Aims 2
As mentioned above, the knowledge about cohesion may assist students‘ comprehension of a reading text Therefore, the study aims to investigate the effect of cohesion competence on students‘ reading comprehension
The study aimed to achieve two primary objectives: to gain insight into students' prior knowledge of cohesion in reading and to determine if teaching cohesion could enhance their reading abilities.
Scope of the study 2
This research, titled "Cohesion Theory," primarily examines the various types of cohesion found in reading texts The study emphasizes that teaching cohesion involves not only theoretical instruction but also guiding students in the analysis of cohesive elements within reading passages Additionally, the researcher has adapted reading materials from a B1 level course book titled "Issue" to enhance the learning experience.
For Today 3 combined with several further practices as homework instead of providing new out-book reading materials for in-class practice
The study involved 24 first-year students who were not majoring in English, all possessing a B1 level of English proficiency as defined by the Common European Framework of Reference These students were part of the same class that the researcher taught, focusing on reading skills.
Research methodology 3
The study was conducted to address the following two research questions:
1 What kind of prior knowledge did the students in the study have in terms of cohesion and cohesion in reading comprehension before the experimental teaching phase?
2 How does the teaching of cohesion improve the reading comprehension of second language learners?
To effectively address the research questions, action research was chosen as the research approach due to its alignment with the study's aims and objectives This method not only benefits the researcher, who is also a teacher, but also promotes personal and professional growth, enhances teaching practices to improve student learning, and contributes to the advancement of the teaching profession, as highlighted by Johnson (1995).
The four main instruments for data collection used in the study were observation and field notes, reading comprehension tests, and survey questionnaires
An observation checklist was specifically created to evaluate student participation and motivation during reading lessons The researcher utilized this checklist to document students' performance in class Additionally, two reading comprehension tests were administered: a pre-test conducted prior to the intervention and a post-test following the intervention Both tests maintained the same level of difficulty in terms of timing, question quantity, text number, passage length, structure, and vocabulary level.
Two survey questionnaires were developed for this research; the first was administered prior to the intervention to assess students' prior knowledge, experiences, and beliefs regarding learning cohesion, while the second was distributed post-intervention to evaluate students' attitudes towards the experimental teaching methods implemented.
The data collection process was carried out in three distinct phases: pre-intervention, during intervention, and post-intervention Each phase utilized adaptable data collection instruments, as detailed in the accompanying timeline.
Survey questionnaire Observation Survey questionnaire
Pre-test Field notes Post-test
The survey questionnaires and reading comprehension tests underwent three key stages: piloting, delivering, and collecting During the six-week experimental teaching phase, observations and field notes were meticulously recorded to evaluate students' motivation and participation in the reading lessons.
The analysis of the collected data employed both quantitative and qualitative methods The quantitative approach focused on objective data derived from tests and survey questionnaires, while the qualitative method was utilized to interpret insights from field notes and open-ended survey responses.
Statistical analysis was utilized to evaluate the collected data, with simple descriptive statistics being the most appropriate method for presenting the study's findings, considering both the scope of the research and the researcher's expertise.
Significance of the study 5
Teachers, educational administrators, and researchers can benefit significantly from this study, as it offers insights into effective teaching strategies The researcher gained a valuable opportunity to reflect on her own teaching practices while exploring a new approach, ultimately raising awareness among fellow educators about its potential advantages.
This research provides updated and reliable insights into the application of cohesion in teaching reading skills to second language learners, serving as a valuable reference for individuals interested in conducting further studies.
1.1 RAND Model of reading comprehension
Researchers and linguists have offered various definitions of reading, from simple to complex interpretations Durkin (1993) describes reading as "intentional thinking during which meaning is constructed through interaction between text and reader." This perspective highlights the active engagement of the reader in deriving meaning from the text.
26) see reading as a process of constructing meaning of a written text through ―…a reciprocal interchange of ideas…‖ between the reader and the text
Reading is a complex process that involves simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through engagement with written language According to the Rand Reading Study Group (2002), this process encompasses three key elements: the reader, the text, and the purpose for reading This definition highlights that reading is not a passive activity; rather, it is an active interaction between the reader and the text, where both the extraction of meaning from the text and the construction of understanding by the reader are crucial.
