P ROBLEM S TATEMENT
In today's fast-paced business environment, teams face significant challenges due to rapidly changing competition, evolving customer needs, and technological advancements, resulting in tight deadlines and complex task cooperation (Hamm, 2006) Effective management of temporal resources has become crucial for team success (Lientz & Rea, 2001), yet research on time management within deadline-driven teams remains limited and inconsistent (Mohammed & Nadkarni, 2011) To address this gap, an increasing number of researchers have explored the temporal perspective in team dynamics (Ancona et al., 2001; Waller, 1998; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999) Notably, Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011) found that team temporal leadership positively influences team performance; however, their study focused solely on a single technology company, limiting its generalizability Additionally, they have yet to examine whether team temporal leadership's impact on performance is moderated by individual differences among team members, such as time urgency and future time perspective.
Vietnamisafastdevelopingcountry;withanaverageofGPDgrowthfrom2000to2010wasmoret h a n 6 % peryear(tradingeconomy.com).T h e economic developingcreatestheneedofchangeinleadershipnotonlyatindividuallevelbutalsoatg roupleveltocoordinatememberadaptingwiththesophisticateoftasks.Despitetheimport antofleadershipingroupanditmoderators,whichhasbeenaninterestingsubjecttoresea rchersindevelopedcountries,acomprehensivei n v e s t i g a t i o n ongrouplevelwithV ietnameseworkforcehasbeenspare.Answeringthiscall,Iinvestigatethemoderatingroleo ftimeurgency,futureperspectiveontherelationship betweenteamtemporalleadershipandteamperformance.
R ESEARCH ’ S O BJECTIVES
Thisstudyexaminestherelationshipbetweenteamtemporalleadershipandteam performance.Italsoanalysesthemoderatingroleofindividualtimeurgencyandtimeper spectiveonthisrelationship.Thequestionsbelowwillbeansweraccordingly:
Question1:Howteamtemporal leadershipaffects team performance?
Question2 : Howindividualtimeurgencya f f e c t s t h e relationshipbetweent e a m temp oral leadership and team performance?
Question3:Howindividualfuturetimeperspectiveaffectstherelationshipbetweenteam temporal leadership and team performance?
Lastbutnotleast,thispaperalsowantstotestifthereisa differenceonteamperformancebetw eensome maindemographic(gender,age,andeducation)groups.
Theliteraturereviewwilldefinetheseconceptsandrevealrelevanceresearchesonthese issues.The quantitative research willbe conductedtoanswerthesequestions.
R ESEARCH ’ S S COPEAND A PPROACH
earch’sApproach
Second,sincethispaperanalystsatteamlevel,therespondentsofthispapertargete dtointerviewarefulltimeemployees,whoworkinginteams,groupsordepartments(fromno wtheterm“team”or“group”willpresentedforteam,groupanddepartment)withotherme mbers.Theyc a n besaleperson,marketingperson,doctors,nurses,t e c h n i c i a n s a n d an yemployeesw h o h a v e directedcontactwith customers.
Thisstudywillhavetwomainphases:qualitativeandquantitativeresearch.Thequal itativeincludedrawsdraftquestionnairefromliteraturereview;then,translate questionnaireinto
Vietnamese,nextconductgroupdiscussions,thenreviewanddebatea n d reviewagainqu estionnairesuntilhavefinalquestionnaires.Thequantitativeresearchwilltestthemeasure ment(questionnaires),hypothesisanddraw conclusion.
C ONTRIBUTION
Managerial Contributions
Thisstudyprovidesmanagerswitha deeperunderstandingo f h o w t h e i r l ead ers hi p i n t i m e perspectiveaffectsteamperformance,andhowtheirfollower’sdifferenc e in time urgency, time perspective canaffect the result of their leadership.
R ESEARCH S TRUCTURE
Chapter2:L i t e r a t u r e reviewprovidest h e o r e t i c a l a n d empiricalbackgroundc o n n e c t i n g tothehypothesizedresearch model.
Chapter 3: Methodology addresses methodologies and analysis tools andtechniques.
Chapter5:Discussionbaseontheresulta n d providetheoretical,practicalimplication, and possible directions for further research.
Thischapterhadintroducedtheimportanttoconductthisresearchandrelevancerese archesofpioneersovertheissueofthispaper(theissueoftime).TheObjectivesofthispaperi sdefinedastherelationshipbetweenteamtemporalleadership andteamperformancea ndthemoderators ofthisrelationship,theyaretimeurgencyandfuturetimeperspective.Theacademicandmanagerialcontributionof this research also had introduced.
Thischapterreviewsthetheoreticalandempiricalliteratures,providingthetheoretic al background tothe problemunder research.
Int h e scopeoft h i s paper,t h e authorexaminest w o temporalindividualdiffer ences:timeurgencyandtimeperspective.Thesetemporalindividualdifferencesareconcep tuallydistinct,captureuniquetime- basedcharacteristicsrelevanttoteamtasks,andhavebeentheoreticallyimplicatedasi mportantforteamfunctioning.Althoughsparse,team- levelstudiesarebeginningt oi nv est ig ate time urgency
(Mohammed&Angle,2004)andtime perspective(West&Meyer,1997).
T IME U RGENCY
ime Urgency andTypeABehaviorPattern
Theempiricalandtheoreticalstudieshaveshowntheimportantofhowpeoplemake decisionsundertimepressure.Timeurgencyisanimportantfactortoconsiderwhenstud ypeoplec o n d u c t i n g theiractivitiesunderdeadlinecondition.Timeurgencyemergedfr omthestudyoftherelationshipbetweencoronary- proneindividual(TypeA)andheartdisease(FriedmanandRoseman,1974).Timeurgenc y,a subcomponentofT y p e A behavior,is a f r e q u e n t concernwitht h e passageofti me,andarelativelystablecharacteristicofTypeAbehaviorindividual
(Walleretal.,2002).TypeAbehaviorindividualsconsiderhard- driving,competitive,hostile,andt i m e urgentcomparisont o n o coronary- proneindividual(TypeB).TypeAindividualsareexpectedworksignificantlyfasterth anTypeB’s(YarnoldandGrimm,1982).T h i s senseoftimeurgencyi s oneoft h e central elementsofTypeAbehavior.
