INTRODUCTION
Background to the research and research problem
As Vietnam's economy transitions and develops, the service sector, particularly the tourism and hospitality industry, plays a crucial role The World Travel & Tourism Council reported that in 2013, Travel & Tourism contributed VND311,117.0bn, accounting for 9.6% of GDP and supporting nearly 1.9 million jobs This sector is projected to grow at 6.3% annually, reaching VND299,846.0bn (4.7% of GDP) by 2024, with visitor exports being a significant contributor However, a recent survey revealed that only 6% of international tourists would return to Vietnam, citing poor service, inconvenient transport, and lack of investment as major issues The unprofessional workforce was identified as a key factor in subpar service quality, posing a significant challenge to Vietnam's tourism aspirations Consequently, there is an urgent need for the tourism and hospitality industry to enhance workforce efficiency and service delivery.
Delivering high-quality service is crucial for success and survival in today's competitive business landscape, as noted by Zeithaml et al (cited in Tsaur et al., 2003) A distinctive aspect of the service industry is the significant interaction and contact between service providers and customers, which plays a vital role in shaping the overall service experience (Tsaur et al., 2003).
In the tourism and hospitality sectors, the primary offerings are services, with employees acting as crucial service providers Their exceptional performance not only enhances the customer experience but also significantly contributes to shaping the overall image of the organization.
According to the International Labor Organization (2015), Vietnam's labor productivity remains among the lowest in ASEAN, primarily due to a workforce lacking in skills If current productivity growth rates persist, Vietnam is projected to match the Philippines by 2038 and Thailand by 2069, with significant challenges remaining to catch up with other nations Additionally, the tourism sector in Vietnam suffers from a workforce that is inexperienced and unprofessional, which poses a considerable challenge for human resource management in the tourism and hospitality industries Addressing these issues is crucial for Vietnamese organizations to enhance their competitive position in the market.
The rapid advancements in technology at the beginning of the 21st century are significantly transforming the workplace, enabling tourism and hospitality workers to operate from virtual offices and connect with global businesses This shift fosters greater individualism, freedom, responsibility, and autonomy among employees, which organizations can leverage for competitive advantage (Mahoney, as cited in Karoly, 1993; Bergen et al., 2002) To meet the demands of competitive efficiency, organizations are focusing on cost reduction, promoting employee self-management, and continuously improving work efficiency (Thoresen & Mahoney, as cited in Manz &).
Effective self-management among service employees is crucial for success in tourism and hospitality organizations These companies recognize that employees prefer to collaborate with organizations rather than merely working for them Therefore, traditional hierarchical control should be replaced by fostering internal motivation within individuals Building a trusting work environment is essential for subordinates, managers, and teams to become self-managing, leading to enhanced organizational performance.
Human resource development is essential for gaining a competitive advantage in the new economy, as highlighted by Silva (1997), who notes that many affluent Asian economies have adapted to foster creative and self-managing individuals However, organizations in transitioning countries like Vietnam face challenges in leveraging employee self-management for enhanced competitiveness (Chaijukul, 2010) Self-management, recognized as a vital skill for success in the 21st century (Allred et al., 1999), has gained traction among executives seeking to empower their teams (Manz & Sims, 1980; Cohen et al., 1997) In the tourism and hospitality sector, characterized by directive and autocratic management styles, the lack of employee autonomy can hinder organizational performance (Kusluvan et al., 2003) To improve outcomes, it is crucial for these organizations to cultivate self-managed, socially skilled employees who can contribute significantly to performance (Karoly, 1993) Given Vietnam's high power distance culture, fostering employee autonomy remains a pressing challenge that organizations must address to unlock their full potential.
Numerous studies have explored subordinates' perceptions regarding self-management, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance, but these investigations often treat these concepts in isolation (Kusluvan, 2003; Seibert et al., 2004; Neck & Houghton, 2006; Chaijukul, 2010) Research on this topic is particularly scarce in Vietnam, a nation characterized by high power distance in management practices Notable studies include Schwenkel and Leshkowich (2012), which examined self-management in public and private organizations within the context of neoliberalism in Vietnam, Tran and Hanh (2012), who investigated factors affecting diabetes self-management among adults with type 2 diabetes, and Dang (2010), who focused on learner autonomy in English as a Foreign Language studies.
This research investigates the relationship between self-management, psychological empowerment, and self-efficacy, and their collective influence on job performance within Vietnam's tourism and hospitality sector.
Research objectives
This study aims to explore the impact of self-management on psychological empowerment and self-efficacy, and how these factors influence job performance among employees in the tourism and hospitality sector in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Specifically, it delves into the relationships between these key variables to better understand their effects on employee performance.
- The relationship between self-management and psychological empowerment;
- The relationship between self-management and self-efficacy;
- The relationship between psychological empowerment and job performance;
- The relationship between self-efficacy and job performance;
- The relationship between self-management and job performance.