Below is the model of reading comprehension by RAND (2000)
Figure 1 The RAND model of reading comprehension From Reading for Understanding: Toward an R&D Program in Reading Comprehension, by RAND Reading Study Group (p 12), 2002, Santa Monica, CA: RAND Copyright 2002 by RAND
Reader The reader factor includes:
cognitive capacities: attention, memory, critical analytic ability, inferencing, visualization ability
motivation : a purpose for reading, an interest in the content being read, self- efficacy as a reader
various types of knowledge : vocabulary, domain and topic knowledge, linguistic and discourse knowledge, and knowledge of specific comprehension strategies
Text The text features that impact comprehension, including:
Structure: the organization of the text and
the overall coherence: degree of similarity of ideas from one sentence to the next
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND and LITERATURE REVIEW I Theoretical background 1.1 RAND Model of reading comprehension 7
Previous approaches to teaching reading comprehension 9
Three teaching approaches are proposed and discussed for their respective benefits and drawbacks: bottom-up, top-down and interactive reading
The bottom-up approach emphasizes the importance of decoding encoded messages within the text, guiding instructors to focus on how learners systematically extract information from printed material This method aims for automatic word recognition and a rapid reading rate, necessitating explicit instruction in phonetics and spelling To be effective, students should avoid becoming "word-bound" during the bottom-up processing of text (Grabe, 1991).
The bottom-up teaching approach has demonstrated its effectiveness through eye-movement experiments and is exemplified in the Grammar-Translation Method, where the native language is used to translate the target language for better understanding From this perspective, reading is seen as a decoding process where written symbols are converted into their aural equivalents, emphasizing the text as a container of rules and codes to be deciphered In this lower-level reading process, as noted by Grabe (1991), readers act as passive recipients of textual information The decoding process relies on understanding the hierarchical linguistic structures, which is essential for reading comprehension, focusing on detailed linguistic forms rather than the overall meaning of the text.
The top-down teaching approach enhances language learning by activating learners' prior knowledge, which is essential for reading comprehension Carrell (1988) emphasized that without activating content schemata, second language readers may face significant processing challenges Hudson (1982) noted that strong background knowledge can compensate for linguistic deficiencies This approach, characterized as a whole-language teaching method, encourages readers to focus on context and construct meaning from the text (Treiman, 2001) Key top-down reading strategies include predicting, inferring, and concentrating on meanings, highlighting that reading is fundamentally "a psychological guessing game" (Goodman, 1970: 45).
According to Kern (2000), reading is a dynamic and interactive process that generates meanings and discourse from texts It is an active and constructive activity that emphasizes meaning-making Consequently, reading comprehension is closely linked to the ability to read and construct meanings effectively (Fielding & Pearson, 1994).
Iser (1980) advanced the cognitive perspective on reading into reader-response theory, emphasizing that readers are central to the reading process This theory posits that readers' prior knowledge interacts with the text, leading to the generation of meaning Consequently, reading is viewed as a creative process rather than mere decoding of text, granting readers an authorial role in interpreting and creating meaning from the material.
The interactive model of teaching and reading emphasizes the dynamic interplay between bottom-up and top-down processes, decoding and interpretation, as well as the relationship between text and reader This model is particularly effective for teaching literary works, as it fosters the achievement of reading and teaching goals such as interpretation and meaning construction, while actively involving readers and learners in the text and learning process.
Discourse and discourse analysis 12
Discourse analysis, as noted by Brown and Yule (1983), encompasses a variety of meanings and activities across multiple disciplines, including sociolinguistics, philosophical linguistics, and computational linguistics This field of study primarily focuses on three key components: text grammar, conversation analysis, and pragmatics, as highlighted by Hoa Nguyen (2000) From a linguistic perspective, discourse analysis examines how language is utilized for specific purposes within particular contexts and the linguistic strategies employed to achieve these aims.
In the study of discourse analysis, it is crucial to make a clear distinction between two terms: discourse and text
Brown and Yule (1983:6) define text as the "verbal record of a communicative act," while discourse is described as "language in use" (p.1) Additionally, De Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) offer a comprehensive definition of text, highlighting its significance in communication.
In their analysis, De Beaugrande and Dressler identify seven essential conditions for effective textual communication: cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informability, situationality, and intertextuality They emphasize that both text and discourse share a unified perspective in this framework.
According to Widowson (1984), discourse is defined as a communicative process involving interaction, which results in a change in circumstances where information is shared and intentions are clarified; this process culminates in what is termed "Text" (as cited in Hoa Nguyen, 2000, p.14) Essentially, text serves as a representation of this communicative process, acting as the verbal realization of discourse.
Cohesion and coherence 13
Cohesion in text refers to the grammatical and lexical connections that unify different parts of a written work As defined by Linke et al (2004), cohesion involves the relationships between sentences, which are signaled through explicit syntactic or semantic links Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) further elaborate on this concept, emphasizing the importance of these ties in creating a coherent narrative.
The lexico-grammatical systems have developed as essential tools that enable us to go beyond the limits of the clause, which is the highest-ranking grammatical unit.
Coherence, on the other hand refers to the semantic relations that underline texts Van Dijk (1979:93) writes:
Coherence in discourse refers to the way individual sentences relate to one another, creating a unified meaning This relationship is shaped by the interaction between the text and the reader's interpretation, highlighting the importance of understanding how each sentence contributes to the overall message.