Timeurgencyischaracterizedbyanacceleratedpaceofactivitiesthatresultsfromstr ivingtofulfillmoreandmoreinlesstime(FriedmanandRoseman,1974).T h i s hard- drivingnatureissupportedbythefindingofBurmanetal.
Type A individuals approach tasks with maximum effort, often disregarding specific goals such as deadlines Research conducted in 1975 demonstrated that the presence or absence of a deadline did not affect the pace of Type A individuals This may be due to their tendency to create their own deadlines even in no-deadline scenarios Constantly feeling rushed, Type A individuals frequently check the time and strive to maintain control over their circumstances by imposing self-created deadlines.
CharacteristicofTime Urgency
Peoplewithtimeurgentcharacteristichaveachronicfeelingofbeingpressuredand appeartobepreoccupiedwithsettingdeadlines.Theyareawareoft i m e andarelikelytodo moreactivitiesthantheyareabletodoinacertainamountoftime.T h e y o f t e n t e n d to f e e l timepassingslowly,sincetheyturntomoreimpatientwhent h e y wanttoslowdow nthespeedoftheiractivities(Glassetal,1974) Thefeelingofurgencyaffectsboththeper ceptionandtheusageoftimefort h e m whenindividualsareoverwhelmedwithactivitiesa ndduties;awaytocontrolorderistofollowascheduletheyhavedriven.Time- urgentindividualsstatethatbymakingschedule,theycanperformwellundertimepressure( Rastegary&Landy,1993).Gastorf(1980)reportstime- urgentpeopleusualscheduleforactivities earlierthanlesstime- urgentpeople.Timeurgentpeoplealsotendtomultipletaskssimultaneouslytosavetime.
Time- urgencyi s c o n n e c t e d withbehavioru n d e r t i m e pressureconditions.Timeurgenc yindividualsaretentto awareoftime,settingtaskprioritizationandschedulingtheirownt askwithintheallottedtime(Conte,Landy&Mathieu,1985).Time- urgencyindividualusuallya t t e n d c a r e f u l l y t h e passingoftimebycheckingtheir watch repeatedly (Price 1982)
Inordert o fulfillallt h e activitiest h a t t h e y havescheduled,timeurgentindivid ualsmustbequiteefficientinusingtheirtime.Whentimeurgentindividualsp l a n manytas kstheyusuallyusedeadlinesasheuristicstoprioritizetasks,andtomeasure time remaining to fulfillatask.
Research on time urgency and its impact on team performance remains limited and inconsistent (Mohammed & Nadkarni, 2011) While previous studies primarily examined the effects of time urgency on individual performance, findings suggest that time urgency can negatively influence performance For instance, Friend (1982) identified a negative linear relationship between time urgency, subjective workload, and performance on problem-solving exams, indicating that increased stress levels adversely affect individual performance Similarly, Glass et al (1997) found a negative correlation between time urgency and performance in tasks requiring patience Conversely, Bingham and Hailey (1989) discovered that individuals with high time urgency perform better under deadlines compared to those with low time urgency, while low time-urgent individuals excel in non-deadline conditions Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011) further propose that individuals with less time urgency may outperform those with high time urgency in complex tasks requiring high attention and accuracy.
ime Urgency and Team Performance
Individual time urgency significantly impacts team performance, with certain characteristics enhancing team efforts Waller et al (1998) found that having even one time-urgent member can sharpen a team's focus on primary tasks, especially under deadline pressure The study highlights that meeting deadlines serves as a key performance measure for teams By combining time urgency and time perspective, four individual behavior patterns were identified that emerge under deadline conditions Results indicate that a temporal mismatch among team members—where individual time urgency and perspectives greatly differ—negatively affects team performance Teams function more effectively when members share similar levels of time urgency and perspective Time-urgent individuals, who feel pressured to make quick decisions, may rely on past experiences but risk overlooking critical details, ultimately hindering decision-making and overall performance Therefore, while time urgency can boost efficiency, it can also adversely affect team dynamics.
T IME P ERSPECTIVE
imePerspectiveandteam performance
t e r m activitiesthroughbehaviorsequencing,thereisagreaterabilitythatthestrengthsofpr esent-andfuture- orientedmemberswillbeeffectivelyutilized.“Synchronyingroupmembere x p e c t a t i o n a b o u t deadlinesm a y bec r i t i c a l t o groups’a b i l i t y t o a c c o m p l i s h successfult r a n s i t i o n intheirwork”(Gersick,1989:305);therefore,strongerteamtemporalleadershi pmayallow time perspectivediversitytobeproperlyleveraged
T EAM T EMPORAL L EADERSHIP
Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011) define team temporal leadership as the integration of time, interaction, and performance theories with emerging literature on temporal leadership Their research identifies three key activities to address challenges arising from diverse temporal individual differences: scheduling activities, synchronizing tasks, and allocating temporal resources (McGrath & Kelly, 1986) Establishing clear schedules helps minimize temporal conflicts by outlining specific events and creating a unified plan with provisional deadlines and milestones for team members to track their progress (Zerubavel, 1981) Synchronizing team activities enhances coordination and reduces conflicts of temporal interests by managing task flow and adjusting individual work cycles (Schriber, 1986; Schriber & Gutek, 1987) Additionally, mitigating time pressure involves building in time for unexpected contingencies, prioritizing tasks, and efficiently distributing temporal resources among team members (Schriber & Gutek, 1987) When team members experience less time pressure, they tend to be more productive and committed to achieving their tasks (Gevers, van Eerde, & Rutte, 2001).
Althoughthetime,interaction,performancetheorydoesnotspecifywhowillperfor mthesethreeactivities,othertemporalresearchershavestatedthatteaml e a d e r s areoften responsibleforimplementingtime- relatedactivitiessuchasschedulingandremindingteammembersofdeadlines(Gevers,R utte,&vanEerde,2004;Geversetal.,2009).Becauseateamleader’sprimaryfunctionis
Effective management of temporal challenges within teams often falls to leaders, with researchers increasingly linking time-related activities to leadership roles Ancona et al (2001) introduced the term "temporal leadership" to describe the complexities of acting swiftly and managing multiple time frames Halbesleben et al (2003) emphasized the importance of recognizing time-related differences and synchronizing team members' abilities as essential leadership functions Vander Erve (2004) argued for a more inclusive understanding of leadership that addresses the temporal needs of organizations However, Bluedorn and Jaussi (2008) noted the limited and scattered application of temporal variables in leadership research, indicating a gap in understanding their impact on leadership processes To address this, Mohammed and Nadkarni (2004) explored the intersection of time, leadership, and teams, expanding the concept of temporal leadership within a team context.
