Raison de choix du sujet
Une recherche n‟est pas quelque chose d‟évident, elle ne peut pas être réussie si elle ne vient pas de l‟intérêt et des motivations personnelles de son auteur
Since the beginning of my postgraduate studies, newspaper headlines have always piqued my curiosity Given the significant influence of the press on readers' thoughts and perspectives, it is regarded as one of the dominant discourses of our time Headlines serve two primary functions: summarizing the article and attracting attention, acting as an invitation or even a hook in certain cases Therefore, this research aims to explore the strategies journalists employ when crafting these attention-grabbing hooks.
Il existe maintenant des milliers quotidiens et magazines en France mais un des journaux les plus connus et prestigieux, c‟est toujours ô Le Monde ằ Crộộ en
Since 1944, this newspaper has evolved into a reference publication distributed in numerous countries, including non-French-speaking ones Consequently, we aim to analyze the headlines of its articles as a corpus to explore journalists' strategies.
Questions de recherche
La plus grande question qui s‟est posée à nous alors était la suivante :
Comment utilisent les journalistes du Monde les procédés linguistiques dans les titres des articles pour un tel nombre de lecteurs ?
Hypothèses
Linguistic and discursive processes in newspaper headlines share similarities with other types of discourse, including modalities of enunciation and thematization However, to craft engaging titles in "Le Monde," journalists must creatively adapt these processes rather than strictly adhere to theoretical frameworks They often blend these strategies with innovative techniques that extend beyond existing theoretical concepts.
Objectifs
- Étudier la théorie de l‟analyse du discours et des théories d‟énonciation
- Savoir comment ces théories sont appliquées dans le discours de la vie quotidienne, dans les titres des articles de journaux en commun et ceux du ô Monde ằ en particulier
- Connaợtre la tendance d‟utilisation des procộdộs linguistiques dans chaque rubrique de quelques journaux franỗais de nos jours.
Méthodologie
To address our research questions, we utilized two corpora based on article titles, operating under the assumption that linguistic and discursive tools are reflected within them Initially, we compiled a first corpus consisting of titles deemed interesting from various sections of newspapers and magazines consulted between May and October 2015 This approach provided us with a comprehensive overview of the strategies employed by journalists in titling various aspects of life, which we selected as concepts to develop our theoretical framework.
The second corpus presented in the appendix consists of a collection of 120 article titles sourced from twelve sections of the digital newspaper lemonde.fr To ensure objectivity, the titles were randomly selected based on their publication dates, with ten titles chosen from various years for each section.
It is undeniable that the initial corpus did not encompass all strategies; therefore, the main corpus will enable us to verify the existing strategies and uncover new ones.
The research method employed in our study is descriptive, which allows the researcher to present a situation, describe circumstances, and provide an accurate depiction of a phenomenon or specific situation Descriptive research is linked to statistical research hypotheses, focusing on states rather than changes in states (Nguyen Quang Thuan, 2007, p.38) Through the selected corpus of titles, we aim to create a combined overview of discourse analysis units and enunciative theories, offering a more comprehensive understanding through statistics and the percentage of each unit used in press titles.
Plan du mémoire
Par rapport aux questions posées afin de résoudre la problématique, nous avons divisé notre recherche en trois parties principales
The first chapter will explore the theoretical framework encompassing discourse analysis and enunciative theories found in the initial corpus approach, focusing on the modalities of enunciation and the statement Additionally, various titles feature the structure of "subject-predicate" or quotation marks that do not fall under the modalities Therefore, we will also address thematizations and citation modes in a subsection that holds equal importance to the two sections on modalities.
Before delving into the analysis of the corpus, it is essential to provide a brief overview of the newspaper "Le Monde" in the second chapter This will help contextualize the environment in which the articles and their headlines operate We will clarify our selection process and its outcomes The final subsection will focus exclusively on analyzing the headlines of the articles within the corpus, drawing on the theories discussed earlier Additionally, we will explore other strategies employed by journalists in crafting the chosen headlines.
Our research focuses on newspaper article headlines, which, as concise phrases, adhere to a specific type of discourse This choice is driven by the abundance and diversity of headlines in the French press They captivate our minds, leave a lasting impression, and draw attention.