With this definition, Van Dijk (1979) highly relates coherence with the interpretation of the text However, the text here is limited to written texts, not covering spoken texts
Coherence, as defined by Palmer (1983), refers to the rhetorical relationships present in both written and spoken texts It encompasses the use of rhetorical devices that create order, unity, and emphasis in communication.
Blum-Kulka (1986) expands on the concepts presented by Palmer (1983) and Van Dijk (1979), defining coherence as the underlying potential meaning relationships within a text These relationships become apparent to the reader or listener through their interpretive processes.
A text exhibits cohesion when its components are connected through clear linguistic markers that indicate meaning relationships Conversely, a text is coherent when it conveys a logical sense, facilitating the reader's mental construction of meaning as they engage with the content.
Halliday and Hasan (1976) define reference as a semantic relation that is not limited by the grammatical class of the item it refers to They categorize discourse reference into two types: exophoric and endophoric.
Endophoric references can be classified as either anaphoric or cataphoric Anaphoric reference involves the writer referring back to a previously identified person or thing, helping to avoid repetition and guiding readers to understand the text by looking backward In contrast, cataphoric reference directs readers and listeners forward in the text, creating anticipation for what is to come.
Exophoric reference differs from other types by addressing generalities or abstractions that remain unidentified In such instances, understanding relies on the contextual clues provided by the situation.
In English, reference items are categorized into three primary forms: personal references, which include pronouns like "he," "she," and determiners such as "his" and "her"; demonstrative references, represented by words like "this," "that," and "there"; and comparative references, conveyed through adjectives and adverbs such as "same," "different," and "other."
Halliday and Hasan (1976:89) describe substitution as a relationship between linguistic elements, such as words or phrases This relationship operates at the lexico-grammar level, encompassing both grammar and vocabulary.
Nguyen (2000: 24) also sees substitution as ―a device which shows the relation between sentences, where it is derivable to avoid repetition‖
Halliday and Hasan (1976) classified substitution into three types: nominal, verbal, and clausal Nominal substitution is represented by terms like "one," "ones," and "same." The verbal substitute in English is "do," while clausal substitutes include "so" and "not." Clausal substitution is frequently employed after verbs such as "think," "hope," and "suppose."
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976:142), ellipsis refers to the omission of specific elements in a sentence that can be inferred from the context It is crucial to distinguish ellipsis from substitution; while ellipsis allows for the recovery of omitted parts based on contextual clues, substitution does not provide that same opportunity.
Quirk et all (1972) discuss three conditions under which ellipsis may occur namely, repetition, expansion and replacement a Repetition: the speaker repeat what has been said by the first
Yes, I did (go there) b Expansion: the speakers adds to what has been said
Probably (he will come) c Replacement: the second speaker replaces what has been said by the first with new information
Conjunctions, as defined by Cook (1989:21), are words or phrases that highlight the relationships between sentences and clauses In essence, they serve to connect various sentences and clauses, creating a cohesive context.
Halliday and Hasan (1976: 242-243) divide conjunction into four types including additive, adversative, causal and temporal a additive: the relation of adding meaning among sentences
E.g/ and, also, moreover, in addition, etc b adversative: information appears in the contradict way
E.g/ but, yet, though, however, on the contrary, etc c causal: the relation of cause and effect
E.g/ so, hence, before, consequently, as a result, etc d temporal: this relation creates unified and tied discourse
Lexical cohesion, initially defined by Firth (1975) in terms of collocation, was further developed by Halliday and Hasan (1976) According to Van (2006:80-81), Eggins (1994) and Halliday (1985) emphasize that analyzing lexical relations systematically reveals how words in a text connect and form clusters known as lexical sets or strings These lexical relations manifest primarily in two forms: reiteration and collocation.
Literature Review 19
Recent research has highlighted the significant role of cohesion and coherence in enhancing reading comprehension in EFL contexts Chapman (1983) identified a link between reading proficiency and the ability to recognize anaphoric relations in cloze tests, emphasizing that mastery of cohesive ties, as outlined by Halliday and Hasan (1976), is vital for fluent reading Similarly, Mackay (1979) and Cowan (1976) stress the importance of recognizing conjunctions and intersentential devices for effective information gathering among second language readers Consequently, it is essential for reading instruction to incorporate the teaching of English cohesive devices and their functions throughout sentences and paragraphs.
William (1983) emphasizes the significance of identifying cohesive ties for enhancing reading comprehension in a foreign language He advocates for specific teaching materials and methods, including a system of symbols and textual markings, to help foreign readers effectively utilize cohesive signals This approach aims to improve reading comprehension and foster overall reading development.