Teamtemporalleadershipisleaderbehaviorst h a t a i d i n structuring,coordinatin g,andmanagingthe pacingtaskaccomplishmentina team.Thedimensionsoftemporallea dershipbehaviorsarescheduling,synchronizingtaskanda l l o c a t i n g temporalresour ces(Mohammed,2011).Temporalindividualdifferencescancreatebothadvantagesa n d d isadvantages.Ont h e positiveside,diversifyoftemporalinteammemberscanbebeneficial lyincomplex,dynamic,anduncertaintaskenvironment(Eisenhardt,2004;Mohammed
& Harrison,2007).Onthe negativeside,diversifyoftemporali n teammembercancreateambiguityandconflictamo ngteammembers(Bartel& Milliken,2004).Consequently,strongteamtemporalleadershi pcangeneratethebenefitoftemporaldiversifyi n t e a m member (Mohammed2011)
T EAM T EMPORAL L EADERSHIP AND T EAM P ERFORMANCE
Inadditiontomoderatingtherelationshipb e t w e e n d i v e r s i t y o f temporali ndividualdifferencesa n d teamperformance,teamtemporalleadershipmayalsocontrib utedirectly toteamperformance.Becausevirtuallyallteamshaveimplicitorexplicitdeadlines,thetime lycompletionofworkisregardedasacriticalindicatorofteamsuccessinbothscience(e.g., Hackman,1 9 9 0 ) a n d practice(e.g.,Fine,1998).Indeed,effectiveadjustmenttoexternal temporalparametersiscentraltomaximizingteamperformanceintoday’sbusinessword,w hereteamarecloselytiedtoenvironmentalpacerssuchastechnology,customer,supplier, andeconomiccycles (Ancona et al., 2001)
Team temporal leadership behaviors play a crucial role in bridging organizational boundaries by helping leaders create internal temporal structures that align a team's activities with external project environments By setting interim milestones, leaders enable teams engaged in complex and dynamic tasks to shift focus as needed, ensuring deadlines are met Additionally, effective scheduling, synchronization, and temporal resource allocation allow leaders to navigate the complexities of departmental timeframes Understanding these temporal issues empowers leaders to create a context for team activities, fostering a more integrated and flexible approach to time management that enhances adaptability and performance.
Team temporal Leadership H1 + Team performance cleartimeframesandconveythemtomembersthroughschedules,reminders,andinteri mmilestonesandtimeframestiedtoprojectgoalsarebetterpositionedtomaximizeteam productivity(Halbesleben et al., 2003).
H YPOTHESES D EVELOPMENT
MohammedandNadkarni(2011)haveprovedthatTeamtemporalleadershipposi tivelyimpactteamperformance.Theauthortestsagainthishypothesis in Vietnamconditions.
Next,theauthorputtimeurgencyandfuturetimeperspectiveasmoderatorso n the relationship betweenteamtemporal leadership and team performance.
HypothesisH2a,H2b:Individualtimeurgencyandfuturetimeperspectivemoderat et h e relationshipbetweenteamtemporall e a d e r s h i p a n d t e a m performance.
Team temporal Leadership H1 + Team performance
Suggestedmodel:Timeurgencya n d futuretimeperspectivemoderatetherelationship between teamtemporalleadership and team performance.
Chaptertworevealtheoreticalresearchonteamtemporalleadership,individualtim eurgency,timeperspectivedifferencesandteamperformance.Basingont h e researchofM ohammeda n d Nadkarni(2011)theauthortestonoftheirfindingisthatifthereisanyrelation shipbetweenteamtemporalleadershipandteamperformanceinVietnamcontext.Theauth oralsosuggestthenewmodelthataretimeurgencyandtimeperspectiveaffecttherelations hipbetweenteamtemporal leadership and team performance.
Thepurposeofthischapteristoaddressthemethodsusedinthisstudy.Theitemsw h i c h hadb e e n addressedincluderesearchdesign,questionnairedevelopment,andtransla tionofthequestionnaires,targetpopulation,sampleframe,samplesize,sampleselection,s amplecharacteristic,datacollectionandmethodsofdata analysis.
R ESEARCH D ESIGN
=7)tocheckthecontentandmeaningofwordswhichwereusedinthemeasurementscales Theresultoft h e groupdiscussionshowedt h a t thei t e m“Thedepartment’stimelinessi n meetingt a s k m i l e s t o n e s a n d b i w e e k l y d e a d l i n e was”isnotrelevantinVi etnamworkingenvironment.Allparticipantsintheinterviewa g r e e d t h a t i n Vietna m,t h e timel i n e oft a s k i s usuallybymonthly,quarterly, or yearly not biweekly.Therefore,it was excluded
Next,t h e mainstudywasco n d u c t e d using onlinesu r v e y (web- based,docs.goolge.com) and face to face interview.
Q UESTIONNAIRE D EVELOPMENT
Thesurveyi n c l u d e d f o u r sections.T h e y a r e individualtemporalcharacteris tic,teamtemporalleadership,teamperformanceandsocio- demographicprofilequestions.Ashortandclearinstructionwasgivenatthebeginning of each sectiont o tellrespondentwhatt h e purposesoft h e questionnairesa re a n d howt o answerthem (Babbie, 1998) Allitems wereassessed on Likert-type scales.
Thepurposeoft h i s phasei s t o a d j u s t thescalesintheliteraturereview,modifyt hequestionnairestobesuitablewithVietnamcondition.Baseontheinitialquestionnaires, whichderivedfromtheprimarypurposeandtheoreticalbackground,theauthorbuildsthefi rstdraftquestionnaires.However,thefirstdraftquestionnaireswerehardlyapplicablei n V i e t n a m c o n d i t i o n Therefore,t h e quantitativewouldbehandledthroughdeepint erviewtechniquewiththeparticipationof twenty employeesto get the final questionnaires.