Research methodology and research scope
This research involved two phases: a qualitative study and a quantitative study The questionnaire was translated from English to Vietnamese, and in-depth interviews with six participants were conducted during the qualitative phase to tailor the items to Vietnamese cultural characteristics and improve the official questionnaire In the quantitative phase, data were collected using a convenience sampling method and a self-administered survey The collected data were analyzed using SPSS 16 and Amos 22, with Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) employed to assess reliability and validity Subsequently, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was utilized to test the proposed hypotheses.
This research focuses on Vietnamese employees in the tourism and hospitality industry in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam's largest city, where many travel agencies and hotels are concentrated The study participants include tour guides, tour operators, and hotel staff.
Research significance
Research findings indicate that Vietnamese organization managers should focus their positioning strategies on both managers and subordinates Additionally, it is essential for organizations to implement effective human resource management (HRM) strategies that promote employee self-management and improve job performance, particularly in the tourism and hospitality industry.
Research structure
This thesis comprises five chapters, beginning with an introduction that outlines the research background, problem, objectives, significance for management practice, scope, and methodology for data analysis The second chapter reviews relevant literature, synthesizing theories related to job performance, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and self-management, while also presenting the conceptual model and hypotheses The third chapter details the research methodology employed to empirically test the model Chapter four presents and analyzes the data results in relation to the research questions and hypotheses Finally, the concluding chapter summarizes the research findings, discusses implications for theory, policy, and practice, and identifies limitations for future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Job performance
Job performance is a crucial construct defined as the expected value derived from an employee's behaviors over time, emphasizing not just their abilities but also their contributions to organizational effectiveness (Motowidlo et al., 1997) It encompasses both task performance and contextual performance, creating a process that transforms employee behavior into value for the organization Service organizations must evaluate performance by considering both work-related outcomes and performance-related behaviors (George, as cited in Huang & Hsuch, 2014) Newman and Maylor (as cited in Huang & Hsuch, 2004) further categorize job performance into behavioral performance—such as attendance and service quality—and service performance, which includes customer satisfaction and return rates In the tourism and hospitality sectors, the interaction between service providers and customers is fundamental, relying heavily on employees' capabilities, motivation, and commitment to meeting customer needs (Fulford & Enz, as cited in Patah et al., 2009) Therefore, managing employee attitudes and behaviors is essential for the success of any organization within this industry (Kusluvan, 2003).
To ensure high-quality service delivery, tourism and hospitality organizations in Vietnam must establish appropriate criteria that promote employee behaviors aligned with desired outcomes This study emphasizes behavioral performance, as identified by Becker et al (1996), to gain insights into the specific subordinate behaviors that influence their engagement and ultimately enhance organizational effectiveness in terms of productivity, efficiency, and quality.
Psychological empowerment
Empowerment is a multifaceted concept defined as a social process that enables individuals to gain control over their lives (Page & Czuba, 1999) Research indicates that sharing power and control within organizations can enhance effectiveness (Kanter, 1979), leading many scholars to equate empowerment with the delegation of power (Conger & Kanungo, 1988) However, empowerment transcends mere management practices; it encompasses an individual's psychological experience (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Thomas & Velthouse, 1990) True empowerment benefits arise from internal behaviors that help employees perceive themselves as empowered (Wilkinson, 1998; Siegal & Gardner, 2000) Additionally, expectancy theory suggests that motivating subordinates to exert effort on tasks can result in expected performance and, ultimately, desired outcomes.
This study examines psychological empowerment, a concept that has received less focus than its structural counterpart Drawing on the research of Thomas and Velthouse (1990), Spreitzer (1995) defines psychological empowerment as a collection of motivational cognitions influenced by the work environment and reflecting an individual's engagement with their role The researcher validates scales measuring four key constructs of psychological empowerment: impact, meaning, competence, and self-determination In the context of the tourism and hospitality industry, meaning pertains to the significance of work goals for employees, while competence relates to their confidence in feeling empowered Self-determination assesses employees' autonomy in initiating and sustaining work behaviors, and impact indicates the extent to which individuals can influence outcomes within their organization.