In the study "Cohesion and the Teaching of EFL Reading," Fulcher (1987) highlights the significance of cohesion in enhancing reading comprehension The research emphasizes that cohesion is essential for accurately interpreting a text.
In her 2007 study, "The Use of Lexical Cohesion in Reading and Writing," Keiko Muto highlights the significant impact that understanding lexical cohesion has on readers' comprehension of narratives By focusing on the cohesive ties between words, readers can uncover essential information subtly suggested by authors within the text.
To enhance the effectiveness of lexical cohesion in reading, L2 learners must focus on acquiring cultural knowledge, broadening their understanding of lexical cohesion throughout entire texts, and fostering originality in their writing.
Many researchers have come to the conclusion that all types of textual cohesive conjunctions facilitate reading comprehension in the same way (Cooper (1984); Chung (2000); Degand & Sanders 2002)
The findings discussed are undeniably significant and enlightening on a global scale; however, research on this topic has been notably limited within the context of Vietnam.
Cohesion and coherence have been extensively researched by Vietnamese scholars, primarily within the linguistics field Most studies focus on analyzing cohesive elements in prominent texts or comparing the use of cohesion in Vietnamese and English written works, emphasizing contrastive analysis However, there is a notable lack of research in teaching methodology related to these concepts Additionally, Vietnamese researchers have concentrated more on cohesion and coherence in EFL writing, highlighting their significance as key criteria for evaluating writing, rather than in EFL reading.
All these aforementioned conditions have motivated the researcher to conduct an action study on the cohesion and EFL reading teaching in the context of Vietnam.
Methodology 2.1 Research questions 21
Research approach 21
Action research was chosen as the research approach to effectively address the two research questions and fulfill the study's aims and objectives Ferrance (2000) emphasizes that action research is ideal for teachers seeking to implement changes in student learning and assess their impact, stating that it "charts the effects of curriculum or strategy implementation and studies student learning and responses" (Ferrance, 2000:27) Additionally, this method provides significant advantages for teacher-researchers, as highlighted by Johnson (1995), who identifies three main benefits: fostering personal and professional growth, enhancing teaching practices to improve student learning, and advancing the teaching profession.
Data collection methods 21
The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching cohesion in enhancing reading comprehension, focusing on the role of students A total of 24 first-year non-English major students from the International Standard Programme (ISP) were selected as subjects, ensuring homogeneity in their English education background and L1 All participants were working towards achieving a B1 level according to the Common European Framework of Reference Their uniform language proficiency was confirmed through a placement test conducted at the beginning of the course, and they were chosen from a single class under the researcher’s instruction for reading.
As a result, effects from other factors on students‘ reading were limited to the minimum
The data to be analyzed principally came from four main sources, namely observation, field notes, reading comprehension tests and survey questionnaires
According to Dornyei (2003), questionnaires are ―easy to construct, extremely versatile, and uniquely capable of gathering a large amount of information quickly in a form that is readily processible‖.
Prior to the experimental teaching phase, students completed a survey questionnaire to gather valuable insights into their previous experiences and overall understanding of cohesion in English.
The questionnaire covers 6 questions in two themes, namely Students’ experience with cohesion in reading lessons and Students’ belief/ knowledge about cohesion in a text
After the intervention, students completed a six-question survey to assess their understanding and the skills acquired during the learning process The questionnaires were designed to gather factual, behavioral, and attitudinal data, utilizing various question types, including yes-no questions, multiple-choice items, open-ended questions, and Likert-scale items The majority of the questions focused on multiple-choice and Likert-scale formats For reference, the survey questionnaires are included in Appendix A (p.I) and Appendix B (p.III).
Tests of reading comprehension in English:
The researcher designed both a pre-test and a post-test for reading comprehension in English, each consisting of 30 items and three reading passages, with a time limit of 40 minutes Both tests were crafted to maintain the same level of difficulty in terms of question types, text length, and structure To ensure a comparable vocabulary range, the researcher utilized a software called Lexical Tutor, confirming that the lexical level of the passages in both tests was similar.
The reading passages selected for this study were sourced from TOEFL practice materials and featured engaging general content relevant to students The assessments comprised objective questions, primarily multiple-choice format Detailed information regarding the two reading comprehension tests can be found in Appendix F (p XIV) and Appendix G (p XX).
Direct Observation and Field Notes:
Field observations and notes were meticulously documented to gather essential information for data analysis, focusing on two main themes: student motivation and participation Detailed criteria for assessing these aspects were outlined in the comprehension checklist provided in Appendix C.
The research results were derived from data collected in three key phases: pre-intervention, during the intervention, and post-intervention Each phase employed distinct data collection instruments to ensure the validity and reliability of the information gathered The timeline of these instruments played a crucial role in the data collection process.