S CALE
FutureTimePerspective
FuturetimeperspectivewasassessedwiththeConsiderationo f FutureConsequences Scaledevelopeda n d validatedb y Strathman,Gleicher,Boninger,an d Edwards(1994). This12- itemscale,whichmeasurestheextenttowhichindividualsconsiderdistantoutcomesversus immediatebenefitsi n choosingbehaviors,wasr a t e d f r o m 1 , “stronglydisagree”to7 “ stronglya g r e e ” Alloftwelve items of future time perspective was codedasFC1toFC12.
2 OftenI en g a g e i n a particularbehaviori n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e outcomest h at may notresultfor many years.
3 Ionlyacttosatisfyimmediate concerns,figuringthefuturewilltakecare of itself
Table3.2Future consequence scale(continue)
4 Mybehaviorisonlyinfluencedbytheimmediate(i.e.,amatterofdaysor weeks)outcomes of myactions.
6 Iamwillingt o sacrificem y immediatehappinessorwell-beingi n order to archive future outcomes.
7 Ithinkitisimportanttotakewarningsaboutnegativeoutcomesseriouslyev en if the negative outcomes will not occur for many years.
8 It h i n k i t i s m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o p e r f o r m a behaviorwithimp ortantdistantconsequencest h a n a behaviorwithless-importantimmediate
9 Igenerallyi g n o r e warningaboutpossiblefutureproblembecauseI think the problems willbe resolvedbefore they reach crisis level
10 It h i n k t h a t sacrificingnowi s usuallyunnecessarysincefutureoutcome can be dealt with atalater time.
11 Ionlyacttosatisfyimmediateconcerns,figuringthatIwilltakecareof future problemsthatmay occur atalaterdate.
12 Sincemydaytodayworkhasspecificoutcomes,itismoreimportanttometha nbehaviorthathas distant outcomes.
One criticism of leadership research is the reliance on instruments that only capture a limited range of essential leader behaviors (Hunter et al., 2007) Given the lack of empirical studies on team temporal leadership, it was essential to create a new measurement for this study Mohammed and Nadkarni (2011) developed a seven-item scale by adapting existing scales for temporal planning (Janicik & Bartel, 2003) and temporal reminders (Gevers et al., 2006) to focus specifically on leadership They also created additional items to encompass McGrath’s (1991) definitions of scheduling, synchronization, and allocation of temporal resources, as well as Ancona and colleagues’ (2001) conceptualization of temporal leadership Responses to these items were coded on a scale from 1, "not at all," to 7, "to a very great extent," labeled as TL1 to TL7.
Team Temporal Leadership Scale Code
1 Towhate x t e n t doesyourl e a d e r remindsdepartment’smemberso f im portant deadlines?
3 Towhate x t e n t doesy o u r l e a d e r preparea n d buildi n timeforcontingenc ies, problems,andemergingissues?
TL3 TL4 TL5 TL6 TL7
Teamperformanceismultidimensional(Hackman,1990),andalthoughquantityand qualityaremeasuredfarmorefrequentlyinteamresearch(e.g.,Austin,2003;Chen&Klim oski,2003),itwasespeciallyimportanttoincludethetimelinessofworkcompletionbecau seofthetemporalemphasisinthecurrentstudy.MohammedandNadkarniassessteamperf ormanceviafouritemscapturingteams’timelinessinmeetingtaskmilestones,c l i e n t s ’ satisfactionwitht e a m performance, and overall performance.
Thegroupdiscussiondiscoveredthattheitem“Thedepartment’stimelinessinmeetin gtaskmilestonesandbiweeklydeadlineswas”wasnotrelevancebecauseinVietnamworki ngenvironmenttaskswereusuallyevaluatedbytheendofthemonth,quarteroryear.Theref ore,thisitemwasexcluded.TheremaineditemswerecodedasTP1toTP3.
1 Pleaseratethetimeline by whichthisdepartment’staskwas completed TP1
2 Thedepartment’stimeliness inmeetingtask milestonesandbiweeklyde adlineswas.
The initial questionnaires in the literature are in English and have not yet been publicly translated into Vietnamese by any author To address this gap, the author undertook the translation and back-translation of these questionnaires in accordance with cross-cultural translation procedures (Presser et al., 2004) Brislin (1980) recommends that translation techniques should involve a committee or parallel translation, where several translators independently translate the same questionnaire During a reconciliation meeting, the translators compare their translations, resolve
Thetermback- translationreferredtothetranslationofatranslationbackintotheoriginallanguage(Presseret al.,2004).T h e purposeofbacktranslationwastocompare,contrastthebacktranslationwi ththesourcetextwithaviewtoassessingthequalityofthetranslation.Forsurveytranslation,b acktranslationisseenasofferinga solutiontot h e factt h a t researchersoftenneedinformat ionaboutthequality of translationswithoutbeing ableto read and evaluate thesethemselves.
The basic steps were as follows:
Firstly,a sourcet e x t i n onelanguage(SourceLanguageTextOne,SLT1)wastran slatedintoanotherlanguage(TargetLanguageText,TLT)usingparalleltrans lationtechnique.
TeamPerformance Scale
TL3 TL4 TL5 TL6 TL7
Teamperformanceismultidimensional(Hackman,1990),andalthoughquantityand qualityaremeasuredfarmorefrequentlyinteamresearch(e.g.,Austin,2003;Chen&Klim oski,2003),itwasespeciallyimportanttoincludethetimelinessofworkcompletionbecau seofthetemporalemphasisinthecurrentstudy.MohammedandNadkarniassessteamperf ormanceviafouritemscapturingteams’timelinessinmeetingtaskmilestones,c l i e n t s ’ satisfactionwitht e a m performance, and overall performance.
Thegroupdiscussiondiscoveredthattheitem“Thedepartment’stimelinessinmeetin gtaskmilestonesandbiweeklydeadlineswas”wasnotrelevancebecauseinVietnamworki ngenvironmenttaskswereusuallyevaluatedbytheendofthemonth,quarteroryear.Theref ore,thisitemwasexcluded.TheremaineditemswerecodedasTP1toTP3.
