + noun," which can be seen in examples like "a flock of seagulls," "a school of fish," and "a group of people."

The traditional distinction between vocabulary and grammar is increasingly challenging to maintain, as highlighted by Cameron (2001) The term "vocabulary," often limited to single words, proves inadequate; thus, it is more effective to use the terms "lexis" and "lexical items" to encompass a broader understanding of language patterns.

›lexis‹ is more comprehensive than ›vocabulary‹ since it does not only in- clude single words (e g bad), but also habitual combinations of words

Collocations and lexical chunks play a crucial role in language comprehension, as they represent fixed or semi-fixed combinations of words that we often store and recall as meaningful units Examples include phrases like "bad cold," "bad dream," and "bad luck," as well as expressions such as "to go from bad to worse" and "things are in a bad way." Understanding these combinations enhances our ability to communicate effectively and grasp the nuances of language.

The lexico-grammatical approach views the connection between grammar and lexis as a continuum or spectrum, as noted by Swan (2005) and Lewis (2008) At one end of this continuum, we encounter individual lexical items that possess strong semantic meanings, such as "Caution!" and "Stop!"

The continuum of language usage ranges from purely grammatical patterns, such as the present continuous tense indicating ongoing action (e.g., "She’s working day and night to finish the deadline"), to a vast middle ground where the lines between grammar and lexis blur In this middle area, certain lexical items like prepositions, determiners, and auxiliary verbs often serve grammatical functions with little to no inherent meaning For instance, the auxiliary verb "do" in questions or negatives (e.g., "Do you know where Peter is?" or "I don’t know") primarily aids in sentence construction without contributing lexical meaning Similarly, while prepositions can convey clear temporal or spatial meanings, they are frequently categorized as part of grammar.

Prepositions, similar to other function words like determiners and pronouns, primarily serve a grammatical role rather than conveying specific meaning on their own.

It might also be argued that collocations and colligations represent an intermediate zone between vocabulary and grammar (cf Scrivener 2011,

Adopting a lexico-grammatical approach in the classroom is essential, as it emphasizes the interconnectedness of grammar and vocabulary rather than treating them as isolated entities This perspective suggests that vocabulary and grammar should be taught in combination, allowing learners to understand both the broader grammatical framework and the specific patterns of individual words and their combinations.

8.1.1 | Focusing on chunks of language

Lexical chunks play a significant role in our communication, as a large portion of our spoken and written language consists of multi-word expressions Research suggests that formulaic language may account for as much as 80 percent of everyday English usage.

2005, 38) For instance, a single lexical item such as ›time‹ can be found

The lexico-grammatical continuum highlights the interplay between lexis and grammar, showcasing how individual words, collocations, and grammatical rules form numerous lexical chunks Examples include phrases like "a long time," "all the time," and "once upon a time," which illustrate the significance of these combinations in language use Understanding this continuum is essential for grasping the nuances of communication and enhancing language proficiency.

Lexical chunks are defined as commonly used phrases or strings of words that are often utilized in both spoken and written communication These chunks are typically stored in our memory as ready-made units, facilitating easier and more fluent language use in interactions.

Lexical chunks can occur in very different shapes (cf McCarthy et al.

In 2010, research indicated that language chunks can vary significantly in their degree of fixedness Some combinations, such as collocations, are relatively loose or semi-fixed, while others, like idioms and proverbs, are nearly frozen in form.

Advantages of lexical chunks:Knowing and using lexical chunks is very beneficial in the context of second language learning In particular, the following benefits can be mentioned:

■ Successful interactions: Lexical chunks help learners to communicate successfully because they serve many relevant interactive functions. For example, many social formulae consist of lexical chunks (e g.

Collocation e.g adj + noun light winds, torrential rain, thick fog, heavy rain

Compound e.g noun + noun fingerprint, lawsuit, textbook, living-room, distance learning

Prepositional phrase e.g preposition + noun phrase in a few days, in three years, in a fortnight, in a week

Phrasal verb verb + particle to get by, get away with sth., get across, get around, get into sth., get on with sb., get off, get over sth

Binominals noun + and + noun; adj + and + adj.; verb + and + verb fish and chips, salt and pepper, sick and tired, rant and rave

Trinominals noun + noun + and + noun; adj + adj + and + adj. lock, stock and barrel; left, right and centre; signed, sealed, delivered

Simile as + adj + as as dry as a bone, as hard as nails, as free as a bird

Idiom whole clause or sentence to get on like a house on fire, to kill two birds with one stone, to sell like hot cake, Elvis has left the building

Proverb full sentence Every dog has its day A rolling stone gathers no moss A stitch in time saves nine

Using expressions like "Have a good time!" or "Pleased to meet you!" can enhance communication by adding warmth Hedging expressions, such as "if you know what I mean" or "as far as I'm concerned," can soften messages, while discourse markers like "by the way" and "the point is" help connect ideas and improve the flow of conversation.