To gain a deeper understanding of this discourse, it is essential to draw upon the most relevant theories, particularly enunciative theories and discourse analysis tools.
Discourse analysis involves the deconstruction of text to reveal the intricate layers of meaning that lie beneath the smooth surface of words As noted by Courtine (1989), this process allows us to uncover the complex indicators of a deeper past, enhancing our understanding of communication and its context.
Discourse analysis (DA) is a crucial element in social and human sciences, distinguishing itself from content analysis by focusing not on what a text says, but on how it conveys its message It examines enunciative markers, the relationship between the sender and the receiver, and the contractual dynamics that connect them within a specific context.
Marandin (1979, p.18) : ô ce qui distingue l‟analyse du discours d‟autres pratiques d‟analyse du texte, c‟est l‟utilisation de la linguistique ằ
The term "speech," central to this discipline, varies across contexts and is a complex concept that requires clarification In everyday life, it often refers to a formal statement delivered at significant events before a large audience However, it can also carry a negative connotation, implying that someone may give many speeches but fail to take action.
This study focuses on the concept of "discourse" within the field of language sciences, highlighting its complexity as defined by various linguistic currents that both complement and sometimes contradict each other.
L’Analyse du discours (1991, p.15), Dominique Maingueneau cite au moins sept emplois du terme ô discours ằ depuis la fin des annộes 1960 :
Discours 1 : ộquivalent de la ô parole ằ (l‟usage de la langue par un individu donnộ selon des contextes) de l‟opposition ô langue / parole ằ de Saussure
Discours 2 : tout ộnoncộ supộrieur à la phrase, ộquivalent du ô texte ằ
From the perspective of enunciation theories and pragmatics, discourse emphasizes the dynamic nature of enunciation more than mere utterance It highlights the interactive power of discourse to influence and act upon others, showcasing its role in communication.
Discours 4 : ộquivalent de la ô conversation ằ, de l‟interaction orale
Discours 5 : l‟opposition de ô langue / discours ằ comme ô un systốme virtuel de valeurs peu spécifiées, à une diversification superficielle liée à la variộtộ des usages qui sont faits des unitộs linguistiques ằ
Discourses such as "political discourse," "feminist discourse," and "administrative discourse" often emerge in discussions These terms refer to the systems that provide a unified worldview through a collection of statements, shaped by specific social or ideological positions.
In his 1971 work, L Guespin (as cited in Maingueneau, 1991) defines the object of discourse by contrasting it with the notion of enunciation He explains that enunciation consists of a sequence of sentences placed between two semantic pauses or breaks in communication In contrast, discourse is viewed as the statement analyzed through the lens of the discursive mechanisms that shape it.
The field of discourse analysis is progressively expanding to incorporate various disciplines such as enunciative theories, linguistic pragmatics, interaction theories, and argumentation This interdisciplinary approach enriches the analysis, with notable currents including enunciative, communicative, conversational, and pragmatic approaches For our project, we aim to explore these different currents, focusing initially on the enunciative approach to better understand newspaper headlines.
1.2 Enonciation/Enoncé ou approche énonciative
Discussing enunciation inevitably brings to mind Émile Benveniste, whose work synthesizes the concepts of enunciation and utterance Enunciation is defined as the activation of language through an individual act of usage (Benveniste, 1970, p.12) It highlights the emergence of the subject within the utterance, the relationship with the interlocutor, and the speaker's attitude towards their message In essence, enunciation is an act of creating, producing, and utilizing language, while the utterance is the result of that act Thus, the two terms contrast like the creation of an object and the object itself.
Avant d‟entrer dans les deux premières sous parties, il me semble nộcessaire de mieux comprendre la notion de ô modalitộ ằ
Pour expliquer ce qu‟est la ô modalitộ ằ en sciences du langage, on a coutume de rappeler l‟opposition entre ô modus ằ et ô dictum ằ posộe par C Bally
In 1965, the concept of modality, referred to as modus, is defined as the linguistic form of an intellectual, emotional, or volitional judgment expressed by a thinking subject regarding a perception or representation in their mind In contrast, the dictum corresponds to the content itself A complete absence of modality represents a judgment of reality, revealing the truth as it exists.