1 Pleaseratethetimeline by whichthisdepartment’staskwas completed TP1
2 Thedepartment’stimeliness inmeetingtask milestonesandbiweeklyde adlineswas.
TranslationofQuestionnaires
The initial questionnaires in the literature are in English and have not yet been publicly translated into Vietnamese by any author To address this gap, the author undertook the translation and back-translation of these questionnaires following cross-cultural translation procedures (Presser et al., 2004) Brislin (1980) recommends that translation techniques involve a committee or parallel translation, where several translators independently translate the same questionnaire During a reconciliation meeting, these translators compare their translations, resolve discrepancies, and agree on a final version that incorporates the best elements from the independent translations or emerges through discussion In this study, the author employed parallel translation with five independent translators.
Thetermback- translationreferredtothetranslationofatranslationbackintotheoriginallanguage(Presseret al.,2004).T h e purposeofbacktranslationwastocompare,contrastthebacktranslationwi ththesourcetextwithaviewtoassessingthequalityofthetranslation.Forsurveytranslation,b acktranslationisseenasofferinga solutiontot h e factt h a t researchersoftenneedinformat ionaboutthequality of translationswithoutbeing ableto read and evaluate thesethemselves.
The basic steps were as follows:
Firstly,a sourcet e x t i n onelanguage(SourceLanguageTextOne,SLT1)wastran slatedintoanotherlanguage(TargetLanguageText,TLT)usingparalleltrans lationtechnique.
Secondly,TheTLTwastranslatedbackintotheoriginlanguagebyasecondinterpre ter,whounfamiliarwiththeSLT1anduninformedthattherewasanSLT1.Thiss econdtranslation was SLT2
Att h e end,ont h e basisofdifferencesorsimilaritiesbetweenSLT1andSLT2,co nclusions weredrawnabouttheequivalenceofTLTtoSLT1.
Inthispaper,SLT1andSLT2werefoundcloseinmeaningacrosstranslateditems.T herefore,theauthordecidedtousethefirsttranslationtoconductgroup discussion.
G ROUP D ISCUSSION
Thequestionnaireswaspre- testedusing7 respondentswhowereworkingatMegaWeCare(n=1)BIDV(n=1)DaklakH ospital(n=2),VietjetAir(n=1),VietGuy(n=1),Vietcomreal(n=1).T h e individualsw e r e n o t includedint h e f i n a l sample.Thequalitativecommentsreceivedwerem o s t l y regardingwordingandrepetitions of the items.
Becauseallcommentsonrepetitionswereonreversescoreitems,norevisiononthe questionnairewasmade.Allmodificationsw e r e f o r wordingt o maket h e t r a n s l a t i o n clearerandclosertoVietnamese.Theywere“chậmrãi”replacedby“từtốn”(item1),“tư ơnglaithìđểtươnglailo”replacedby“ngàymaithìđểlosau”(item 9),“kếtquảngay lậptức” replaced by “kếtquảtrước mắt” (item 10).
T ARGET P OPULATION
ThetargetpopulationforthisresearchwasemployeeinVietnam,whohadbeenworkin gwithdirectleaderinaperiodoftimelessthan36months,andhasadirectcontactwithclient s.Thereason,whyworkingtimeofresponderswiththeirdirectleadermustbesmallerthan36 months,is thatonefactortobeconsideredinthis paperis“teamtemporalleadership”.I nthiscase,theleaderandfollowershadjust workingtogetherinashortperiodoftime(lessthan36months).Therespondentsmusth avedirectcontactwithclientssothatonecanevaluatetheirteamperformances byclient’ssatisfactionscore.
S AMPLE S IZE
Asamplesizeforalinearregressionanalysisisvariousbetweenresearchers.Afullinve stigationofthisissueisbeyondthescopeofthispaper.Green(1991)suggestthenumberofsu bject,N,shouldalwaysequalorgreaterthanaconstantA( N ≥A).Anotherformstipulatesar ecommendedminimumratioBofsubjects-to- predictors(i.e.,N ≥ Bm,w h e r e m i s t h e numbero f predictors).NguyenDinhTho(20
50.Howeverhealsosuggestthatwhenthenumberofitemisover7,thatformulabecome too strictlyandwedoneedtohave suchabig sample.
Int h i s paper,t h e authorfollowedthesuggesto f TabacnickandFidell’s(1989)th atnumberofsubjectsforeachindependentvariableinregressionanalysisshouldbefivesa mplesperitem.Becausethereweretotal28variables(items)inthequestionnaires,theideals amplesizeofthisstudywas140;theauthortargettohave at least 190 responses.
S ELECTING T HE S AMPLEAND C OLLECTING D ATA
Inqualitativeresearch,probabilitysamplingisa betterthannon- probabilitysamplingbecauseitismorerepresentingthepopulation.Probabilitysampling methodisanymethodofsamplingthatutilizessomeformofrandomselection(William,2006).However,duetothelimitationoft i m e a n d aids,theprobabilitysampling,b a s e o n age,gender,education,sectorscouldnotbeconduct.Inthispaper,theauthor usesthe convenience samplingtechnique.
Conveniencesamplingisnon- probabilitysamplingt e c h n i q u e wheresubjectsareselectedbecauseoftheirconvenienta ccessibilitya n d p r o x i m i t y t o t h e researcher(Joan,2009).Themostdisadvantageoft histechniqueissamplingbiasandthatthesampleisnotrepresentative of the entire population
Systematicbiasstemsfromsamplingbias.Thisreferstoaconstantdifferencebetweent heresultfromthesampleandthetheoreticalresultsfromtheentirepopulation.Itisnot rarethattheresults fromastudythatusesaconveniencesamplediffersignificantlywiththeresultsfromt h e enti repopulation.A consequenceofhaving systematicbiasisobtaining skewedresults(Joan, 2009).
Anothersignificantcriticismaboutusinga conveniencesampleisthelimitationingen eralizationandinferencemakingabouttheentirepopulation.Sincethesampleisnotreprese ntativeofthepopulation,theresultso f t h e studyc a n n o t speakfortheentirepopulation.Th isresultstoalowexternalvalidityofthestudy(Joan, 2009).