The findings suggest that components contributing to perceived control, competence, and goal internalization are linked to managerial effectiveness and innovative behaviors, particularly in the tourism and hospitality industry (Patah et al., 2009; Chiang & Hsieh, 2012) Given the diverse backgrounds of customers—varying in culture, age, gender, and education—expectations of service quality differ significantly, making it challenging for organizations to predict customer responses despite standardized processes Psychological empowerment reflects the extent to which employees can influence customer experiences, and managers should empower subordinates to make quicker decisions for improved service delivery Although the concept of psychological empowerment is relatively new to many Vietnamese managers, it is essential for enhancing employee performance (Quang & Vuong, 2002) Therefore, Spreitzer's (1995) four-dimensional framework of psychological empowerment is particularly relevant in the Vietnamese tourism and hospitality sector.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (1982), is the belief in one's ability to organize and execute the necessary behaviors to achieve specific goals, reflecting confidence in handling tasks and environmental challenges This concept encompasses two key expectancies: outcome expectancies, which are beliefs about the results of certain behaviors, and self-efficacy expectancy, the belief in one's capability to perform those behaviors successfully Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995) developed a ten-item generalized self-efficacy scale to measure this optimistic self-belief, emphasizing successful coping and internal attribution of success Additionally, research by Karatepe et al (as cited in Kusluvan, 2003) highlights that traits such as competitiveness and self-efficacy significantly predict frontline employee performance in the hospitality sector Given the direct customer interaction in this industry, employees' confidence in their capabilities is crucial for effectively addressing customer needs and enhancing satisfaction, making self-efficacy a vital focus of this study.
Self-management
Self-management, also known as self-control or self-leadership, refers to the proactive approach employees take in managing their work environment and personal behaviors to achieve productive, goal-oriented outcomes Defined by Cohen et al (1997), it encompasses the application of behavior change strategies that lead to desired modifications in actions, emphasizing that employees are accountable for their own decision-making and behavior management.
Self-management is a vital process that empowers individuals to achieve personal goals and effectively influence others As Aldag et al (1983) suggest, it involves the ability to proactively shape one's circumstances and take charge of one's destiny This concept emphasizes the importance of utilizing appropriate behavioral and cognitive strategies for self-guidance and motivation, as highlighted by Manz & Sims (1980) and Manz & Neck (2004) Essentially, self-management is about taking accountability for one's actions and fostering a dynamic work environment that retains self-directed, talented individuals (Gapp, 2004) Covey (as cited in Bergen et al., 2002) further advocates for the consistent practice of self-management to enhance personal effectiveness.
The "principle-centered, character-based" agenda encompasses seven essential habits for personal and professional growth: (1) Choose the right means and ends while taking personal responsibility for your actions; (2) Set clear goals to guide your efforts; (3) Prioritize effectively by putting first things first and maintaining balance; (4) Adopt a win/win mindset in interactions; (5) Enhance your listening skills to foster better communication; (6) Encourage teamwork by valuing individual differences and unique abilities; and (7) Commit to self-renewal across mental, spiritual, social/emotional, and physical dimensions.
Increasing employee self-management can significantly reduce organizational costs in both time and money compared to traditional management methods Self-management is essential for effective management; without it, employees may struggle with task performance and lack ownership of their responsibilities By developing self-management strategies, organizations can unlock potential benefits for both individual employees and the organization as a whole.
Self-management, a concept evolved from self-control theories by Thoresen & Mahoney and Mills, has gained prominence over the past fifty years, shifting many responsibilities traditionally held by managers to subordinates This includes desirable behavior execution, personal instruction adherence, and performance outcome control Individuals actively participate in selecting, hiring, socializing, developing, and rewarding within their roles Manz & Sims propose a self-management model with six components measured by a 22-item scale: self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reinforcement, self-criticism, self-expectation, and self-rehearsal In the tourism and hospitality industry, these dimensions allow employees to monitor their performance, set specific goals, administer self-rewards and criticisms, align actions with self-image, and prepare for tasks in advance These principles are applied across various management fields to foster autonomy, self-motivation, and self-leadership among employees.
Self-management is increasingly recognized as essential for employees in the tourism and hospitality industry, particularly in modern managerial approaches that prioritize flexibility over traditional hierarchical structures (Kusluwan, 2003) This is especially relevant in Vietnam, where managers often provide limited opportunities for subordinates to develop their self-management skills (Quang & Vuong, 2002) Consequently, this study aims to explore the impact of employee self-management on job performance within Vietnam's tourism and hospitality sector.
Self-management, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance
Numerous studies have explored the connections between self-management, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance at individual, team, and organizational levels (Manz & Sims, 1980; Cohen et al., 1997; Karoly, 1993; Luthans & David, 1979; Neck & Houghton, 2006; Chaijukul, 2010) According to Manz and Sims (1980), self-management by employees plays a crucial role in enhancing their own capabilities.
(1979), and Bergen et al (2002) state that by taking an active role of self-regulating, subordinates can set their own goals, monitor confident behaviors and self-rewarding for goal achievement
Neck and Houghton (2006) introduced the self-leadership performance mechanism model, highlighting how self-leadership strategies like self-management and natural reward strategies positively influence performance outcomes such as psychological empowerment, trust, creativity, and self-efficacy across all organizational levels Subsequent research by Seibert et al (2011) emphasized the role of managerial practices and self-management as key factors that foster psychological empowerment among employees Historically, psychological empowerment has been viewed as a result of effective self-management (Spreitzer, 1995; Ryles, 1999) Additionally, Reynolds (2002) found in the tourism and hospitality industry that employee self-management significantly predicts psychological empowerment.