Survey questionnaire Observation Survey questionnaire
Pre-test Field notes Post-test
The initial phase, known as pre-intervention, aims to address the first research question: "What prior knowledge do students possess regarding cohesion in reading before the experimental teaching phase?" To gather relevant data for this analysis, a survey questionnaire and a reading comprehension test were utilized as the primary instruments for data collection.
The procedure of data collection for the two instruments was carried out through 3 stages including piloting, delivering and collecting
The purpose of this stage was to evaluate the reliability of the reading comprehension test and the survey questionnaire A pre-test was conducted with a sample of 24 students who resembled the target group Following data analysis, ineffective and poorly functioning items were eliminated from the test, while others were revised for improvement.
Ten volunteer students from the sample group were randomly selected to complete the questionnaires, with encouragement to mark any items they found unnecessary, unclear, or unsuitable Their suggestions for improvement were greatly appreciated After reviewing and finalizing the initial versions, printed handouts were prepared for the participants involved in the research.
Before the intervention, all students took a pre-test that contributed to their final learning assessment To ensure they performed their best, students were informed that the test results would impact their overall scores.
The survey questionnaire was distributed during class break, with all key terms related to cohesion explained and exemplified in Vietnamese for better student understanding Students were encouraged to read the questionnaire carefully to familiarize themselves with the topic and terminology To ensure comprehension and accuracy in the data collected, there was frequent exchange of questions between the students and the researcher.
The researcher meticulously gathered all questionnaire papers and tests, ensuring that every item was accounted for Following the collection process, participants received valuable feedback from the researcher regarding their inquiries about the questionnaires and tests.
Following the pre-test and survey questionnaire, students participated in a 6-week experimental teaching phase consisting of 12 reading lessons conducted by the researcher Throughout this period, the researcher focused on teaching students about cohesion in written texts, while also guiding them to apply their understanding of cohesion to improve reading comprehension.
During this stage of the study, data was collected through observation and field notes The researcher utilized an observation checklist to document student performance in class Throughout each lesson, the teacher recorded notes on students' attitudes and participation in various activities For reference, the observation checklist can be found in Appendix C.
The comprehensive syllabus designed was covered in Appendix D (p.VI) The detailed lesson description is illustrated below:
The time limit for each reading lesson was 100 minutes In general, each reading lesson goes through 2 key phases, namely knowledge development and skill practice
This phase lasted 50 minutes with 3 main steps regarding illustrating examples, explanation and item practice
Data Analysis: Results, Discussions and Recommendations
Results and discussions 31
3.1.1 Student’s pre-existing knowledge about cohesion in reading
Surveys revealed that 22 out of 24 students had never learned about cohesion, with only two students having some awareness of it through translation and teacher feedback When asked what contributes to text coherence, most students identified linking words and repetition as key factors, while synonyms were also mentioned, though ellipsis, substitution, and collocation were seldom considered Notably, all students acknowledged that they had never engaged in exercises focused on analyzing cohesion in their reading lessons.
The pre-test results indicated that students struggled with questions on cohesion and cohesive devices, despite some achieving relatively high scores overall.
Figure 3.1 Number of students who have learnt and have not leant about cohesion
Students’ belief about the role of cohesion and the study of cohesion in reading lessons
A recent survey revealed that while students demonstrated limited understanding of cohesion in English, the majority recognized its significance in written texts This importance is visually represented in Figure 2 below.
Figure 3.2: Importance of cohesion in a written text
Figure 3.3: Necessity of understanding cohesion in comprehending a text?
Not necessary Little necessary Quite necessary Necessary
As can be seen clearly, above a half of the surveyed students stated that cohesion played an important role in reading passages Cohesion was perceived as
―quite important‖ by nearly third of the students Meanwhile, only three students said that cohesion had little to do with the development of a written text
Students recognized the varying importance of cohesion in writing but unanimously agreed on the significant role of cohesive devices in enhancing written texts Consequently, they emphasized the necessity of understanding cohesion to effectively comprehend reading passages.
―little necessary‖, five ―quite necessary‖ and seventeen ―necessary‖ because understanding about cohesion helped them to follow the reading text more easily, as responded by the majority of the students
Overall, it can be seen that the students had strong motivation to learn about cohesion since they all believed this would help them improve their reading ability
3.1.2 Students’ level of improvement in reading comprehension
The significant enhancement in reading performance was clearly demonstrated by the contrasting results from the pre-test and post-test To evaluate this effect, the Paired Sample T-test was conducted using SPSS software to analyze and compare the students' scores before and after the intervention The following section presents the findings from this analytical process.
Descriptive Statistics for the group’s performance in the pre-test and post-test
The average score of all students showed a significant increase, rising from a mean of 5.8750 in the pre-test to 6.3125 after six weeks of training, indicating an overall improvement in their performance.