Les travaux dans ce domaine permettent de distinguer deux types de modalité :
The modalities of enunciation highlight the relationship between the participants in communication and reflect their relational characteristics These modalities can take various forms, including interrogative, declarative, and assertive, each contributing to the dynamics of the exchange.
CADRE THÉORIQUE
Présentation générale de l‟Analyse du discours
ô Faire de l‟analyse du discours, c‟est apprendre à dộlinộariser le texte pour restituer sous la surface lisse des mots la profondeur enchevêtrée des indices d‟un passộ ằ (Courtine, 1989, p.37)
Discourse analysis (DA) is a crucial element in social and human sciences, distinguishing itself from content analysis by focusing not on what the text conveys but on how it conveys that message It examines enunciative markers, the relationship between the sender and the receiver, and the contractual dynamics in a specific context.
Marandin (1979, p.18) : ô ce qui distingue l‟analyse du discours d‟autres pratiques d‟analyse du texte, c‟est l‟utilisation de la linguistique ằ
The term "speech," central to this discipline, varies in meaning depending on the context and is a complex concept that requires clarification In everyday life, it can refer to a formal statement delivered at significant events in front of a large audience However, it can also carry a negative connotation, as in the case of someone who gives many speeches but fails to take action.
This paper focuses on the intricate concept of "discourse" within the field of language sciences The study examines various linguistic approaches that both complement and sometimes contradict each other, highlighting the complexity of discourse analysis.
L’Analyse du discours (1991, p.15), Dominique Maingueneau cite au moins sept emplois du terme ô discours ằ depuis la fin des annộes 1960 :
Discours 1 : ộquivalent de la ô parole ằ (l‟usage de la langue par un individu donnộ selon des contextes) de l‟opposition ô langue / parole ằ de Saussure
Discours 2 : tout ộnoncộ supộrieur à la phrase, ộquivalent du ô texte ằ
From the perspective of enunciation theories and pragmatics, discourse emphasizes the dynamic nature of enunciation compared to mere utterance It highlights the ability of discourse to actively engage and influence others in an interactive context.
Discours 4 : ộquivalent de la ô conversation ằ, de l‟interaction orale
Discours 5 : l‟opposition de ô langue / discours ằ comme ô un systốme virtuel de valeurs peu spécifiées, à une diversification superficielle liée à la variộtộ des usages qui sont faits des unitộs linguistiques ằ
Discourse is frequently referenced in contexts such as "political discourse," "feminist discourse," or "administrative discourse." In these instances, the term signifies a framework that provides a unified worldview across a series of statements, shaped by specific social or ideological positions.
In his 1971 work, L Guespin defines the concept of "enunciation" as a sequence of phrases placed between two semantic pauses, which represent interruptions in communication He contrasts this with "discourse," which he views as the statement analyzed through the lens of the discursive mechanisms that shape it This distinction highlights the relationship between the structure of language and the processes that govern communication.
The field of discourse analysis is progressively integrating various disciplines, including enunciative theories, linguistic pragmatics, interaction theories, and argumentation This convergence enriches the discourse with well-known approaches such as enunciative, communicational, conversational, and pragmatic perspectives For our project, we aim to explore these different currents, focusing particularly on the enunciative approach to better understand newspaper headlines.
Enonciation/Enoncé ou approche énonciative
Discussing enunciation inevitably brings to mind Emile Benveniste, whose work synthesizes the concepts of enunciation and utterance Enunciation is defined as the activation of language through an individual act of usage (Benveniste, 1970, p.12) It highlights the emergence of the subject within the utterance, the relationship with the interlocutor, and the speaker's attitude towards their statement In summary, enunciation is an act of creating, producing, and utilizing language, while the utterance is the result of that act Thus, the two terms contrast like the creation of an object and the object itself.
Avant d‟entrer dans les deux premières sous parties, il me semble nộcessaire de mieux comprendre la notion de ô modalitộ ằ
Pour expliquer ce qu‟est la ô modalitộ ằ en sciences du langage, on a coutume de rappeler l‟opposition entre ô modus ằ et ô dictum ằ posộe par C Bally
In 1965, it was proposed that modality, referred to as "modus," is defined as the linguistic form of an intellectual judgment, an emotional judgment, or a will expressed by a thinking subject regarding a perception or representation in their mind In contrast, the "dictum" is equivalent to the content itself A complete absence of modality corresponds to a judgment of reality, revealing the truth as it exists.