Mainstudy’sfieldworkwasconductedfromJuly05toJuly202012bytheauthorand assistants.Thesurveywassentbybothonlineinterview(throughemail,facebook.com)and offlineinterview(facetofaceinterview,mail).Theonlineresponseswere65andoffl i n e w ere213.60a n s w e r s wereexcludedb e c a u s e o f missingitems,notlogicalanswerinrev ersescores,andnotfulfillingtherequirementpredefinecriteria().Therespondratebyemail was54/200(27%)andofflineinterviewwas213/420(50.7%).Theremain11answerarethr oughsocialnetwork facebook.com
M ETHODS OF D ATA A NALYSIS
Data Screening
Firstly,theauthorfilteredqualifiedrespondents,whometthepredefinedcriteriaasme ntioninsamplecharacteristicsection.Next,forofflinerespondents, theauthorwillcheckt h e m i s s i n g answers(allonlinerespondentswerefulfilledbecause theauthorput“require”ineachitem).Lastly,theauthorchecksthelogicalof respondents of reversed items.
Reliability
The author employed Cronbach's Alpha to assess the reliability of the measurement, which is a widely recognized statistic for evaluating internal consistency across a set of items (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004) This coefficient is calculated by averaging all possible split-half reliability coefficients, with values ranging from 0, indicating no internal reliability, to 1, indicating perfect internal reliability However, a Cronbach's Alpha exceeding 0.95 may indicate redundancy among items, suggesting they share similar meanings Generally, a scale with a Cronbach’s Alpha between 0.7 and 0.8 is considered acceptable, while a range of 0.8 to 0.9 is deemed good (Nguyen Dinh Tho, 2011) For new research problems with respondents, a Cronbach's Alpha above 0.6 is acceptable (Chu Nguyen Mong Ngoc & Hoang Trong, 2010).
TotalCorrelationtotestthereliableoft h e i t e m s Ani t e m c a n b e i n c l u d e i n t h e mea surementifit’scorrecteditem-totalc o r r e l a t i o n l a r g e r t h a n 0.3(ChuNguyenMongNgoc&HoangTrong,2010).
ConfirmatoryFactor Analysis
Priortoconductinghypothesestest,theauthorconductedconfirmatoryfactoranalys is(CFA)totestthemodelfitorwhetherthedatafitthehypothesises.CFAist h e o r y - o r hypothesisdriven.WithCFAitispossiblet o placesubstantivelymeaningfulconstraints onthefactormodel.Researcherscanspecifythenumberoffactorsorsett h e e f f e c t ofonel a t e n t variableonobservedvariablest o particularvalues.CFAallowsresearcherstotesthyp othesesaboutaparticularfactorstructure(e.g.,factorloadingbetweenthefirstfactorandfirs tobservedvariableiszero).
UnlikeE F A (ExploratoryFactorAnalysis),CFAproducesmanygoodness-of- fitmeasures to evaluate the model butdo not calculate factor scores.
A large class of omnibus tests exists to assess how well a model matches observed data, with Chi-Square (χ2) serving as a classic goodness-of-fit measure The null hypothesis posits that the predicted covariance matrix (Σ) is equivalent to the observed sample covariance matrix (S) A large χ2 value and rejection of the null hypothesis indicate that the model does not adequately reproduce the sample covariance, suggesting poor model fit Conversely, a small χ2 value and failure to reject the null hypothesis signal a good model fit However, the χ2 test may become invalid if distributional assumptions are violated, potentially leading to the rejection of good models or the retention of poor ones.
Duetothesedrawbacksofχ2testmanyalternativefitstatisticshavebeendeveloped,t h o u g h eachh a s i t s ownadvantagesa n d disadvantages.Theya r e t h e χ 2 / df, theComparativeFitIndex(CFI),theRootMeanSquareErrorofApproximation(RMSE A),thesignificanceofparameterestimates,andtheamountofsquaredmultiplecorrelation ,Tucker-Lewisindex(TLI),andGoodnessofFixIndex (GFI) (Albright&Park,2009)
CFI:thisindexcomparest h e proposedmodelwitha nullmodelassumingt h a t ther earenorelationshipsbetweenthemeasures.WhileCFIrangesfromoforapoorfitto1forago odfit;aCFIvaluegreaterthan0.90indicatesanacceptablefittothedata (Albright&Park, 2009)
TLI:TLIisanotherindexforcomparativefitthat“includesapenaltyfunctionforad dingfreelyestimatedparameters”(Brown,2006).TLIcanbeinterpretedinasimilarfashion asCFI,butitcanhaveavalueoutsideoftherangeof0to1
RMSEA:t h i s indexusedt o a s s e s s residualsa n d adjustsparsimonyint h e mod el.Itsvaluemustbeequaltoorlessthan0.08forandadequatemodelfit(Albright&Park, 2009).
GFI:GFIintroducedb y Jửreskoga n d Sửrbom( 1 9 8 4 ) L i k e T L I a n d C F I , GFI is less than or equal to 1.Avalue of1indicatesaperfect fit.
Thereisnosingleevaluationruleonwhicheveryoneagrees.However,researchersa greethatwhenRMSEAvaluesarebelow0.8andCFI,TLIrangefrom
0.9to1,CMIN/DFsmaller5withpvalue>0.05indicateagoodmodelfit(Albright
Goodness-of fit Indices Code Desiredrangofvaluesfora good fit
Root Mean Square Error of
≥.90 Source:Albright&Park,2009;Brown(2006);JửreskogandSửrbom(1984)
Inadditiontogoodness- offitIndices,theauthorexamines1)reliabilityofmeasurementbasesoncompositereliabilit y,varianceextracted,andCronbach’sAlpha2)unidimensionality,3)convergentvalidity,4 )discriminantvalidity,and5)nomologicalvalidity(NguyenDinh
AnalysisofVariance
IndependentsampleT- testwasusedtoexaminetheequalitybetweengender(malea n d female)i n teamperforma nce.One- wayANOVAwasuset o t e s t t h e equalityamongageandeducationgroupbecausethese variablehavemorethantwo
30 group.Totesttheequalityofmorethangroup,we useOne- wayANOVANguyenDinhTho(2011)
Afterc o n d u c t T - t e s t a n d One- wayANOVA,i f t h e r e i s a n y differentofequalityinteamperformancebetweengrou pt h e a u t h o r wouldc o n t i n u e c o n d u c t Two-way ANOVAtofurther test.