Mean N Std Deviation Std Error Mean
Table 3.2: Results of the Paired-Sample T-tests
The results indicated a significant improvement in the students' awareness and reading ability during the experimental teaching phase, with a p-value smaller than 05.
Observations and field notes indicated that students showed a strong interest in analyzing cohesion during class activities Their enthusiasm was particularly evident when tasks were structured as competitive group exercises, prompting them to eagerly search for cohesive devices within reading passages Additionally, all assigned homework was completed successfully.
The effectiveness of the experimental teaching phase was confirmed by student responses in a post-intervention survey, where all participants acknowledged its positive impact on their learning Specifically, twenty students rated the phase as "effective," while four described it as "quite effective." This evaluation is visually represented in the accompanying pie chart.
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper
Figure 3.4: Effectiveness level of the experimental teaching course
Not effective Little effective Quite effective Effective
Most students expressed satisfaction with the six-week learning session, highlighting the significant knowledge they gained about cohesion, a topic previously unfamiliar to them Fifty students were enthusiastic about the innovative methods used for analyzing reading passages and enhancing their reading skills Additionally, twelve students noted noticeable improvements in their reading performance.
In short, the students‘ improvement was evidently shown, which demonstrated the necessity and effectiveness of teaching cohesion to enhance students‘ reading ability.
Recommendations 35
To enhance the effectiveness of the new reading comprehension teaching model, it is essential to increase teachers' awareness of cohesion teaching This can be achieved through seminars and professional meetings where educators share their experiences and challenges related to cohesion in reading lessons Additionally, organizing competitions focused on designing and implementing reading lessons based on cohesion strategies can foster the introduction of diverse teaching techniques, identify shortcomings, and provide valuable guidance for teachers By promoting collaboration and creativity among educators, we can significantly improve the application of this innovative teaching method.
One significant challenge in teaching cohesion to enhance students' reading comprehension is the availability of suitable reading materials To address this issue, it is beneficial to create a cohesive reading materials bank where teachers from the same professional group can share and analyze texts that prominently feature specific cohesive devices By regularly revising and updating these materials, they can be reused effectively over time Additionally, organizing workshops allows teachers to examine and reflect on cohesion-reading samples relevant to their classes Conducting thorough studies will provide deeper insights into the use of these materials, offering a solid theoretical foundation and references for improved application.
These are the two recommendations which provide great incentives for educational administrations and teachers to expand the teaching of cohesion to improve reading ability
To enhance reading texts, it is advisable to follow Nuttall's (1982:32) guidance by maintaining elements from the original material that resonate with students' intelligence This approach ensures that the content remains engaging and relevant, ultimately fostering better comprehension and interest among learners.
To maintain the integrity of the original text while enhancing its coherence, it is essential to preserve cohesive devices that reflect real-life discourse Educators should focus on these devices to help students recognize their importance Additionally, reading comprehension exercises and questions must be diverse and comprehensive, engaging all aspects of students' skills Recognizing that reading is an active process, these activities should encourage students to guess, predict, verify, and self-question, thereby fostering a deeper understanding of the material.
I Major findings of the research
From the thorough analysis and discussions of the data collected from the survey questionnaires, score analysis and field notes, significant findings were identified
A recent study found that prior to the experimental teaching phase, students exhibited a limited understanding of cohesion and coherence in their writing Most students reported a lack of formal learning experiences related to cohesion, and while some recognized cohesive devices, their awareness was largely instinctive and unstructured.
Students show a strong motivation to learn about cohesive devices during reading lessons, as evidenced by survey results, improved test scores, and direct observations Although their understanding of cohesion was initially limited, they recognized the importance of cohesive devices in written passages and acknowledged the necessity of learning them to enhance reading skills Following the experimental teaching phase focused on cohesion, students demonstrated remarkable improvement in their reading test scores Additionally, they exhibited high interest in lessons, active participation in class, and significant completion of homework assignments.
The study revealed that while students expressed satisfaction with the course, they desire more extensive practice with cohesive devices in reading lessons Students indicated a preference for longer learning sessions focused on cohesion and reading, rather than the current six-week practice duration.
Limitations of the study 39
Despite the researcher‘s considerable effort, the study has certain limitations due to the time constraint and the researcher‘s limited ability
The study involved a limited number of students and classes, which is small compared to the broader population of English as a second language learners Nevertheless, it was conducted within a familiar context, as the researcher engaged their own students, enhancing the relevance and validity of the findings.
The implementation of cohesion teaching relied on adapting reading passages from a course book rather than using specialized materials, due to the researcher's limitations as a regular language teacher To mitigate this constraint, students were assigned homework that allowed them to analyze cohesive devices in greater detail.