According to Sarkar et al (2006), self-efficacy strongly associates with self-management across both race/ethnicity and health literacy levels Self-efficacy is believed by Lorig et al
Self-management significantly influences an individual's self-confidence and self-control, enhancing their belief in their capabilities and actions (2001) Bandura (1982) emphasizes that an individual's belief in their ability to perform tasks bolsters their self-efficacy Research by Chaijukul (2010) on Thai private organizations reveals that self-management directly impacts self-efficacy, similar to findings in Vietnam Therefore, it is hypothesized that self-management processes contribute positively to enhancing self-efficacy.
H1 Employee self-management has a positive impact on psychological empowerment H2 Employee self-management has a positive impact on self-efficacy
Job performance is influenced by various factors, reflecting an individual's contribution to organizational goals (Covey, as cited in Bergen et al., 2002) Research indicates a strong positive relationship between self-management and job performance, with Neck and Houghton (2006) emphasizing its significant impact Additionally, studies by Kolz et al (1998) and Latham et al (2008) reveal that cognitive abilities, including self-management skills, correlate positively with job performance In the tourism and hospitality industry, self-management serves as a crucial internal competency that enhances employees' ability to perform effectively (Kusluvan, as cited in Kusluvan et al., 2003).
Psychological empowerment is defined as a set of cognitions that foster intrinsic motivation, significantly influencing employee job satisfaction and performance (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990) Each dimension of empowerment correlates positively with high performance, as empowered individuals experience a sense of self-efficacy, leading them to be more innovative and optimistic about their success (Redmon et al.).
Psychological empowerment significantly enhances work unit performance, as empowered employees exhibit higher self-esteem and professional success (Spreitzer, 1995) Research by Seibert et al (2004) indicates a notable relationship between psychological empowerment and individual performance, positioning it as a key factor influencing job effectiveness Furthermore, feelings of empowerment are closely linked to employee loyalty and perceived productivity (Fulford & Enz, 1995; Kirkman & Rosen, 1999) Essentially, psychological empowerment serves as motivational cognitions that drive employees to actively enhance their individual performance.
Research indicates that enhancing employees' self-efficacy can significantly improve performance outcomes (Conger et al., 1988; Block, as cited in Conger et al., 1988) Bandura (1982) demonstrates that higher perceived self-efficacy correlates with increased performance accomplishments Studies by Stajkovic et al (1998) and Locke et al (1984) reveal a strong link between self-efficacy and work-related performance Seibert et al (2004) highlight the crucial role of psychological empowerment and self-efficacy in connecting leadership, self-management, and work design to job performance and employee commitment Prussia et al (1998) establish a significant relationship between self-leadership behaviors and self-efficacy, with self-efficacy fully mediating the impact of self-leadership on work performance Chaijukul (2010) supports this by finding that self-leadership, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction collectively influence job performance, with psychological empowerment and self-efficacy mediating this relationship Therefore, tourism and hospitality organizations should prioritize developing employees' self-management competencies to enhance psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and overall job performance This study aims to propose and test these hypotheses in light of the varying results observed.
H3 Psychological empowerment has a positive impact on job performance
H4 Self-efficacy has a positive impact on job performance
H5 Self-management has a positive impact on job performance
Conceptual model
The conceptual model illustrated in Figure 1 highlights the significance of self-management in enhancing psychological empowerment and self-efficacy, ultimately leading to improved job performance among employees in the tourism and hospitality industry This model suggests that effective self-management positively influences job performance by fostering greater psychological empowerment and boosting self-efficacy among employees.
These are all hypotheses that were proposed in the study:
H1 Employee self-management has a positive impact on psychological empowerment H2 Employee self-management has a positive impact on self-efficacy
H3 Psychological empowerment has a positive impact on job performance
H4 Self-efficacy has a positive impact on job performance
H5 Self-management has a positive impact on job performance
This chapter provides a theoretical foundation for the model, highlighting the impact of six self-management dimensions—self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reinforcement, self-criticism, self-expectation, and self-rehearsal—on psychological empowerment and self-efficacy It also explores how these factors influence job performance, supported by previous scholarly research Consequently, five hypotheses are proposed for this study, with the subsequent chapter focusing on the methodology for data analysis and hypothesis testing.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
The tourism and hospitality industry, characterized by intangibility, inseparability, variability, and perishability, necessitates employees to possess strong self-management skills for effective job performance (Kotler et al., 2006; Kusluvan, as cited in Kusluvan et al., 2003) To investigate this, a two-phase study was conducted in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, where a significant concentration of travel agencies and hotels exists The research involved a qualitative study through in-depth interviews with six employees from various sectors of the industry, including hotels, restaurants, and travel agencies The interviews were conducted in suitable locations, and the survey questionnaire was initially crafted in English and later translated into Vietnamese with the help of language experts Each interview involved the researcher reading measurement scale items aloud, ensuring understanding, and addressing any confusion by seeking feedback and suggestions from the interviewees until no further input was provided.