Correlation Analysis
ThePearsoncorrelationcoefficientisalsoknownasthesamplecorrelationcoefficie nt(r),product- momentcorrelationcoefficient,orcoefficientofcorrelation.ItwasintroducedbyGalto nin1877anddevelopedlaterbyPearson(Neteretal.,1990).Itmeasuresthelinearrel ationshipbetweentworandomvariables.Aninter-c o r r e l a t i o n above0.80or0.85 impliespoordiscriminatevalidity(Brown,2006)
Therearetwotypesordirectionsofcorrelation.Inotherwords,therearetwopatternst hatcorrelationscanfollow.Thesearecalledpositivecorrelationandnegative correlation.
Inapositivecorrelation,asthevaluesofoneofthe variablesincrease, thevalueso ft h e secondvariablealsoincrease.Likewise,asthevalueofoneofthevariablesdecreases,t h e valueoft h e othervariablealsodecreases.Theexampleaboveofincomeandeducationi s apositivecorrelation.
Peoplewithhigherincomesa l s o t e n d tohavemoreyearsofeducation.Peoplewithfewery earsofeducationtend to have lower income.
Ina negativecorrelation,asthevaluesofoneofthevariablesincreasethevaluesofthe secondvariabledecrease.Likewise,asthevalueofoneofthevariables decreases the value of the other variable increases.
Ac o r r e l a t i o n t e l l s ust h a t t h e t w o variablesarerelated,butwecannotsayanyt hingaboutwhethero n e c a u s e d t h e other.Thismethoddoesnotallowustocometoanyco nclusionsaboutcauseandeffect but Regressiondoes.
Regressionanalysisisastatisticaltoolfortheinvestigationofrelationshipsbetween variables(NguyenD i n h T h o , 2011).Toascertainthecausaleffectteamtemporalleaders hiponteamperformance,Iassembleddataontheunderlyingvariable(teamtemporalleader ship)ont e a m performance.I a s s e s s e d t h e i r relationshipbaseonthe“staticallysig nificance”oftheestimatedrelationships,thatis,thedegreeofconfidencethatthetruerelatio nshipisclosetotheestimatedrelationship.
Thehierarchicalregressionwasusedwhenlackofliteraturereviewtosupporttheres earchconcept(NguyenDinhTho,2011).Sincetheliteraturereviewtosupportthemoderat ingroleoftimeurgencyandtimeperspectiveontherelationshipbetweenteamtemporallea dershipandteamperformanceisstillspare(the authorsearchonGoogleandGooglescholarbutdid notfindrelevanceresearchon this issues),the author use hierarchical regression procedure in this paper.
Amoderatorisa variablethataffectsthedirection/ strengthoftherelationshipbetweenanindependentvariableanda dependentvariable(Baro n& Kenny,1 9 8 6 ) A commonmethodtot e s t two- wayinteractionstatisticallyistoconductregressiont h e dependentvariable( Y ) o n t h e de pendentv a r i a b l e ( X ) a n d themoderatingvariable(M),i n t h e nextstep,addtheinteractionXMintotheequation.Inth isstudy,themoderatingrelationshipwast e s t e d u s i n g h i e r a r c h i c a l regressionproc edures.
AikenandWest(1991)pointoutthatbeforeconductingregression,eachpredictorsh ouldbecenteredbyitsmeantomaximizeinterpretabilityandtominimizeproblemofmultico llinearity.ThenentertheXvariableinthefirstr eg ress io n model.I n t h e secondmodel,e n t e r t h e i n t e r a c t i o n (Xcenter* Mcenter)intotheequation.IftheadjustedR2intheseco ndmodelissignificantlyhigherthantheoneinthefirstmodel,andthecoefficientfortheintera ctionissignificant,thereisevidencethatthemoderatorvariablem o d e r a t e s t h e relati onshipbetweentheindependentanddependentvariable
Chapter3hadintroducedhowthispaperwasdesigned,howthemeasurementswere developedtobeapplicableinVietnamsituation,andwhoarethetargetrespondents.Thea uthoralsointroducedsomemethodsof da t a analysispriortotestthehypotheses,theyarethe yreliabletesttotestthereliabilityofthemeasurements,ConfirmatoryFactorAnalysistocon firmifthemodelfitthedata,a n d Correlationanalysistotestthediscriminatevaliditybetwe enmeasurements.Althetestsindicatedthemeasurements,them o d e l a n d d a t a c a n b e u s e d t o conductregressionanalysis.Lastbutnotleast,theauthorpresentsmethodo f Regres sionanalysis to test the hypotheses.
egression Analysis
Thischapterpresentssamplecharacteristics,statisticalanalysis,testofhypotheses, answerstheresearchquestionsandotherfindingfromthisstudy.Dataanalysisinclude ddescriptivestatistics,reliabletestofmeasurement,confirmatoryfactoranalysis(CFA),an dregressionanalysisthroughEXCEL,SPSS16.0a n d AMOS 18.0 software.
Atotal278responseswerereceived.Theonlinerespondwas65andoffliner es p o n d was213.60answerswereexcludedbecauseofmissingitems,notlogicalanswerinr eversescores,andnotfulfillingtherequirementpredefinedcriteria.Therespondratebyema ilwas54/200(27%)andofflineinterviewwas213/420
DATA ANALYSIS
D ATA S CREAMING
Atotal278responseswerereceived.Theonlinerespondwas65andoffliner es p o n d was213.60answerswereexcludedbecauseofmissingitems,notlogicalanswerinr eversescores,andnotfulfillingtherequirementpredefinedcriteria.Therespondratebyema ilwas54/200(27%)andofflineinterviewwas213/420
(50.7%).Theremained11answerarethroughsocialnetworkfacebook.com.2 1 8 response s were choose in the data analysis
C HARACTERISTICOF Q UALIFIED R ESPONDENTS
The study surveyed 218 respondents, all of whom are Vietnamese professionals employed full-time in healthcare, trading (including sales and marketing), and technical fields (such as architecture, housing design, and construction) The majority of respondents, 73.4%, are aged between 23 and 30, with ages ranging from 20 to 60 Participants were categorized based on gender, age, duration of employment with their current group, educational background, tenure with their current leader, the nationality of their leader, whether their company has foreign investment, and their specific sector of work The detailed distribution of respondents across these criteria is provided in the accompanying table.
Table4-2:Socio-demographic Characteristics of qualified respondents.