Teaching culture in and beyond the classroom: three teaching

Conclusion

learning processes into practice The teaching proposalswill focus on three relevant aspects: (1) representing and exploring culture, (2) under- standing culture and reading literary texts, (3) participating in cultural discourses.

9.1 | What is culture? Definitions and concepts

The integration of culture in foreign language education is widely recognized as essential; however, perspectives on what cultural elements should be taught, as well as the rationale and methods for teaching them, have evolved over the years These shifts mirror the ongoing academic discourse in Cultural Studies regarding the definition and understanding of culture, alongside the societal significance of cultural education Before delving into teaching strategies and concepts, it is crucial to first define and clarify the concept of culture itself.

The term "culture" is highly controversial and has been interpreted in various ways throughout history A notable debate arose during colonial times, where cultural achievements of so-called "civilization" were often deemed superior, highlighting the subjective valuation of different cultures.

Colonial oppression has often been justified by labeling certain ways of life as ›primitive‹ or ›uncivilised‹ (Sommer 2003, 7) Additionally, a common distinction is made between ›high‹ culture, encompassing the arts, literature, and architecture, and ›low‹ culture, which typically refers to popular culture and mass media However, contemporary Cultural Studies approaches reject these hierarchical evaluations, focusing instead on describing, explaining, and understanding culture and the processes of cultural change.

Culture is fundamentally defined as a collection of shared meanings among individuals, highlighting the importance of collective understanding in shaping social interactions and identities As noted by Hall (1997), this concept underscores that culture is not merely a set of practices or artifacts, but rather a dynamic system of meanings that binds communities together.

When two individuals share the same culture, it means they perceive and interpret the world in similar ways, allowing them to communicate their thoughts and feelings effectively Culture is rooted in the collective ability of its members to understand and make sense of their surroundings in a coherent manner.

Culture is not a homogeneous or fixed entity; rather, it is a dynamic and heterogeneous construct characterized by a variety of shared meanings among its members According to Hall, within any culture, there exists a diversity of interpretations and representations regarding various topics, highlighting the fluid nature of cultural understanding.

Culture encompasses a variety of definitions and concepts, particularly in the classroom setting It is essential to present this diversity of meanings to learners, enabling them to comprehend cultures as intricate and heterogeneous entities.

Three dimensions of culture:Cultural Semiotics distinguishes three di- mensions of culture: amaterial, amentaland asocial dimension(cf.

■ Material culture refers to texts (literature, theatre, film, etc.) and other artefacts (art, architecture, clothing, products of everyday life).

■ Mental culture includes collective ideas, norms and values, percep- tions of self and other, worldviews or ideologies.

■ Social culture consists of society, social institutions (educational, ad- ministrative, political, judicial) and cultural agents (individuals, col- lective groups, etc.).

Children's books exemplify the interconnectedness of cultural dimensions, as they are not only part of the material culture but also embody cultural norms and values The act of reading bedtime stories serves various social functions within families and society Over time, the evolution of children's literature reflects shifts in cultural values, influencing narrative styles—such as the presence or absence of moral lessons—and potentially altering the rituals surrounding bedtime storytelling.

Incorporating culture in the EFL classroom is essential for fostering a deeper understanding among students The three-dimensional model of culture aids teachers in selecting materials and making informed decisions on cultural representation Teaching culture involves delving into the shared meanings, values, norms, and thought processes of cultural groups, alongside the social and institutional contexts they inhabit However, direct observation of social dynamics in the EFL setting is often limited, and the mental aspects of culture can primarily be inferred through cultural manifestations While firsthand experiences, such as school exchanges or telecollaboration, are beneficial, the traditional language classroom still presents challenges in fully immersing students in the social dimension of culture.

Illustration9.1: Three dimensions of culture

Mental culture: codes ideas, values, conventions

Material culture encompasses texts and various artifacts, while social culture involves the users of these codes, including individuals, societies, social groups, and institutions The representation of culture is significantly influenced by artifacts such as texts, visuals, music, and realia, including street signs, clothing, and decorations.

The concept of "culture as text" in Cultural Anthropology posits that cultures can be interpreted like complex texts, with each cultural text interconnected with others (Bachmann-Medick 2004) However, Cultural Studies critiques this metaphor for overlooking the role of "cultural agents" who actively exchange, share, and negotiate cultural meanings This perspective leads to the understanding of "culture as discursive practice," which views culture as a dialogic process where cultural meanings are collaboratively negotiated among participants (Küster 2005).