Following the feedback from respondents, the survey questionnaire was refined for clarity and comprehension (refer to Appendices A, B, and C) Once the modifications were made, a self-administered quantitative survey utilizing convenience sampling was carried out to gather data for testing the research hypotheses.
Research Model & Hypotheses Literature Review
Structural Equation Modeling Confirmatory Factor
Participants completed a survey using a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from "strongly disagree" (1) to "strongly agree" (7) The questionnaire was distributed through electronic mail, Google surveys, and hard copies Data analysis was conducted using SPSS and AMOS to evaluate the measurement and structural models.
As mentioned above, the final questionnaires consisted of four measurement scales: self- management, psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance
Job performance was measured by five items, accessing quality, productivity, and quality of work life, costs, & safety (Becker et al., 1996)
Job Performance (adapted from Becker et al., 1996) Coding
1 I completed work in a timely and effective manner JobP1
2 I completed tasks in an unsatisfactory manner (reverse-coded) JobP2
3 I feel happy with my quality of work JobP3
4 I did my job better than others JobP4
5 Overall, I satisfied with my job performance JobP5
The data collection instrument for psychological empowerment was the Psychological Empowerment Index (PEI) developed by Spreitzer in 1995, which was adapted to the Vietnamese context by removing unsuitable items and adding clarifying language for respondents The measurement scale for psychological empowerment consists of four key components: meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact Meaning is assessed through three items that capture the significance of work goals to employees Competence is evaluated via three items that reflect an individual's belief in their own abilities Self-determination is measured by three items that gauge the autonomy employees feel in initiating and continuing work behaviors Lastly, impact is assessed through three items that indicate the extent to which an individual can influence various outcomes in their workplace.
Psychological Empowerment (adapted from Spreitzer, 1995) Coding Meaning
1 The work I do very important to me PEMean1
2 My job activities are personally meaningful to me PEMean2
3 In general, the work I do is meaningful to me PEMean3
1 I am confident about my ability to do my job PECom1
2 I am self-assured that I am well trained to perform my work activities PECom2
3 I have mastered the skills necessary for my job PECom3
1 I have significant autonomy in determining how I do my job PESelfD1
2 I can decide my own how to go about doing my work PESelfD2
3 I have considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do my job
1 My impact about hierarchical structure & information on what happens on my department is large
2 I have a great deal of control about hierarchical structure & information over what happens in my department
3 I have significant influences about hierarchical structure & information over what happens in my department
The scale items, which were adapted from the ten scales of Schwarzer and Jerusalem
In 1995, self-efficacy was assessed through specific items that evaluated an individual's overall sense of perceived self-efficacy, highlighting an optimistic self-belief Each item focused on successful coping strategies and suggested an internal and stable attribution of success.
Self-efficacy (adapted from Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995) Coding
1 It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals SelfE1
2 I am confident about my abilities to deal with unexpected events SelfE2
3 When I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions SelfE3
4 If I am in trouble, I can usually think of a solution SelfE4
The measurement scales for the six components of self-management, developed by Manz and Sims (1987), include self-expectation, self-rehearsal, self-goal setting, self-criticism, self-reinforcement, and self-observation/evaluation, with adjustments made to align with Vietnamese cultural features Self-observation is assessed through three items that capture an individual's performance and activities for corrective action Self-goal setting is evaluated using three items that define specific task goals Both self-reinforcement and self-criticism are measured by six items each, focusing on self-administered rewards and critiques to enhance desirable behaviors and mitigate undesirable ones Self-expectation is gauged through three items that align employee actions with their projected self-image and social identity, while self-rehearsal is measured by three items that prepare employees in advance for assigned tasks.
Self-management (adapted from Manz & Sims, 1987) Coding
1 I am aware of level of my performance SMObserv1
2 I know how my performance stands SMObserv2
3 I judge how well I am performing SMObserv3
1 I can define organization goals SMGoal1
2 I can establish task goals SMGoal2
3 I can set goals for personal performance SMGoal3
1 My colleagues praise each other if we have done a job well SMReinf1
2 My colleagues praise each other for good job SMReinf2
3 I feel good about myself if I do a good job SMReinf3
1 If my performance on a job is below par, I am critical of myself SECritic1
2 I am tough of myself if my performance is not up to standard SECritic2
3 I am critical when I do poorly SECritic3
1 I think I can do very well in my job SEExpect1
2 I expect high performance from myself SEExpect2
3 I expect a lot from myself SEExpect3
1 I always go over activity before I attempt it SERehears1
2 I always practice new task before I do it the first time SERehears2
3 I always think how to do a job before I do a job SERehears3
Finally, the completed questionnaire in English version and Vietnamese version were presented in Appendix D and E.