Les travaux dans ce domaine permettent de distinguer deux types de modalité :
The modalities of enunciation highlight the relationship between the participants in a communication exchange, illustrating the relational characteristics that connect them These modalities can take various forms, including interrogative, declarative, and assertive, each serving to convey different nuances in the interaction.
The modalities of statements can be categorized into two types: logical modalities, which reflect the speaker's stance on truth, falsehood, and likelihood; and evaluative modalities, which express the speaker's subjective judgments regarding emotions and qualities such as beauty, sadness, and joy.
In linguistics, the distinction between "meaning" and "sense" is closely tied to the concepts of "utterance" and "signification." Both utterance and meaning are determined by context, forming what Oswald Ducrot (1984) refers to as the "said," while utterance and sense focus solely on the semantic aspects of linguistic components, constituting the "saying." For example, the utterance "It's hot here!" conveys the temperature of the location, but depending on the context, it can imply various meanings, such as "It's cold outside," "Open the window!" or "I don't want to stay here anymore."
To distinguish between the modalities of enunciation and those of the statement, it is essential to understand that enunciation modalities focus on the act of speaking, while statement modalities concern the content of what is said (Nülke, 1993, p.143) In communication, enunciation modalities affect the interlocutors, whereas statement modalities pertain to the message itself Both modalities coexist in discourse, akin to the front and back of a piece of paper However, when a single enunciation modality is highlighted in a sentence, multiple statement modalities may emerge (Meunier).
We will first focus on the modalities of enunciation and provide an overview of the verbal and nominal types and forms of sentences that will be utilized for analyzing our corpus This includes a classification of different sentence types essential for our study.
Dans la suite des travaux de A.-M Diller (1980), Kerbrat-Orecchioni
In 1991, sentences were categorized into three main groups reflecting the primary pragmatic functions of discourse: those that describe the world, those that question the world, and those that aim to change the world These correspond to three fundamental sentence types: declarative (assertive), interrogative, and imperative (injunctive) Additionally, a fourth type is often included to express the speaker's strong emotions: the exclamatory type, which encompasses a wide variety of structures.
The declarative sentence, typically ending with a period, is the most common type of sentence, characterized by its low emotional impact It is primarily used to state facts or provide information, often structured in a canonical form of noun phrase followed by a verb phrase This assertion presents a state of affairs as true or false From a syntactic perspective, these statements include an expressed subject and a verb that carries markers of person and tense.
In French, a sentence can be affirmative, such as "He is happy," or negative, which denies something using a negative marker composed of two adverbs, like "ne pas" or their variations, as in "He is not happy."
Among the four types of sentences, the declarative sentence is regarded as the fundamental sentence model, while the other forms are considered transformed sentences This is why these three forms can either maintain their structure and forms or undergo modifications by altering the positions of word groups and adding words that reflect their sentence type.
Interrogative sentences are typically categorized into two types: total questions, also known as closed questions, which elicit a response of "yes" or "no," and partial questions, or open questions, which include an interrogative word such as who, what, which, when, where, why, how, or how many.
For the speaker, an interrogative sentence serves as a tool to ask a question or express a request, ideally leading to a response or action This initiative reflects the speaker's quest for information and anticipation of an answer or reaction However, as noted by Maingueneau, questioning someone often imposes constraints, placing them in a position where they must choose to respond or not, while also defining the context in which their reply should be framed.
The pragmatic value of certain phrases depends on the context and the intent of the person asking the question For instance, this pragmatic value can be demonstrated in spoken language through intonation.
The act of questioning is a complex linguistic phenomenon, and stating that it always requires a reaction or response is not entirely accurate There are instances where the speaker does not expect any reply or even any reaction from the listener A prime example of this is the rhetorical question posed by Madame de Lafayette in "La Princesse de Clèves": "But do men retain passion in these eternal commitments?" This illustrates how questions can serve purposes beyond eliciting answers.
PRÉSENTATION DU CORPUS
To effectively utilize all the analytical tools of discourse analysis discussed in the theoretical section, we created a table divided into several columns, each representing a specific element We included the numbers of the titles from the press to facilitate easier reference for the reader and marked with a cross to indicate which titles contain the corresponding linguistic tools.