Hallet (2002) posits that cultures can be viewed as extensive networks of texts and discourses, forming a "textual and discursive space" accessible to learners in foreign language classrooms through the modeling of cultural discourses This approach emphasizes intertextuality, where each cultural text connects to others, enabling learners to interpret the cultural discourses that shape a particular culture Understanding any cultural text requires situating it within its relevant cultural contexts, necessitating that educators select a variety of texts and materials to reveal the complexity and diversity of cultures Decke-Cornill (1994) and Hallet (2002) advocate for intertextuality and multiperspectivity as essential principles in text selection, as the multifaceted nature of cultures and their discourses can only be effectively represented through a diverse array of texts that reflect various voices within a culture Additionally, text arrangements must consider that real-life discourses are multimodal, integrating different genres and media.

Principles for modelling cultural discourses (cf Hallet 2007, 39 ff.)

■ relevance of topics and issues: selected texts need to be relevant for a particular cultural context

■ openness of text combinations: learners should be encouraged to research and find additional texts

■ multitextuality and multiperspectivity: text combinations should represent diverse voices of cultural discourses

■ intertextuality: texts need to be perceived as linked but not redun- dant

■ multimediality and multimodality: cultural discourses should be represented through a variety of texts, media and modes

■ relevance of literary texts and films: learners can access the com-

Intercultural approaches encompass various concepts, models, and dimensions that highlight the complexity of cultural discourses found in literary texts These texts embody a rich diversity of meanings and voices, actively engaging with ideas by modifying or creating new interpretations through the use of literary devices.

Participating in cultural and global discourses is a key educational objective in foreign language learning, as it empowers students to engage in social processes and influence their real-life environments By interacting with authentic texts in the foreign language classroom, learners can create their own responses, whether oral or written, thereby actively participating in the cultural discourses represented in those texts When these responses are shared beyond the classroom, students become cultural agents, contributing to the ongoing processes of cultural negotiation.

The advent of new media technologies has significantly enhanced foreign language learning Web 2.0 encompasses various tools and applications, such as blogs, chats, wikis, and online communities, that encourage users to share their content and collaborate beyond the classroom These technologies facilitate connections between learners and global audiences, offering valuable opportunities for interaction and enabling students to adopt new roles in their language acquisition journey.

9.2 | Intercultural approaches: concepts, models and dimensions

Literature matters: a rationale for teaching literature and film 177

The significance of teaching literature, especially in foreign language education, has garnered considerable attention from literary scholars and teacher educators within the emerging field of literature didactics, which originated in German-speaking universities in the 1970s This interest is shaped by influences from related disciplines like literary studies and pedagogy, as well as broader educational policy developments and curriculum design considerations.

The teaching of literature in modern language lessons has a rich history dating back to the 19th century, evolving significantly over the years Initially, both the learning objectives and teaching practices were influenced by ancient languages, emphasizing the translation of important literary works.

10.1 Literature matters: a rationale for teaching literature and film

Conclusion

Literature and Film—Approaching Fictional Texts and Media

The aim of exploring English and French literary history is to highlight the cultural achievements of these target cultures, emphasizing an educational approach in literature lessons, which were frequently conducted in German.

In 1943, Leavis described the study of literature as a profoundly civilizing endeavor, asserting that it uniquely develops both intelligence and sensibility, fostering sensitivity, precision in response, and a refined integrity of thought However, this perspective has since been dismissed as an elitist academic viewpoint Consequently, the notion of an exclusive literary canon has faced significant criticism, paving the way for the inclusion of diverse new texts and films.

The twentieth century saw the emergence of two significant currents in literary studies: New Criticism and Reader Response Theory New Criticism, prevalent in the first half of the century, emphasized a text-centered approach focused on objective literary analysis and structuralist interpretation of formal elements In contrast, Reader Response Theory, which gained prominence in the 1970s and 1980s, highlighted the reading process as a creative interaction between the reader and the text, viewing it as a negotiation rather than merely decoding hidden meanings These theories have profoundly influenced literature education, leading to various teaching methodologies that reflect shifts in literary and cultural studies This evolution has redefined the role of the reader, or learner, in foreign language classrooms, aiming to educate "the whole person" (Gilroy/Parkinson 1997, 215).

Engaging with literary texts and films allows learners to explore diverse perspectives through narrative structures and character dynamics, fostering empathy and the ability to shift viewpoints This experience not only enhances inter- and transcultural understanding but also cultivates tolerance for ambiguity in literary language, which is essential for both enjoying literature and engaging in analytical thinking Moreover, the interaction with literary works goes beyond personal response, playing a crucial role in distinguishing between fictional and non-fictional texts For instance, reading a newspaper article on migration provides a fundamentally different experience compared to a short story or novel addressing the same theme.