Quantitative study
The study will utilize a dataset gathered from employees in the tourism and hospitality industry, focusing on Ho Chi Minh City Given time constraints, a convenience sampling method will be employed, utilizing self-administered questionnaires to collect the necessary data for testing the model and hypotheses.
The sample size must be sufficiently large to ensure statistical significance According to Hair et al (2009), the minimum sample size for effective statistical analysis should be at least five times the number of variables involved, ensuring robust and reliable results.
The study model included thirty-nine variables, necessitating a sample size of 195 observations from a total of 397 questionnaires distributed Ultimately, 371 responses were gathered from 62 travel agencies and hotels, resulting in a high response rate of approximately 93.45 percent.
Table 3.1 Source of data collection Source Distributed Collected Response rate Eliminated Valid
A total of 35 questionnaires were deemed invalid due to various reasons: 17 respondents were not part of the tourism and hospitality industry, 8 individuals selected the same option for all questions, and 10 surveys were returned unanswered Consequently, 336 questionnaires were identified as valid data for this research, which is considered satisfactory in comparison to the minimum sample size required.
The author utilized SPSS 16 to calculate Cronbach’s alpha and Amos 20 for conducting Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to assess the reliability of each measurement component and the validity of all scales The reliability of the measurement scales among constructs was evaluated using composite reliability (CR) CFA results indicated that average variance extracted (AVE) was employed to determine convergent validity, while correlation between items (r) was used to assess discriminant validity For the measurement to be deemed adequate, Cronbach’s alpha for each construct should be at least 0.6, factor loading must be 0.5 or higher, the minimum AVE should be 0.5, and composite reliability should exceed 0.7 In cases of inadequate convergent and discriminant validity, inappropriate items would be removed, and CFA would indicate model fit if CMIN/DF was less than the recommended threshold.
The analysis of model fit involved several indices, including the comparative fit index (CFI), which assesses the discrepancy between observed data and the hypothesized model, with a CFI value of 0.90 or higher indicating acceptable fit The non-normed fit index (NNFI), also known as the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), addresses negative bias, with values ideally ranging from 0 to 1 and a cutoff of 0.95 or greater signifying good model fit Additionally, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) evaluates discrepancies using optimal parameter estimates, with a value of 0.06 or less considered acceptable; RMSEA values below 8% are also indicative of a good fit Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to test the hypothesized model and estimate path coefficients for proposed relationships, while bootstrapping was utilized to verify the model's suitability and reliability.
The study utilized four measurement scales to establish convergent and discriminant validity, analyzed through Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) prior to testing the hypothesized model with Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) The first-order constructs identified were self-efficacy and job performance Additionally, the second-order constructs included self-management, comprising six sub-components: self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reinforcement, self-criticism, self-expectation, and self-rehearsal, as well as psychological empowerment, which included four sub-components: meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact.
This chapter outlines the research process, including the construction of measurement scales, sample size calculation, and the methods used for data analysis The study was conducted in two stages: a qualitative phase involving in-depth interviews to refine the measurement scale, followed by a quantitative phase with a main survey The main survey included 336 valid questionnaires, which were analyzed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) The subsequent chapter will focus on the data analysis from the main survey.
DATA ANALYSIS
Respondents’ demographics
The data collected from 62 travel agencies and hotels in Ho Chi Minh City were analyzed using SPSS, revealing key demographic insights summarized in Table 4.1 The analysis showed that 30.1% of respondents were from 19 travel agencies, contributing to 41.7% of the total responses, while 69.9% were from 43 hotels, accounting for 58.9% of respondents Gender distribution was relatively balanced, with females representing 55.4% and males 44.6% Notably, a significant portion of participants, 64.6%, were young individuals aged 24 to 30, highlighting the youthfulness of the current labor force in the tourism and hospitality industry.
51 years old, with 7.4% respondents were between 19 and 23 years old, 25.9% people were from
Among the respondents, 1.2% were aged 41 to 50, and only 0.9% were over 50, while the majority were between 31 and 40 years old Monthly income levels were categorized into four groups, with most respondents earning between 6 million VND and over 13.99 million VND Specifically, 32.4% reported an income of 9 to 13.99 million VND, while 29.5% earned less than 6 million VND Additionally, 32.4% had incomes ranging from 6 to 8.99 million VND, and 18.2% earned more than 14 million VND monthly Notably, most individuals in these income brackets held university degrees, indicating a strong understanding of self-management skills.