Table4-2:Socio-demographic Characteristics of Qualifiedrespondents (Continue)
N ORMALITY A NALYSIS
Skewnessi s a measureo f symmetry,o r morep r e c i s e l y , t h e l a c k o f symmetr y.Adistribution,ordataset,issymmetricifitlooks thesametotheleft andrighto f t h e c enterpoint.A z e r o v a l u e indicatesthatthevaluesarerelativelyevenlydistributedonboths idesofthemean,typically(butnotnecessarily)implyingasymmetric distribution (Microsoft, 2003).
Kurtosisisusedtodescribethedistributionofobserveddataaroundthemean.Datase tswithhighkurtosistendtohavea distinctpeaknearthemean,declineratherrapidly,andha veheavytails.Datasetswithlowkurtosistendtohaveaflat top near the mean rather thanasharp peak (Microsoft, 2003)
1,+1].Thismeansnomajorproblemforthenormalityofvariable,satisfyingtheassumption ofmultipleregressions.Therefore,theauthorgoesforfurtheranalysissteps.
Variables Mean Std Deviation Skew Kurtosis
R ELIABILITYOF T HE M EASUREMENTS
Afterseveralexclusionofitemsint h e originalmeasurement,theresultofreliabletes trevealedtheCronbach’sAlphaalloftimeurgency,futureconsequence,teamtemporallead ershipandteamperformancearelargerthan 0.6,andcorrected- itemtotalcorrelationofallitemsarelargerthan0.3 Tobespecificasfollow:
Table4.4: SummarizeCronbach’sAlphascore of Time Urgency measurements.
Variable Code CorrectedIt em- TotalCorre lation
Cronbach’sAl phai f ItemDel eted
1 Ifindmyselfhurryingtogetplacesevenwhen there is plenty of time
5 Myspouseora c l o s e friendwouldratemeas definitely relaxed andeasygoing.
Timeurgencyoriginallyhadsixitems,rangingfromTU1toTU6.Thefist reliable testgeneratedanalphaof0.573.LookingattheCronbach’sAlphaifItemDeletedcolumn,t heauthorsawifdeleteTU4wouldmaket h e A l p h a r i s e significantlyto0.657.Inaddition,theCorrected-ItemtotalCorrelationofitemTU4
Ionlya c t t o satisfyimmediateconcerns,figuring the future will take care of itself
My behavior is only influenced by theimmediate(i.e.,a matterofdaysorweeks)
FC9 479 705 will be resolved beforetheyreachcrisislevel
I think that sacrificing now is usuallyunnecessarysincefutureoutcomec a n be
FC10 409 725 dealt with atalater time.
FC11 581 676 problems that may occur atalater date.
Sincemyd a y t o d a y workh a s s p e c i f i c out comes,itismoreimportanttomethan FC12 527 693 behaviorthathas distant outcomes. wassmallerthan0.3;itwas- 054 (appendix3.1.1).ThereforeTU4wasexcluded the ntheAlphaofremaineditemswere0.657(table4.4).T h e a u t h o r c o n t i n u e examin ediftherewasanyitemcouldbeexcludetoincreasethereliablebuttherewasnot.Sotheremai neditemTU1,TU2,TU3,TU5,TU6was includedintheCFAstep.
Table4.5.SummarizeC r o n b a c h ’ s Alphascoreo f FutureConsequencemeasuremen ts.
Usingthesametechniqueabove,basingonCronbach'sAlphaifItemDeleted,Correc tedItem-
TotalCorrelation,andtherelevanceoftheitem(s),theauthorconsequenceexcludeditemFC8,FC6,FC5,FC2,FC7,FC1(appendix3.2.1t o appendix3.2.6)o f timeurgencymeasur ement.TheremainedFC3,FC4,FC9,FC10,FC11,FC12itemsofthismeasurementgenerat edanAlphaof0.742,andall
Towhatextentdoesyourleaderprioritizetask s and allocate time to each task? TL2 0.621 0.765 Towhatextent doesyourleader urgem emberstofinishsubtask ontime?
Towhate x t e n t doesyourl e a d e r setmile stonest o measureprogressoft h e task?
Corrected Item-Total Correlation were greater than 0.3, the smallest was0.387(table 4.5).
TeamtemporalleadershipismeasuredbyitemTL1toTL7.ItemTL3 wasexc l ude dbecausei t ’ s CorrectedItem-
TotalCorrelationequal0.284(smallerthan0.3)andCronbach'sAlphaifItemDeletedincre asefrom0.793to0.808(appendix3.3.1).TheremainedsixitemgeneratedCronbach’ sAlpha0.808andallCorrectedItemTotal Correlationare largerthan0.3;thesmallestis equal0.451(table 4.6)
1Towhatex te nt doe sy ou rl eade r remindsdepart ment’smembersofimportantdeadlines? TL1 0.502 0.792
Thefirstrunofreliabletestgenerateda Cronbach’sAlphaof0.759.Thecoefficiental phaifdeleteitem,whichcodedTP1,was.793greaterthan.759(table4.7).Inthissituationw ecandeleteitemTP1.However,afterconsidertherelevanceofitemTP1,theauthorseethatth isitemwasimportantbecausethetimelinetocompletea taskisa relevanceindicatorwhenas sessingperformance.Inaddition,theCorrected-
ItemtotalCorrelationofitemTP1waslargerthant h e t h r e s h o l d of0.3,itequals0.488.The refore,thea u t h o r k e p t t e a m performancemeasurementintactwiththreeoriginalite msTP1,TP2,andTP3.Alltheitemswereinthetableb e l o w wouldbeincludedintheCFA step.
Table4.7: SummarizeCronbach’sAlphascore of Team Performance measurement
Your valuation of the department’s
3 overall performance on this task was TP3 0.629 0.632
C ONFIRMATORY F ACTOR A NALYSIS
Alltheregressionweightweresignificantwithp v a l u e smallert h a n 0.000(appen dixIV).AlthoughtheλTU2,λTU5,λTU6,λTL4,λFC4smallerthan0.5(AccordingtoN g u y e n Din hTho&NguyenThiMaiTrang(2008):Itemswithλsmallerthan0.5should b e exclude d)b u t whend e l e t e theseitemthemodelwasnotbetterfitt h e data Therefore, the author stillkept these items
Table 4.9: Goodness-ofFit Indexes Result
Goodness-of fit Indices Code Desired rang ofvaluesforag ood fit
Chi-Square/Degrees of Freedomratio χ2/df