In conclusion, while the researcher's inexperience, time constraints, and limited authority present unavoidable limitations in the study, the diligent selection and justification of the methodology significantly enhance the reliability and validity of the findings.
Suggestions for further studies 39
The application of cohesion in teaching reading comprehension is still a relatively new approach in the context of English language learning and teaching, presenting significant opportunities for researchers to explore further studies in this area.
The study's findings were based on a limited sample of just twenty-four students from a single class To enhance the research, future studies should consider expanding the participant pool by including more students and classes, which would yield a more comprehensive data set for analysis.
Second, another comprehensive study in the form of an experimental research with a control group and experimental group would bring more precise comparison and valid results
The study focused on the reading class of ISP students, and future research could explore different populations This approach would yield a more comprehensive understanding and data regarding the application of the new teaching strategy.
IV Contribution of the study
In general, the research could be helpful for teachers, educational administrators and researchers working on related issues
This study provided a valuable opportunity for the researcher to evaluate her teaching methods while exploring innovative strategies to enhance students' reading comprehension It emphasizes the importance of teaching cohesion as a means to improve reading skills, raising awareness among educators Additionally, teachers interested in implementing this new approach can use the experimental phase of the study as a model to tailor and refine their own teaching practices to better fit their specific contexts.
Despite limited research on teaching cohesion to enhance reading skills, this study aims to provide updated and reliable insights into applying cohesion in reading instruction for second language learners The findings could serve as a valuable resource for individuals interested in conducting further studies in this area.
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This survey aims to gather data on the application of cohesion theory in teaching reading comprehension to second language learners Your honest and accurate responses regarding your experiences and understanding of cohesion in reading are crucial for this study Please complete the questionnaire by circling the letter corresponding to your answer or writing your thoughts in the provided space Note that for some questions, multiple answers are permitted.
A text has cohesion, or is cohesive if its elements are tied together with explicit linguistic marking of meaning relation
I Students’ experience with cohesion in reading lessons
1 Have you ever learnt or read about cohesion? a Yes b No
1.2 If yes, where did you get the knowledge about cohesion? a from grammar books b from cohesion lectures by teachers c by reading English texts c other (please specify)………
2 Have you ever done any exercises related to analyzing cohesion in reading lessons?
II Students’ belief/ knowledge about cohesion in a text
3 What do you think can make a text coherent? a repetition of words b linking works c determiners d ellipsis e reference f synonyms g collocation h substitution
4 How do you value the role of cohesion in a written text?
Not important Little important Quite important Important Very important
5 What do you think is the role of cohesion in a reading passage? a It makes the reading texts easy to follow b It help readers to have an overview of the text c It is a part of the reading questions d others (please specify)………
6 How do you value the necessity of understanding cohesion to the comprehension of a text?
Not necessary Little necessary Quite necessary Necessary Very necessary
This survey aims to explore the application of cohesion theory in enhancing reading comprehension among second language learners Your honest and accurate insights regarding your experiences and understanding of cohesion in reading are crucial for this study Please respond to the questions by circling the appropriate letter or writing your thoughts in the provided space Note that multiple answers may be acceptable for certain questions.
A text has cohesion, or is cohesive if its elements are tied together with explicit linguistic marking of meaning relation
I Students’ satisfaction level after the 6 – week experimental teaching
1 Are you satisfied with the 6-week learning course? a Yes b No
2 Is you reading ability improved throughout the learning sessions? a Yes b No
3 How do you value the effectiveness of this learning approach to the improvement of your reading ability?
Not effective Little effective Quite effective Effective Very effective
If the answer to question 1 is “No”, please continue with question 4
If the answer to question 1 is “Yes”, please continue with question 5
4 Why are you not satisfied with the outcome of the course? a I did not learn much b My reading ability is not improved c I see nothing new in the course It is just the same as other reading sessions I have learnt d I do not care about it at all e I pay to much attention to cohesive devices, which slow down my reading f others (please specify)………
5 What makes you satisfied with the learning session? a My reading ability is improved b I learnt a new strategy in practicing reading comprehension c I gained knowledge about cohesion which I did not know about before d I experienced a new way of learning reading comprehension, which is interesting e other (please specify)………
II Students ‘suggestions for improvement
6 What suggestions can you make to better the six- week teaching and learning session?
Students’ behaviour Viewed Not viewed
4 Joining pair work/ group work
5 Finish all in-class tasks
2 Students maintain eye contact with the teacher
3 Raising hands to answer questions
6 Students showing signs of enjoyment during the lessons
7 Students showing signs of depression or resentment during the lesson
Overall comments about the lessons:
This course is designed to equip students with essential reading skills, fostering confidence and independence as readers It focuses on enhancing comprehension of written texts by teaching students about cohesion and cohesive devices, while also guiding them to apply this knowledge to improve their overall reading abilities.