Demographic profile Category Frequency Percentage (%)
4.2.1 CFA for the first-order constructs
Self-efficacy was assessed using four items, and the initial confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) model showed a good fit However, the factor loading for SelfE1 was insignificant (0.33), contributing to an average variance extracted (AVE) below the acceptable threshold of 0.5 Consequently, the author removed SelfE1 and re-evaluated the construct, resulting in a well-fitting model with the following statistics: Chi-square = 3.122, degrees of freedom = 2, Chi-square/df = 1.561, p = 0.210, CFI = 0.996, TLI = 0.989, NFI = 0.990, and RMSEA = 0.041.
Figure 4.1 CFA model of Self-Efficacy
Table 4.2 The first run of CFA (of Self-efficacy and Job performance)
In the initial confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for the job performance construct, the standardized regression weights for JobP1, JobP2, JobP3, and JobP5 were all above 0.5, measuring at 0.83, 0.81, 0.85, and 0.82, respectively While these estimates demonstrated a good fit with the data, the factor loading for JobP4 was not significant, recorded at 0.28 Consequently, JobP4 was removed from the model, leaving four items—JobP1, JobP2, JobP3, and JobP5—to effectively measure job performance, as illustrated in Figure 4.2.
The CFA model of Job Performance was evaluated by assessing the reliability and convergent validity of each construct, utilizing Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability The standardized loadings for performance were found to exceed 0.7, indicating that the first-order constructs met acceptable standards.
Figure 4.2 CFA model of Job Performance For each construct, the author tested the reliability and convergent validity by calculating composite reliability (CR) and averaged variance extracted (AVE)
Cronbach’α, composite reliability of self-efficacy and job performance were larger than 0.7 (0.78 and 0.90; 0.79 and 0.90 respectively) Thus, reliability of onstructs was acceptable
Summarized of CR, AVE and Cronbach’α (first order constructs)
JobP5 0.82 omposite reliability; AVE: averaged variance extracted
For each construct, the author tested the reliability and convergent validity by calculating
(AVE) values based on efficacy and job 0.79 and 0.90 respectively) Thus, reliability of
(first order constructs) Reliability (CR; AVE)
Cronbach’α=0.78 CR=0.79 AVE=0.55 Cronbach’α=0.90 CR=0.90 AVE=0.69
In the initial run of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), the averaged variance extracted (AVE) value for self-efficacy was low at 0.49, falling below the acceptable threshold of 0.5 However, after the removal of SelfE1 in the second CFA run, the AVE value for self-efficacy improved to above 0.5 Conversely, the AVE value for Job Performance was strong at 0.69, indicating good construct validity Overall, the CFA model for the first-order constructs of self-efficacy and job performance demonstrated a good fit with the data, as detailed in Table 4.3.
4.2.2 CFA for second-order constructs
The second-order construct identified in the study was self-management, which included six key sub-components: self-observation, self-goal setting, self-reinforcement, self-criticism, self-expectation, and self-rehearsal The initial confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) model demonstrated a good fit, with a Chi-square value of 41.836, degrees of freedom of 0, and a p-value of 000 Additional fit indices supported this model, showing a Chi-square/df ratio of 2.849, CFI of 960, TLI of 949, NFI of 940, and RMSEA of 074 Furthermore, all items in the model exhibited significant factor loadings greater than 0.5.
Figure 4.3 CFA model of Self Examining the reliability of self
The CFA model of self-management demonstrates strong reliability, with Cronbach’s α and composite reliability values exceeding 0.5 for its sub-components Additionally, the average variance extracted (AVE) indicates significant convergent validity, while the correlations between each pair of sub-components remain below 0.8 at a significance level of 0.001, confirming within-construct discriminant validity These findings underscore the robustness of the self-management construct.
Table 4.4 Summarized of CR, AVE and Cronbach’α (self-management)
Notes: CR: composite reliability; AVE: averaged variance extracted
Table 4.5 Correlations (of Self-Management)
SMObserv SMGoal 0.75(0.036) SMObserv SMReinf 0.77(0.035) SMObserv SECritic 0.53(0.046) SMObserv SEExpect 0.61(0.043) SMObserv SERehears 0.61(0.044)
SMGoal SECritic 0.53(0.046) SMGoal SEExpect 0.63(0.043) SMGoal SERehears 0.61(0.043) SMReinf SECritic 0.61(0.043) SMReinf SEExpect 0.66(0.041) SMReinf SERehears 0.70(0.039) SECritic SEExpect 0.77(0.035) SECritic SERehears 0.77(0.035) SEExpect SERehears 0.78(0.034) Note: r(SE): correlations with standard errors
The same as self-management, the model of psychological empowerment fitted data well for the first run of CFA (Chi-square.368; dfH; Chi-square/df=1.966; P=.000; CFI=.987; TLI=.982; NFI=.974; RMSEA=.054)
Figure 4.4 CFA model of Psychological EmpowermentFigure 4.4 CFA model of Psychological EmpowermentFigure 4.4 CFA model of Psychological Empowerment
The author assessed the reliability of psychological empowerment, finding that the Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability (CR) values for all sub-components were significant, exceeding 0.80 Additionally, the average variance extracted (AVE) values for the sub-components were deemed acceptable, surpassing 0.5 Correlations between each pair of sub-components were also below 0.8 and significant at the 0.001 level These results confirm the reliability, convergent validity, and within-construct discriminant validity of the psychological empowerment framework, as detailed in Tables 4.6 and 4.7.