The teaching of literature in foreign language classrooms is often justified by its rich historical tradition, while also highlighting its various dimensions that enhance language learning.

Motivational-affective dimension:One aspect of experiencing litera- ture is the possibility ofentering a ›new world‹via texts and films Im-

Engaging with literary texts, whether through the works of authors or filmmakers, can evoke strong emotional responses and highlight the artistic qualities of literature, such as character and setting descriptions (Paran/Robinson 2016, 19) While some may dismiss this engagement as merely escapist, many authors argue that the authentic emotions conveyed in literary works serve as a significant motivator for learners, allowing them to connect with themes on a personal level Ideally, these texts spark interest, foster emotional involvement, and encourage individual feedback among learners It is important to note that not every literary work will resonate with every student, and some may even reject certain texts However, literary texts generally possess the ability to elicit personal reactions—whether positive, negative, or ambivalent—that can stimulate interaction in the EFL classroom and pave the way for communicative and creative activities.

The aesthetic and formal dimensions of literary texts and films provide encounters with genre-specific features that shape the language of literature While analytical approaches have long dominated literature education, they remain relevant within learner-oriented frameworks Emphasizing the formal aspects of literary language often enhances aesthetic enjoyment, as these elements are interdependent Although literary language can be challenging, it is also intense and memorable, occasionally questioning conventional syntactic norms.

Aesthetic enjoyment in literature often stems from creative interpretations of genre conventions The formal elements of literary works are crucial for both analytical and creative teaching methods in literature.

Dimension of language learning and competence development:

Teaching literary texts in the EFL classroom enhances competence and develops essential reading skills Literature not only supports oral and written expression but also fosters creativity and adventurous thinking among learners This approach helps students appreciate the richness and diversity of the language they are learning It is crucial to recognize that integrating literature into language education does not conflict with more practical aspects of language learning; rather, they can complement each other effectively.

The cultural dimension of language learning emphasizes the impact of cultural approaches on literature teaching, often recognizing diverse ethnic backgrounds and literary traditions Films, as significant audiovisual texts, have notably shaped the perception of literature in educational settings Both traditional print texts and their mediated forms, like films, serve as vital sources for cultural learning This perspective has transformed text selection, teaching goals, and methods, highlighting the role of literary works and films as mediums through which culture is expressed.

Literary texts and films serve various purposes in literature lessons, though not all objectives need to be addressed in every session Overall, these resources can be categorized into distinct functions that enhance the learning experience.

Literature and Film—Approaching Fictional Texts and Media lowing different dimensions concerning the teaching of literature and film:

The approach to literary texts can vary based on the specific objectives of each lesson, highlighting different aspects of analysis It's crucial to understand that there isn't a fixed correlation; a particular text does not inherently correspond to a specific analytical dimension.

10.2 | Literature and film—concepts and competences

The impact of literary texts and films in English Language Teaching (ELT) is often viewed as ambiguous, with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages criticized for overlooking literary and aesthetic learning Furthermore, the German educational standards and examination requirements have faced criticism for their heavy emphasis on measurable outcomes in communicative, intercultural, and methodological competences These competences typically focus on the ability to understand, reproduce, analyze, and reorganize content.

Motivational- affective dimension Dimension of language learning and competence development

Aesthetic and formal dimension Cultural dimension

Literature and film engage learners on a personal level, providing motivating and authentic language input from the target culture They offer aesthetic satisfaction and challenge, making them memorable experiences These mediums facilitate the exploration of diverse perspectives and evoke emotional responses, enhancing reading competencies and film literacy By enabling aesthetic learning, they provide insights into different cultures and narratives, fostering imagination and personal reflection Furthermore, literature and film help develop critical skills related to text reception and production, allowing learners to understand various text genres They connect literary studies with intercultural learning and inspire creative follow-up activities, supporting the development of general text and media competencies Ultimately, they encourage learners to appreciate the relationship between formal analysis and aesthetic enjoyment while raising awareness of cultural representations in literary works.

The teaching of literature and film texts encompasses various dimensions, including evaluation and production, yet there is a notable lack of focus on individual cultivation, or Bildung, within language policies and curricula The educational purposes of literature and film, as well as the enjoyment derived from reading and viewing, extend beyond mere functional aspects of literary learning Recent studies highlight the importance of literary texts and films in developing competencies, thereby integrating multiple facets of foreign language and literary education to achieve functional, aesthetic, and communicative objectives.