The table provides an overview of the strategies journalists use to craft article headlines; however, it does not definitively indicate which specific techniques are employed Additionally, the corpus is neither exhaustive nor fully representative of all newspapers, though it offers a more focused representation of titles in the fashion and gastronomy sectors, as our selection was concentrated in these areas.
The percentages in the last row of the table (Appendix 3) reveal current trends in headlines, with thematization and nominalization each being utilized in 45% of the analyzed titles, while declarative sentences dominate at 73.3% A quick glance at articles from other generalist newspapers shows that these are also commonly used techniques However, among the less frequently employed tools, no titles were found using indirect or free indirect discourse The reasons for this can be inferred based on the theory associated with these forms.
Indirect speech often conveys a biased perspective, reflecting the journalist's viewpoint rather than neutrality Choosing an appropriate introductory verb can be challenging, as it must align with the context and the speaker's intent Additionally, stylistically, indirect reported speech tends to be lengthier and less impactful, making it less effective for engaging readers In contrast, direct speech, with its use of quotation marks and punctuation, offers a more varied typography that captures the audience's attention more effectively.
Free indirect discourse is frequently employed in literature and can also be found in newspaper articles, though it is rarely used in headlines This form of reported speech is considered one of the most challenging to master One of the titles in our corpus initially appeared to exemplify free indirect discourse.
In the article "An Argentinian in Athens: Here, the Crisis is Always Someone Else's Fault," the absence of quotation marks around the statement suggests a shift in journalistic language, which has become more liberated and less bound by traditional grammar rules This stylistic choice in title number 38 may indicate that the newspaper is adopting the Argentinian's words as its own, reflecting a nuanced approach to reporting that blurs the lines between direct speech and editorial voice.
In our analysis of a list of one hundred twenty titles, we uncovered additional linguistic concepts that had not been previously considered in our theoretical framework This study of the corpus revealed various new techniques employed in the creation of newspaper titles We will present both the functioning of the previously identified tools and the newly discovered concepts, expanding our understanding of title creation in journalism.
ANALYSE DU CORPUS
The distinction between types of sentences is typically indicated by punctuation: a period for declarative sentences, a question mark for interrogative sentences, and an exclamation point for imperative and exclamatory sentences However, these rules are somewhat altered in the titles of newspaper articles.
All titles, whether in declarative form, canonical, nominal, or direct speech, should never end with a period This guideline is part of typographic conventions for titles, as emphasized by J Andrộ: "One does not put a period at the end of a title."
Claude Bartlone avance ses pions sur l’échiquier du Grand Paris (N° 19) Dans les pays riches, des dizaines de millions d’enfants pauvres (N° 68)
La plupart des phrases interrogatives suivent toutes les règles nécessaires de ponctuation et d‟inversion sujet-verbe :
Faudra-t-il nourrir les ours polaires pour sauver l’espèce ? (N° 69)
Pourtant il existe des titres qui ne veulent pas les rétablir, comme l‟exemple de manque de point d‟interrogation :
Comment la forờt mộditerranộenne renaợt de ses cendres (N° 1)
Il y a de même les cas ó les questions finissent par les points de suspension :
L'accord donné par l'Europe à la nomination de l'ancien secrétaire adjoint à la défense américain, Paul Wolfowitz, à la tête de la Banque mondiale constitue-t-il à vos yeux…(N° 5)
To rephrase a question directed at readers, journalists typically avoid using interrogative phrases like "is it that" and do not alter the order of the subject and verb This approach results in a question that closely resembles the spoken form commonly used in everyday conversation.
Il faut réduire les inégalités ? (N° 48)
One way to pose questions in French is reflected in the titles, where interrogative sentences feature one or more infinitive verbs as the sole verbs.
Sauver ou brûler les festivals d’été ?, par Bernard Faivre d’Acier (N° 42)
Elliptical constructions can be understood as instances where a modal auxiliary is omitted, relying on context to convey nuances of obligation or possibility This context also clarifies the nature of the subject involved, whether it's the speaker, the person being discussed, or people in general, while situating the action within a specific timeframe—past, present, or future.