Smith, Lorraine and Maire, Nancy (2004) Issue for Today:Third Edition
Additional materials provided by the teacher
Course Skills on which we will focus:
• guessing the meaning of new words in context
Lesson Content Cohesion items focus
1 Chapter 1: A culture difference: Being on time
2 Chapter 2: Changing lifestyle and new eating habits
3 Chapter 3: Dreams: Making them work for us
4 Chapter 4: Language: Is it always spoken? Synonyms
5 Chapter 5: Loneliness: How can we overcome it?
7 Chapter 7: Innocent until proven guilty Conjunction (temporal and causual)
8 Chapter 8: The reliability of eyewitnesses Conjunction (additive and adversative)
9 Chapter 9: Solving crimes with modern technology
10 Chapter 10: Ancient artifacts and ancient air
11 Chapter 11: How lunar eclipses have changed history
12 Chapter 12: Mars: our neighbour in space Overall practice
Level and number of students: 24 intermediate students
After the lesson, the students are expected to
- Recognize and understand about reference as a cohesive device in written texts
- Apply the understanding into class practice to develop reading comprehension skills
3 Name of lesson: Chapter 1: A cultural difference: Being on time
- Get the students to look at Task 1 in the handout and answer the question
- Ask students to continue with task 2 This time, students were required to do the task in pair
- Teacher lectures and explains about reference in written texts to the students with more specific examples
- Students do Task 3 in the handout individually then the teacher checks the answers
- After that, students work in group of six and complete task 4 The four groups will then go to the board to write their answers
- After Phase 1, students continue to complete reading comprehension exercises in the textbook, specifically the Fact Finding, Reading Analysis and Information Recall
- Students finish the rest of the reading comprehension exercises in the course book and the further practice in handout 2
Task 1: Look at the picture and read the caption
1 What is the function of the word in the box?
2 What does it refer to?
Task 2: Read the sentences below i What do the underlined words refer to? How do you know? ii What do you need to make the reference clear?
2 They are so nice to help us
3 The problem needs more concerns from the authority
4 Which do you prefer, this or that?
5 This is the only one that I can understand
Task 3: Read the following sentence and underline reference words then explain what does it refer to
1 Americans today have different eating habits than they had in the past
2 Although all students greeted the professors as they arrived, few apologized for their lateness
3 We could also try to remember an important word or picture from the dream This image makes the dreams easier to remember
4 Weather is created by the heat of the sun When the sun shines on the earth, the air close to the surface heats up, expands and rises The higher it rises, the cooler it becomes
Task 4: Find out all reference words in the reading text List and catergorise them according to the table below
Types of reference words Reference words/ phrases Referent
I Reading the following text, underline all the reference and draw a table to explain the referents of all the reference words
Most individuals can retain a phone number for about thirty seconds before it fades from memory This information enters short-term memory (STM) through the sensory storage area of the brain The brain employs a filtering mechanism that permits only stimuli of immediate relevance to be transferred to STM, often referred to as working memory.
The capacity and duration of short-term memory have long been debated, with cognitive psychologist George A Miller proposing that humans can remember around seven chunks of information, where a chunk represents a meaningful unit like a word or name Modern theorists advocate that chunking—organizing similar information—can enhance short-term memory capacity By effectively classifying and structuring information, individuals can optimize their short-term memory and increase the likelihood of transferring memories to long-term storage.
Many individuals resort to "rote rehearsal" when trying to memorize information for exams, which involves repeating the material repeatedly to keep the memory active However, this method is ineffective for transferring information from short-term to long-term memory, as any interruption can lead to immediate forgetfulness For instance, if someone is trying to remember a phone number and gets distracted, they are likely to forget it right away A more effective technique is "elaborate rehearsal," which entails assigning semantic meaning to the information, allowing it to be integrated with existing long-term memories.
1 According to the passage, how do memories get transferred to the STM?
A) They revert from the long term memory
B) They are filtered from the sensory storage area
C) They get chunked when they enter the brain
D) They enter via the nervous system
2 The word elapses in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to:
3 All of the following are mentioned as places in which memories are stored EXCEPT the:
C) sensory storage area D) maintenance area
4 Why does the author mention a dog's bark?
A) To give an example of a type of memory
B) To provide a type of interruption
C) To prove that dogs have better memories than humans
D) To compare another sound that is loud like a doorbell
5 How do theorists believe a person can remember more information in a short time?
C) By giving it a name D) By drawing it
6 The author believes that rote rotation is:
A) the best way to remember something
C) ineffective in the long run
7 The word “it” in the last paragraph refers to:
8 The word elaborate in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to:
9 The word cues in the passage is closest in meaning to
READING COMPREHENSION TEST 1(PRE-TEST)