Table 4.6 Summarized of CR, AVE and Cronbach’α (Psychological Empowerment)
Standardized loadings Reliability (CR; AVE)
Notes: CR: composite reliability; AVE: averaged variance extracted
Table 4.7 Correlation (of Psychological Empowerment)
Note: r(SE): correlations with standard errors
4.2.3 CFA for the final measurement model
In the final confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), the author excluded SelfE1 and JobP4 due to their factor loadings being below the acceptable threshold of 0.5, specifically 0.39 and 0.28 The constructs of self-efficacy and job performance were effectively measured using three items each: SelfE2, SelfE3, SelfE4 for self-efficacy, and JobP1, JobP2, JobP3, and JobP5 for job performance This adjustment maintained the content validity of the constructs, and the final measurement model demonstrated a good fit to the data The remaining items for both first and second order constructs exhibited significant and substantial factor loadings, all exceeding 0.5 with p-values less than 0.001.
Table 4.8 Summarized of CR, AVE and Cronbach’α (final model)
Standardized loadings Reliability (CR; AVE)
Standardized loadings Reliability (CR; AVE)
Notes: CR: composite reliability; AVE: averaged variance extracted
The average variance extracted values for all constructs were notably high (≥0.5), and the composite reliabilities and Cronbach's alpha for nearly all scales were significant (≥0.70), as detailed in Table 4.8 These results suggest that all scales used to measure the first-order constructs and the components of the second-order construct exhibit unidimensionality, in accordance with the criteria established by Fornell and Larcker (as cited in Nguyen).
In 2007, Steenkamp and Van Trijp demonstrated within-method convergent validity, as referenced by Nguyen Additionally, Table 4.10 presents six correlation estimates between pairs of constructs, with values ranging from 0.227 to 0.507 These values are significantly below the threshold of 0.8, confirming the presence of discriminant validity among the constructs in the research model (refer to Appendix F).
Table 4.9 CFA Summary of eliminated item
Self-Efficacy 01 SelfE1: It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals
Job Performance 01 JobP4: I did my job better than others Factor loading < 0.5
Table 4.10 Correlations (final measurement model)
Note: r(SE): correlations with standard errors
Table 4.9 summarizes the items removed from the confirmatory factor analysis, specifically SelfE1 related to self-efficacy and JobP4 associated with job performance, as detailed in Table 4.8 Figure 4.5 illustrates the final measurement model, which demonstrates a strong fit to the data, with a Chi-square value of 30.14, degrees of freedom of 3, a chi-square/df ratio of 1.844, a p-value of 000, and fit indices including CFI at 951, TLI at 947, NFI at 900, and RMSEA at 050.
The author conducted a structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis using AMOS 20, based on the positive outcomes from the CFA analysis and data collected from questionnaires The hypothesized model includes four study variables: two second-order constructs—self-management and psychological empowerment—and two first-order constructs—self-efficacy and job performance The analysis estimated path coefficients to assess the influence of self-management on psychological empowerment, self-efficacy, and job performance, as well as the effects of psychological empowerment and self-efficacy on job performance The findings will determine the support for the proposed hypotheses, with results from the SEM and bootstrap method detailed in the following section.
Structural equation modeling (SEM)
The structural equation modeling results demonstrated a good fit for the theoretical model, with χ2 [406] = 1139.777 (p = 0.000), chi-square/df = 1.856, CFI = 0.951, TLI = 0.946, NFI = 0.899, and RMSEA = 0.051 All five hypotheses were supported, as evidenced by positive regression weight values Unstandardized estimates are detailed in Table 4.11, while standardized estimates are illustrated in Figure 4.6.
Table 4.11 Unstandardized structural paths Hypotheses structural paths Testing result Est.(se) CR P-value H1 Employee self-management has a positive impact on psychological empowerment
H2 Employee self-management has a positive impact on self-efficacy
H3 Psychological empowerment has a positive impact on job performance
H4 Self-efficacy has a positive impact on job performance
H5 Self-management has a positive impact on job performance
Note: p