Dans le cas des titres de journaux, les questions fermées jouent le rôle de non seulement aborder et interroger mais d‟abord d‟affirmer un fait dans l‟article :
Les dinosaures ộtaient-ils ô des amants autant que des guerriers ằ ? (N°
Titles often serve their purpose of brevity by omitting necessary elements, which can lead to sentences that do not follow the typical subject-verb-complement structure While the function of each element may not be immediately clear, this does not hinder our understanding; rather, it enhances clarity and directness in communication.
Le travail à perpétuité ? Créativité, flexibilité, mobilité … (N° 31)
Madame Lagarde au FMI : une fausse bonne idée ? (N° 36)
The imperative and exclamatory sentences constitute only 11.7% of the total 120 titles in the corpus, with imperatives making up 7.5% and exclamatives 4.2% Similar to interrogative sentences, both of these types are identified by their distinct punctuation.
La thalassothérapie, c’est seulement au bord de la mer ! (N° 40) Fumeurs, allez en Corse ! (N° 55)
Pourtant quelques titres nous font hésiter de leur identification en type de phrase :
Regardons la réalité en face (N° 56)
From a grammatical perspective, there is an absence of exclamation points or verbs conjugated in the imperative mood However, from a discourse analysis standpoint, the lack of a subject in the verb when in the imperative mode is significant This aligns with the observations made by Riegel et al (2009, p 665) in the theoretical section.
In addition to assertive and exclamatory sentences, nominal sentences, which lack verbs, deserve special attention These verb-less statements are popular choices for crafting titles for books, meetings, recipes, and even newspaper articles.
Elles sont souvent accompagnées de la thématisation, cela forme un stéréotype de titre de structure : o ô A, A’ ằ ou ô A : A’ ằ comme
Autriche: l’Europe contre Jửrg Haider (N° 22)
Le numérique, une nouvelle chance pour les littéraires (N° 102)
Elle peut avoir plusieurs dộrivations, par exemple celle de ô A, A’, A’’ằ ou ô A : A’: A’’ ằ dans le titre n° 34 :
Claire, 24 ans, neuf stages d’affilée, et rien au bout (N° 101) Alcatel : 1994-2004 : un groupe totalement transformé (N° 34)
In certain cases, the elements A and A’ in a structure may appear graphically separated, yet they remain semantically connected The components placed between A and A’ provide additional information about A, and in most instances, they share the same lexical nature.
Tom Waits, la passion animale du blues (N° 41)
Pourtant, il y a aussi des cas ó ils n‟en sont pas
Terence Stamps, fascinant malgré lui (N° 49)
Ou on peut aussi mélanger tous les deux cas
On a trouvé … Patrice Martin, le Petit Prince qui glissait sur l’eau (N° 79)
Une question se pose quand nous trouvons les titres dans lesquels il existe le verbe qui garde la forme infinitive
Courir la nuit, dans la forêt, avec des zombies (N° 97) ô Perdre son temps sur Internet ằ, nouveau cours d’une fac amộricaine (N° 106)
Initially, we believed that they were noun phrases; however, upon reevaluating their definition, we found that a noun phrase is constructed without a verb, centered around a noun Therefore, we must discard this hypothesis.
The concept of a "non-verbal sentence" refers to a simple phrase that lacks conjugated verbs, except in subject or complement clauses (A Goosse, 1997, p.626) This is known as an "averbal sentence." However, it is important to note that sentences with an infinitive as the predicate, such as "Why not go there?" are not classified as averbal (ibid, p.626).
In her 2007 article "The Markers of Predication in Averbial Sentences in French," Florence Lefeuvre provides a detailed definition of averbial sentences She describes them as syntactic structures that include a modality—such as assertion, exclamation, interrogation, or injunction—and an averbial predicate, which can be adjectival, nominal, pronominal, adverbial, or prepositional Lefeuvre identifies three possible organizational types: the predicate may be linked to an explicit or implicit subject through modality, or it may simply be presented by the modality itself.
Referring to them as "infinitive phrases" is an acceptable solution For instance, examples 97 and 106 focus on the verb in the infinitive form, highlighting the actions of "running (at night)" and "donating (one's time online)."
The classification of modal markers into three types—verbal, adjectival, and adverbial—facilitates their identification in newspaper article titles As shown in Annex 3, the use of modal modalities in headlines is relatively infrequent, with only twenty-four instances recorded across all three forms.